MULTIMEDIA UNIVERSITY OF KENYA

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL & MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

MME 2513: EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Tutorial sheet 1: Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges

1.) (a) Derive an expression for the gauge factor ‘F’ of an electrical conductor of length ‘L’,
cross-sectional area ‘A’, resistance ‘R’ and resistivity ‘ρ’.
(b) Explain why for some materials, the value of gauge factor would deviate greatly from the
normal value of 2.

2.) Explain the following terms as applied to a bonded electrical resistance strain gauge.
i) The strain sensitivity of the wire of the gauge ‘ S m ’
ii) The axial strain sensitivity of the gauge ‘ S a ’
iii) The transverse strain sensitivity of the gauge ' St '
iv) The strain sensitivity of the gauge ‘F’
v) Transverse sensitivity factor of the gauge ‘K’

3.) What do you understand by the term strain sensitivity the gauge ‘F’ (also called gauge
factor). Derive an expression to determine the strain sensitivity of a gauge.

4.) (a) Briefly explain the term, transverse sensitivity factor ‘K’ as used in connection with
commercial wire resistance strain gauges, when used to measure strain in a biaxial strain
field.
(b) Derive a relation in terms of quantities involved to obtain a correction factor, to the
readings of uniaxial strain gauges.

5.) Working from first principles, determine the transverse sensitivity factor of a strain gauge
fabricated from constantan alloy with S a = 2.11, if it has been calibrated and found to exhibit
a gauge factor F = 2.04. Take the Poisson's ratio of the material on which the gauges were
calibrated to be o = 0.285. (Derivation of any formulae used is required).
[11.6%]

6.) (a) Explain what is meant by ‘transverse sensitivity error’ (T.S. error) in the readings of a flat
grid electrical resistance gauge, when used to measure strain in a biaxial strain field using
a commercial strain indicator.
(b) Derive an expression for the transverse sensitivity (T.S) error, in terms of quantities
involved, as used to correct for the readings of uniaxial strain gauge.
 a  l
7.) The transverse sensitivity (T.S) error can be defined as;   .
l
where  a is the strain as read by an indicator, and  l is the true strain along the axis of the
gauge.

(a) Derive an expression for  as;   A  B t
l
where A and B are functions of o and K,  t is the true strain transverse to the axis of the
gauges. You may assume that no error other than the transverse sensitivity error is
affecting the gauge readings.
(b) Obtain the expressions for A and B, and then calculate the values of A and B, for material
constants taken as (i) o = 0.285 and K = 3% and (ii) o = 0.285 and K = 4%.
[8.62×10-3, 0.03, 0.0115, 0.04]

8.) (a) In order to determine the axial strain sensitivity ‘ S a ’, the transverse sensitivity ‘ St ’ and
the transverse sensitivity factor ‘K’ of a new grid bonded electrical resistance strain gauge,
the following experiment was performed;
Two identical uniaxial grid type flat wire strain gauges were fixed to a flat rectangular bar as
shown in Fig. Q.8. By means of special tuckles, the bar was subjected to a uniform axial pull
‘P’. The following measurements were made:
1.) The uniform axial strain ‘  a ’, all transverse strain ‘  t ’ on the bar by were measured
means of special extensometers.
2.) The change in resistance (i.e. R1 and R2 ) of the gauges due to the pull was obtained.
R1 R
Using symbols r1  and r2  2 as the unit change of resistance in the corresponding
R R
gauges, derive the expressions for;
i) The axial strain sensitivity ‘ S a ’.
ii) The transverse sensitivity ‘ St ’.
iii) The transverse sensitivity factor ‘K’.

(b) Derive an expression for the error introduced in the strains above, due to transverse
sensitivity effects in a biaxial strain field using a commercial strain indicator.

9.) In order to measure strain in a biaxial strain field, two gauges are used, one in the axial
direction and another in the transverse direction. If the apparent strain measured by the two
gauges are;
 R R 1  R R 2
1a   2a 
F F
Show that when the gauge is calibrated on a steel plate, with a biaxial stress field
experiencing 1l and  2l as true strains, then the errors in the strain are;

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      
K  o  2 t  K  o  1l 
1l   2t 
e1   and e2  
1  o K 1  o K
Where  2t and 1t are the associated transverse strains.

10.) (a) Explain the term transverse strain sensitivity of uniaxial wire resistance strain gauges.
(b) At a point in a biaxial strain field, two identical uniaxial wire resistance strain gauges are
fixed with their axes in the x and y directions (cartesian co-ordinate system).
Derive expressions to calculate the true strains  x and  y from the apparent readings  x' and
 'y as read by a strain indicator, in terms of the Poisons ratio of the material on which the
manufacturer has calibrated the gauge ‘ o ’ and the transverse sensitivity factor of the gauges
‘K’.

Figure Q.8

Tutorial sheet 2: Recording Instruments

1) Derive an expression for the output voltage of an unbalanced Wheatstone bridge. Show how
this expression can be used to measure strains.

2.) Derive an expression for the sensitivity of a potentiometer circuit.

Explain how a potentiometer can be calibrated.

3.) (a) What is the effect of variation of ambient temperature on the strain readings.
(b) Explain two methods used to overcome this effect of variation of ambient temperature
on the strain readings.

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Tutorial sheet 3: Strain Gauge Rosettes

Question 1
1.) (i) Define a strain rosette.
(ii) What are the different types of strain rosette configurations currently in use.
(iii) Discuss their uses and limitations.

Question 2
An investigator measured average normal strains at a point on the free surface of a stressed body
with the equiangular rosette. The strain values obtained from the strain gauges were:
 a = 250 × 10-6
 b = 160 × 10-6
 c = 50×10-6
The gauge factor of the gauges F = 2.04, the transverse sensitivity of the gauges is four per cent
and the Poisson's ratio of the material on which the rosette is mounted is 0.32.
Calculate from first principles, the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress and strain at
the point under investigation.
Take the Poisson’s ratio of the material on which the gauges have been calibrated by the
manufacturer to be 0.286, and the modulus of elasticity of the test material to be 72 GPa.
Any basic formulae used need not be proved.
[14.67 MPa, 11.87 MPa, 13.27 MPa]

Question 3
The gauge readings taken with a rectangular strain rosette are as follows;
 a = 500 μm/m
 b = 380 μm/m
 c = 200 μm/m
The test material is steel with E = 210 GN/m2, Poisson's ratio of the material of the bar  = 0.30,
and Poisson's ratio of the material on which the gauges were calibrated o = 0.285, and all the
gauges have a transverse sensitivity factor K = 2 per cent.
Working from first principles, determine the error in principal stresses by neglecting the effect of
transverse sensitivity on strain measurement.
No proof of any basic formulae used is required.
[2.4%, 3.9%]

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Question 4
A commercial rosette wire resistance strain gauge is of rectangular configuration. All the gauges
have transverse sensitivity factor of 0.04 and gauge factor of 2.04. The readings in an experiment
on aluminium beam are as follows;
Gauge ‘A’, 0°,  a = 225 μm/m
gauge ‘B’, 45°,  b = 305 μm/m
gauge ‘C’, 90°,  c = 274 μm/m
Determine;
(i) the principal stresses
(ii) the principal angles 1 and 2
(iii) the maximum shear stress.
Take the Poison’s ratio of the material on which the gauges were calibrated to be o = 0.285.
μ aluminium = 0.32 and E aluminium = 72 GPa.
[ 20.74 MN/m2, -25.68 MN/m2, 26.44°, 116.44°, 23.22 MN/m2 ]

Question 5
The apparent strains measured by a delta rosette are;
 p =  374× 10-6 m/m
 q =  135× 10-6 m/m
 r = 227× 10-6 m/m
The transverse sensitivity factor of the gauges is 4%, the Poisson's ratio of the material on which
the rosette is mounted is 0.30 and that on which the manufacturer calibrated the gauges is 0.285.
Determine the principal strain, maximum shearing strain and the maximum strain direction.
(i) Without consideration of the effect of transverse sensitivity factor.
(ii) In consideration of the effect of transverse sensitivity factor.
(iii) Find the error in the principal stresses by neglecting the transverse sensitivity effects.
Take E = 210 GPa.

Question 6
A commercial rosette wire resistance strain gauge has its three elements arranged as shown in
figure Q.6, in its use at a point on a loaded plate structure.
If the readings of the three elements are  a ,  b and  c . Derive expressions for the principal
strains 1 and  2 at the point. Assume the transverse sensitivity factor of the elements is
negligible. Assign commonly used symbols.

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Figure Q.6

Question 7
Three strain gauges are applied to an area at a point in such a manner that gauge ‘B’ makes a
positive angle of 30° with gauge ‘A’ and gauge ‘C’ makes a positive angle of 45° with gauge ‘B’.
The strain readings obtained from the gauges are as follows;

Gauge Strain (μm/m)

a  600
b 300
c 400
Starting from the generalized equation
1 1  xy
   
   x   y   x   y cos 2 
2 2 2
sin 2
and selecting x axis in the direction of gauge ‘a’, calculate the principal strains, principal
stresses and also the principal directions.
Take E = 210 GPa, K = 4 %, o = 0.285 and  = 0.3

Question 8
A three element delta rosette is used to measure strains on a loaded aluminium structure. The
gauges have a gauge factor of 2.04 and transverse sensitivity factor of 3%. The readings are as
follows;
Gauge ‘A’, 0°,  a = 290×10-6 m/m
gauge ‘B’, 60°,  b = 90×10-6 m/m
gauge ‘C’, 120°,  c = 110×10-6 m/m
Determine;
(i) the principal stresses
(ii) the principal angles
(iii) the maximum shear stress.
Assume Young’s modulus E = 72 GN/m2, o = 0.285, μ = 0.32.

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Tutorial sheet 4: Photoelasticity

Question 1
Briefly explain the following terms as applied to two dimensional photoelastic method of
experimental stress analysis.
(i) Temporary and natural double refraction.
(ii) Plane and circularly polarized light.

Question 2
(i) Derive the relation for the retardation produced by a ‘waveplate’ when monochromatic light is
passed through it.
(ii) Explain the terms (i) quarter waveplate, (ii) half waveplate and (iii) full waveplate.

Question 3
A monochromatic light is passed through a polarizer-waveplate combination. The optic axis of
the wave-plate is inclined at 45° to the polarizer axis.
If the waveplate is a quarter waveplate, what is the nature of the light emerging from the
combination. Explain your answer using the necessary equations of the incident and emergent
light vectors.

Question 4
Explain the terms
(i) Isoclinics
(ii) Isostatics
(iii) Isochromatics
(iv) Isotropics
(v) Isopachics
as applied to two dimension-photoelasticity

Question 5
(i) Sketch a plane polariscope set-up for a dark-field, which could give both isoclinics and
isochromatics on a two dimensionally stressed photoelastic model.
(ii) Show by an analysis of the light beam passing through the various elements that the patterns
obtained on the screen consist of isoclinics and isochromatics.

Question 6
(a) What is the necessity for the calibration of a photo elastic model material.
(b) Explain how to calibrate a photoelastic model material for its fringe constant, by using a
model subjected to:
(i) simple tensile test
(ii) pure bending; in the field of circular polariscope.

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Derive the necessary formula, and explain the calculations.
Will the constant be different if a model of a different thickness is used. Explain.

Question 7
(i) Explain how to calibrate a photoelastic model material for its fringe constant, by using a
circular disc under diametral compressive loading in the field of a circular polariscope.
(ii) Derive the necessary formula, and explain the calculations.

Question 8
The fringe constant of a photoelastic model material using monochromatic light of λ= 5480 Å is
16 × 103 N/m fringe. What will be the fringe constant of the same material, if light of wavelength
λ = 5890 Å is used. 1Å =10-8 cm.
[ 17.197 kN/m fringe]

Question 9
A standard photoelastic plastic tension model of rectangular cross section of width = 10 ×10-3 m,
thickness = 7×10-3 m was examined under increasing axial load P in the field of circular
polariscope using a certain monochromatic light, and data obtained for a plot of load P versus
fringe order N on the specimen. The plot gave an average value of P/N = 96N/fringe. Calculate
the fringe constant of the material for the light used.
[9.6×103 N/m fringe ]

Question 10
The fringe order at a point in the two-dimensional stress field of a model made of photoelastic
plastic of uniform thickness 8 × 10-3 m, placed in a field of circular polariscope using the light
source of 5480 Angstrom is 10.
The fringe constant of the material of the model using a light source of 5890 Angstrom is
8.75 ×103 N/M fringe.
(i) What is the value of the stress optical coefficient of the material.
(ii) What is the difference of the principal stress at the point in question.
[ 6.73×10-11 m2/N fringe, 10.18 MN/m2]

Question 11
The fringe order at a point in the two dimensional stress field of a model made of photoelastic
plastic of uniform thickness of 8 ×10-3 m placed in the field of a circular polariscope using
mercury light is 10. The fringe constant of the material of the model using sodium light is
8.75 × 103 N/m fringe.
(i) What is the value of the stress optic coefficient of the material.
(ii) What is the value of the difference of principal stresses at the point in question.
Take λsodium = 5893 Å, λmercury = 5481 Å, 1 Å = 10-10 m
[ 6.74×10-11 m2/N fringe, 10.17 MN/m2]

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Question 12
A standard photoelastic tension model of rectangular cross-section, (width = 9 × 10-3 m,
thickness = 6 × 10-3 m) was examined under increasing axial load ‘P’ in the field of circular
polariscope using a certain monochromatic light source of 5840 Å, and then a plot of load ‘P’
versus fringe order ‘N’ on the specimen was obtained. The plot gave an average value of P/N =
94.5 N/fringe. Calculate;
(i) the fringe constant of the material for the light used.
(ii) if the light of 5840 Å was replaced by one of 5490 Å and the experiment repeated, predict the
new value of P/N. Take 1 Å = 1×10-10 m.
[ 10.5 kN/m fringe, 88.83 N/fringe]