Engineering Physics for CS (BPHYS202)

Module: 2
Quantum Mechanics
de-Broglie’s Hypothesis:
According to this hypothesis, material particles in motion possess a wave like behaviour at
certain conditions. The waves which are arise due to motion of material particles are known
as matter waves.
Statement: it states that the material particles like electron, proton and neutrons can
exhibits wave characteristics when it is in motion. The wave nature of particle cannot be
expected at all, this is purely under some certain conditions.
The moving particles can have the wavelength called de Broglie wavelength
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
The expression for de-Broglie wavelength is arrived from Planck’s equation and Einstein’s
mass energy relation

𝐸 = ℎ𝜗 − − − −(1) 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 − − − −(2)
From (1) and (2)

ℎ𝜗 = 𝑚𝑐 2
ℎ𝑐
= 𝑚𝑐 2
𝜆
1 𝑚𝑐 2
=
𝜆 ℎ𝑐
ℎ
𝜆 = 𝑚𝑐 ∵ 𝑚𝑐 = 𝑝

ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝

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other forms

𝒉 𝒉 𝒉
𝝀= , 𝝀= , 𝝀=
√𝟐𝒎𝑬 √𝟐𝒎𝑲𝑻 √𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽
Properties of matter waves or de-Broglie waves:

Wave Velocity or Phase velocity:

The velocity is the velocity with which phase of the individual wave transported in the
dispersive medium called phase velocity or wave velocity
Let us consider the point ‘p’ on moving wave as shown in fig. it symbolises the phase of a
wave hence velocity with which point ‘p’ moves called wave or phase velocity
𝜔
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑘
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Group Velocity:
When the two or more waves having same amplitude but slight difference in wave length are
travel in the same direction they get superimpose leads to forms envelops in group waves,
such resultant envelops are called wave packets.
The velocity is the velocity with which an envelope group wave transported in the
dispersive medium called group velocity.
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝑘

Wave Packets: The wave packets are the resultant variation of amplitude due to the
superimposition of waves in wave packets the amplitude varies continuously as like a wave.
In group wave, each packet is assumed to behave like a particle.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle:

At the atomic scale of quantum mechanics, measurement of physical parameters
becomes very difficult. At any instant, the position and momentum of a classical
body can be measured with very high accuracy. However, in the case of a
quantum particle, there are uncertainties associated with the position and
momentum of the wave packet, which represents the particle.

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Statement: In any simultaneous determination of position and momentum of particle the

product of corresponding uncertainties are inherently present in the measurement it is
greater than or equal to 𝒉/𝟒𝝅

or
It is impossible to determine precisely and simultaneously the values of both the members
of a pair of physical variables which describe the motion of an atomic system. Such pairs
of variables are called canonically conjugate variables.

Explanation:

Application of uncertainty principle:

Nonexistence of electron in the nucleus of an atom

As per the statement of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

𝒉
∆𝒙 ∗ ∆𝒑 ≥
𝟒𝝅

Let’s consider the radius of the nuclear diameter of an atom i.e. ≈ 10−14 𝑚
If an electron is exist in the nucleus, then it must be found in the above region
Then its Uncertainty in the position is ∆𝑥 ≤ 10−14 𝑚

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ℎ
∴ Uncertainty in the momentum is (∆p) ≥
4𝜋 × ∆𝑥
6.626 × 10−34
(∆p) ≥
4 × 3.142 × 10−14
(∆p) ≥ 5.272 × 10−21 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠

Since, the particle has nonzero momentum then its Kinetic Energy is
𝑝2
𝐾. 𝐸 =
2𝑚
If ∆p ≈ p
On substitution of ∆p in above equation
(5.272 × 10−21 )2
𝐾𝐸 ≥
(2 × 9.1 × 10−31 )
𝐾𝐸 ≥ 1.527 × 10−11 𝐽
1.527 × 10−11
𝐸≥
1.6 × 10−19
𝑬 ≥ 𝟗𝟓. 𝟒𝟓 𝑴𝒆𝑽
Conclusion: practically Maximum affordable energy for electron is in the range 3 - 4 MeV
but above calculation says that the minimum energy for electron is 𝟗𝟓. 𝟒𝟓𝑴𝒆𝑽. therefore,
this is the huge difference in the energy, thus, electron could not afford such a huge energy.
Hence we can conclude that electrons cannot exist inside the nucleus of an atom.
During 𝛽decay, the Neutron converted as proton and electron, neutrino

(𝑛 → 𝑝 + 𝑒 + ̅̅̅
𝜗)
After the conversion of electron, it would not be remained inside because of insufficient
energy hence it is coming out of the nucleus of atom.

Principle of Complementary:
Statement Bohr stated as “In a situation where the wave aspect of a system is revealed, its
particle aspect is concealed; and in a situation where the particle aspect is revealed, its
wave aspect is concealed. Revealing both simultaneously is impossible; the wave and
particle aspects are complementary vice versa.

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Explanation: We know that the consequence of the uncertainty principle is both the Wave
and particle nature of the matter cannot be measured simultaneously. In other words, we
cannot precisely describe the dual nature of Light.
If an experiment is designed to measure the particle nature of the matter, during this
experiment, errors of measurement of both position and the time coordinates must be zero
and hence the momentum, energy and the wave nature of the matter are completely unknown.
Similarly, if an experiment is designed for measuring the wave nature of the particle, then the
errors in the measurement of the energy and the momentum will be zero, whereas the position
and the time coordinates of the matter will be completely unknown, unknown,
From the above explanation, we can conclude that, when the particle nature of the matter is
measured or displayed, the wave nature of the matter is necessarily suppressed and. Vice
versa.

Schrodinger wave equations: Schrodinger’s wave equations are the equation of motion
of sub-atomic particles, like electrons, protons, and neutrons.

Setup one dimensional time independent Schrodinger wave equation:

Differentiating eq. (1) twice with respect to ‘x’

i=-1

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𝒑𝟐
𝑬= +𝑽
𝟐𝒎
𝒑𝟐 ℎ
𝑬 − 𝑽 = 𝟐𝒎 ∵𝜆=𝑝

𝒉𝟐 𝟏
∴𝑬=[ ][ ]+ 𝑽
𝟐𝒎 𝜆𝟐

𝒉𝟐 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝝍 𝟏
𝑬−𝑽=[ ] [− 𝟐 ( 𝟐 ) ( )]
𝟐𝒎 4𝜋 𝒅𝒙 𝝍

𝒉𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝝍
(𝑬 − 𝑽)𝝍 = [− ] [( )]
8𝜋 𝟐 𝒎 𝒅𝒙𝟐

8𝜋 𝟐 𝒎 𝒅𝟐 𝝍
[− ] (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝝍 = ( 𝟐 )
𝒉𝟐 𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝟐 𝝍 8𝜋 𝟐 𝒎
( 𝟐 ) + [ 𝟐 ] (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝝍 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒉

Extension of Schrodinger’s wave equation in three dimensions

𝒅 𝒅 𝒅
𝛁= + +
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛

𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟐
𝛁𝟐 = + +
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒛𝟐

𝟐
8𝜋 𝟐 𝒎
𝛁 𝝍 + [ 𝟐 ] (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝝍 = 𝟎
𝒉

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Expectation Value: In quantum mechanics, the expectation value is the probabilistic

expected value of the result (measurement) of an experiment. It can be thought of as an
average of all the possible outcomes of a measurement as weighted by their likelihood.
Expectation value as such it is not the most probable value of a measurement. In the real
sense the expectation value may have zero probability of occurring. Let us consider a particle
moving along the ‘x’ axis. The result of a measurement of the position ‘x’ is a continuous
random variable. Consider a wave function𝝍(𝒙, 𝒕). The |𝝍(𝒙, 𝒕)|𝟐 value is a probability
density for the position observable and |𝝍(𝒙, 𝒕)|𝟐 𝒅𝒙 is the probability of finding the particle
between ‘x’ and ‘x-+dx’ at time‘t’. Thus, if a measurement of position is repeated many times
in an identical way on an identical particle in identical circumstances, many possible
outcomes are possible and the expectation value of these outcomes is, according to the
following equation

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+∞
〈𝑥〉 = ∫ |𝝍(𝒙, 𝒕)|𝟐 𝒅𝒙
−∞

Applications of Schrodinger time independent wave Equation:

Particle present in a one-dimensional BOX or well
Consider a particle of mass “m” undergoes moving
horizontally motion inside the one-dimensional box
from 𝑥 = ′0′ 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = ′𝑎′ the potential energy of the
particle is V= 0 inside the box and V=∞ at the outside
the box

Since, the particle is inside the box

∴ 𝝍 = 𝟎, 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒙 < 0 & 𝑥 > 𝑎

Apply the boundary condition

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The above equation (12) is Eigen function associated with the particle
The allowed energy Eigen value is obtained by substituting (8) in (3)

𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
𝑬𝒏 = − − − − − (𝟏𝟑)
𝟖 𝒎 𝒂𝟐
∴ 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝟏𝟐) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟏𝟑) 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
where ‘n’ is integer (n=1,2,3,4…….)
Discussion of Eigen value and Eigen function for particle in a box:
Case 1 n=1 (Ground state):

𝟐 𝟏𝝅𝒙
Eigen function 𝝍𝟎 = √𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( ) − − − −(𝟏𝟐𝒂)
𝒂

12 ℎ2 ℎ2
𝐸𝑛 = = − − − (13𝑎)
8 𝑚 𝑎2 8 𝑚 𝑎2
This is the ground state energy or zero-point energy of the particle

The value of Eigen function (𝜓𝟎 ) is

𝑎
∴ 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0 & 𝑎, 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 =
2
The Probability density (|𝜓|2 ) of particle
𝑎
∴ |𝜓|2 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0 & 𝑎 ∴ |𝜓|2 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 =
2
Case 2 n=2 (First excited energy state):

𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒙
Eigen function 𝝍𝟏 = √𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( ) − − − −(𝟏𝟐𝒃)
𝒂

22 ℎ2 4 ℎ2
𝐸𝑛 = = − − − (13𝑏)
8 𝑚 𝑎2 8 𝑚 𝑎2
This is the first excited state energy of the particle

The value of Eigen function (𝜓𝟏 ) is

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𝑎 𝑎 3𝑎
∴ 𝜓 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0 , , 𝑎 ∴ 𝜓 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = ,
2 4 4
The Probability density (|𝜓|2 ) of particle
𝑎 𝑎 3𝑎
∴ |𝜓|2 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0 , , 𝑎 ∴ |𝜓|2 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = ,
2 4 4
Case 2 n=3 (Second excited energy state):

𝟐 𝟑𝝅𝒙
Eigen function 𝝍𝟐 = √𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( ) − − − −(𝟏𝟐𝒄)
𝒂

32 ℎ2 9 ℎ2
𝐸𝑛 = = − − − (13𝑐)
8 𝑚 𝑎2 8 𝑚 𝑎2
This is the first excited state energy of the particle

The value of Eigen function (𝜓𝟐 ) is

𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 5𝑎
∴ 𝜓 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0 , , , 𝑎 ∴ 𝜓 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = , ,
3 3 6 2 6
2
The Probability density (|𝜓| ) of particle
𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 5𝑎
∴ |𝜓|2 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0 , , , 𝑎 ∴ |𝜓|2 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = , ,
3 3 6 2 6

𝑎 3𝑎
4 𝑎 3𝑎
4
4 4

𝑎 𝑎
2 2

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