Content

Chapter 1: Network Analysis using Transformed Circuit

Network analysis and synthesis, LTI systems
Revision on Laplace transform
Transformed circuit for simple passive elements
Network analysis using Laplace transform
Guidelines
Examples

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Transform representation and network Analysis

Introduction
Excitation Network Response LTI systems
Characterizing of network itself in time
Network Analysis is concerned with
and frequency, and determining how the
determining the response, given the
network behaves as signal processor is
excitation and the network.
taken as network analysis.
In Network synthesis, the problem is to
Linear system: fulfills superposition
design the network given the excitation
principle.
and response.
c1 e1 (t) Network c1 r1 (t)
Excitation and response are signals
whican be voltage or current whereas c2 e2 (t) Network c2 r2 (t)
network is interconnection of electrical
circuits. June 6, 2024 2 / 30
LTI systems

c1 e1 (t) + c2 e2 (t) Network c1 r1 (t) + c2 r2 (t)

if the system is linear then,
Time invariant system is if e(t)→r(t), then e(t-T)→r(t-T). It means if the excitation
sere introduced at t=T, and if the shape of the waveform is the same with shape
starts at t=0 but delayed by a time T then we could say the system is time invariant.
Time invariant system contains elements that don’t vary with time.
In our discussion in this course we are limited to linear time invariant (LTI) systems.
Now we will start to do network analysis. In this chapter, we will consider the
transformed method to analze (Laplace transform) in frequency domain.
Review Laplace transformation in your signal and system course and basic circiut
analysis techniques in your fundamental of electrical engineering course.

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Review of Laplace transform
∞
Laplace Transform of some common
Z
F (s) = L {f (t)} = f (t)e−st dt
t=0− functions
where s is the complex f requency variable. δ(t) 1
s = σ + jω 1
u(t)
s
Some properties of Laplace transform 1
tu(t)
Differentiation and integration. If L {f } s2
(t) = F(s), then 1
e−at u(t)
s+a
df ω
L { (t)} =sF (s) − f (0− ) sin(ωt)u(t)
dt s + ω2
2
Z t
F (s) s
L{ f (t)dt} = cos(ωt)u(t)
s s + ω2
2
0−
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Transformed circuit of simple elements
Voltage–current relationships of network elements can also be represented in the
frequency domain.
1 Resistor : For the resistor, the v–i relationship in time domain is v (t) = R i (t) The
corresponding frequency–domain relation are given as V (s) = RI (s) The transformed
network is shown in Fig 1

Figure: Transformed resistor

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Transformed circuit of simple elements

2 Inductor : For the inductor, the v–i relationships in time domain are

di
v(t) =L
dt V (s) =sLI(s) − Li(0− )
Z t
i(t) =
1
v(x)dx + i(0− ) V (s) i(0− )
L I(s) = +
0− sL s
The corresponding The transformed network
frequency–domain relation are given is shown in Fig 2 Figure: Transformed inductor
as

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Transformed circuit of simple elements

3 Capacitor : For the capacitor, the v–i relationships in time domain are
Z t
1
v(t) = i(x)dx + v(0− ) I(s) v(0− )
C 0− V (s) = +
dv sC s
i(t) =C I(s) =sCV (s) − Cv(0− )
dt
The corresponding The transformed network is
frequency–domain relation are shown in Fig 3 Figure: Transformed
capacitor
given as

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Guidelines for network analysis using Laplace transform

1 Find the initial values assuming steady state condition. In steady state the inductor
voltage become zero or inductor become short circuit and capacitor current will be
zero or capacitor become open circuit. Then solve for initial conditions.
2 Write transformed network using initial values from step 1. Here when switch is
changing state, the initial state doesn’t change instantly, i.e., eg. for inductor
i(0− ) = i(0+ ).
3 Write equation using any circuit analysis techniques (nodal, mesh analysis) you know
and simplify the equations.
4 Solve simultaneous equations using any method you know ( elimination, substitution,
Cramer’s rule,...)
5 Perform inverse Laplace transform to get time domain.

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Network analysis using Laplace transform
Solution: The initial value of i(0− ) = 0 because the
Example switch was open before t=0. When the switch is
Consider a series RL circuit as closed at t=0 the transformed circuit become as
shown in Fig. below. The switch is shown in figure below. Here, ignore initial inductor
closed at time t = 0. Find i(t). current since it is zero.

Figure: RL circuit
Figure: RL circuit at t=0
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Network analysis using Laplace transform

Applying KVL around the loop,

V /L V
V A= |s=0 =
=RI(s) + LsI(s) (R/L + s) R
s V /L V
V B= | =−
=(R + Ls)I(s) s s=−R/L R
s V /R −V /R
V I(s) = +
I(s) = s s + R/L
s(R + Ls)
inverse Laplace gives
V /L
I(s) = V V
s(R/L + s) i(t) = u(t) − e−R/Lt u(t)
A B R R
= + V −R/Lt
s s + R/L = [1 − e ], t ≥ 0
R
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Network Analysis using Laplace transform
reached steady state, i.e., 2H inductor
Example
become short circuit. The network becomes
The network shown in figure below is closed as shown in Figure below. From the figure
at t=0, and it has acquired steady state simply you can find i1 (0− )=1/2 A, which is
before t=0. Determine the current through the initial inductor value of 2H. Since the
3H inductor. switch is opened for t < 0, the initial
inductor value of 3H is i2 (0− )=0 A.

Figure: Example 2

Figure: Network for t=0−

Solution: At t =0− the inductor has
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Network Analysis using Laplace transform
When the switch is closed, the initial Applying KVL for mesh 1 and then
inductor currents will be simplifying gives

i1 (0+ ) =i1 (0− ) = 1/2A 2sI1 (s) + 2(I1 (s) − I2 (s)) =1/s + 1
+ −
i2 (0 ) =i2 (0 ) = 0A

The transformed network for t>0 become as (2s + 2)I1 (s) − 2I2 (s) =1/s + 1 (1)
shown in Figure below.
Applying KVL for mesh 2 and then
simplifying gives

2I2 (s) + 3sI2 (s) + 2(I2 (s) − I1 (s)) =0

Figure: Network for t>0 −2I1 (s) + (4 + 3s)I2 (s) =0 (2)

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Network Analysis using Laplace transform
Writing
 in Matrix
 form using
 (1) and (2),
2s + 2 −2 I1 (s) 1/s + 1
=
−2 4 + 3s I2 (s) 0
Using Cramer’s rule
2s + 2 1 + 1/s C =(s + 2)I2 (s)|s=−2 = −1/10
−2 0 s+1 1/2 −6/5 −1/10
I2 (s)= = s(3s+1)(s+2) I2 (s) = + +
2s + 2 −2 s 3s + 1 s+2
−2 4 + 3s
Finding inverse transform gives
A B C
I2 (s) = + + i(t) =1/2 − 2/5e−1/3t − 1/10e−2t , t > 0
s 3s + 1 s + 2
A =sI2 (s)|s=0 = 1/2
B =(3s + 1)I2 (s)|s=−1/3 = −6/5
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Network Analysis using Laplace transform
Solution: At t =0− the inductor and
Example capacitor has reached steady state, i.e.,
The network shown in figure below is closed, inductor become short circuit and capacitor
and it has acquired steady state before t=0. become open circuit. The network becomes
The switch is opened at t=0. Determine the as shown in Figure below. From the figure
current through inductor. simply you can find vc (0− )=0V, since it is in
parallel with short circuit and
iL (0− )=5V/2.5Ω = 2A

Figure: Example 3 Figure: Network for t=0−

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Network Analysis using Laplace transform
When the switch is Opened, Applying KVL for mesh and then
+ − simplifying gives
iL (0 ) =iL (0 ) = 2A
vC (0+ ) =vC (0− ) = 0V I(s)
+ 0.5sI(s) =1
200 ∗ 10−6 s
The transformed network for t>0 become as 5000
shown in Figure below. I(s) + 0.5sI(s) =1
s
5000 + 0.5s2
( )I(s) =1
s
s 2s
I(s) = 2
= 2
5000 + 0.5s s + 10000
Taking inverse Laplace,
Figure: Network for t>0 i(t)=2cos(100t), t≥0
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Content

Chapter 2: Elements of realizability theory

Causality and Stability
Revision on Laplace transform
Transformed circuit for simple passive elements
Network analysis using Laplace transform
Guidelines
Examples

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Causality and Stability
The first step in a synthesis procedure is to determine whether system function can
be realized as a physical passive network. There are two important considerations
-causality and stability. )
By causality we mean that a voltage cannot appear between any pair of terminals in
the network before a current is impressed, or vice versa. In other words, the impulse
response of the network must be zero for t ¡ 0, that is
h(t) =0 f or t < 0
In the frequency domain, causality is implied when the Paley-Wiener criterion is
satisfied for the amplitude function |H(jw)|.
Z ∞
| log |H(jω)||
dω <∞
−∞ 1 + ω2
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Causality and Stability

The Paley-Wiener criterion is valid when

1 h(t) must possess a Fourier transform H(jw)
2 The square magnitude function |H(jw)|2 must be integrable
Z ∞
|H(jw)|2 dw < ∞
−∞

The physical implication of the Paley-Wiener criterion is that the amplitude |H(jw)|
of a realizable network must not be zero over a finite band of frequencies.
Another way of looking at the Paley-Wiener criterion is that the amplitude function
cannot fall off to zero faster than exponential order.

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Causality and Stability

If a network is stable, then for a bounded excitation e(t) the response (t) is also
bounded. (BIBO stability)
Generally, it can be said that with the exception of isolated impulses, the impulse
response must be bounded for all t, that is,

|h(t)| < C f or all t

where C is a real, positive, finite number.

If the impulse response approach zero as t approaches infinity then it is Stable and if
not while it is bounded as shown in above inequality it is said to be marginally
stable.

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Causality ans Stability

In frequency domain, in order for a network to be stable, the following three

conditions on its system function H(s) must be satisfied:
1 H(s) cannot have poles in the right-half plane.
2 H(s) cannot have multiple poles in the jw axis.
3 The degree of the numerator of H(s) cannot exceed the degree of the denominator by
more than unity.
Finally, it should be pointed out that a rational function H(s) with poles in the
left-half plane only has an inverse transform h(t), which is zero for t < O. In this
respect, stability implies causality.

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Hurwitz polynomial
In order for a system function to be stable, its poles must be restricted to the left-half
plane or the jw axis. Moreover, the poles on the jw axis must be simple. The
denominator polynomial of the system function belongs to a class of polynomials
known as Hurwitz polynomials. A polynomial P(s) is said to be Hurwitz if the
following conditions are satisfied:
1 P(s) is real when s is real.
2 The roots of P(s) have real parts which are zero or negative.
As a result of these conditions, if P(s) is a Hurwitz polynomial given by

P (s) =an sn + an−1 sn−1 + ... + a1 s + a0

then all the coefficients a, must be real.

Hurwitz polynomials have the following properties:
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Hurwitz Polynomial
1 All the coefficients ai , are non negative.
2 Both the odd and even parts of a Hurwitz polynomial P(s) have roots on the jw axis
only. If P(s) is either even or odd, all its roots are on the jw axis.
3 The continued fraction expansion of the ratio of the odd to even parts or the even to
odd parts of a Hurwitz polynomial yields all positive quotient terms. The continued
fraction can be written as
1
ψ(s) =q1 s +
1
q2 s +
1
q3 s +
1
... +
qn s
where the quotients q1 , q2 ,q3 , ..., and qn must be positive if the polynomial P(s) =
n(s) + m(s) is Hurwitz.
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Hurwitz polynomial
To obtain the continued fraction expansion, we must perform a series of long divisions.
Suppose ψ(s) is
m(s)
ψ(s) =
n(s)
where m(s) is of one higher degree than n(s). Then if we divide n(s) into m(s), we obtain
a single quotient and a remainder
R1 (s)
ψ(s) = q1 s +
n(s)
The degree of the term R(s) is one lower than the degree of n(s). Therefore if we invert
the remainder term and divide, we have
n(s) R2 (s)
= q2 s +
R1 (s) R1 (s)
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Hurwitz polynomial
Inverting and dividing again, we obtain
R1 (s) R3 (s)
= q3 s +
R2 (s) R2 (s)
We see that the process of obtaining the continued fraction expansion of ψ(s) simply
involves division and inversion. At each step we obtain a quotient term qi s and a
remainder term, RRi+1 (s)
i (s)
We then invert the remainder term and divide to obtain a new
quotient.
4 If the polynomial P(s) is expressed as P(s)=W (s) P1 (s), then P(s) is Hurwitz if W
(s) and P1 (s) are Hurwitz.
5 If the ratio of the polynomial P(s) and its derivative P′ (s) gives a continued fraction
expansion with all positive coefficients then the polynomial P(s) is Hurwitz. This
property helps in checking a polynomial for Hurwitz if it is even or odd function only.
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Hurwitz polynomial

Example
Test whether the polynomial
p(s)=s4 + s3 + 5s2 + 3s + 4 is Hurwitz.
Solution: Even part of p(s),
m(s)=s4 + 5s2 + 4 and odd parts of p(s),
n(s)=s3 + 3s. Using continued fraction
expansion, Since all the quotient terms are
positive, P(s) is Hurwitz.

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Hurwitz polynomial

Example
Prove that the polynomial
p(s)=s4 + s3 + 2s2 + 3s + 2 is not Hurwitz.
Solution: Even part of p(s),
m(s)=s4 + 2s2 + 2 and odd parts of p(s),
n(s)=s3 + 3s. Using continued fraction
expansion, Since their is negative quotient
terms, P(s) is not Hurwitz.

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Hurwitz polynomial

Example
Test whether the polynomial
p(s)=s5 + s3 + s is Hurwitz.
Solution: since this is only odd parts, then
′
find P (s), P ′ (s) = 5s4 + 3s2 + 1 Using
continued fraction expansion of PP′(s)
(s) , Since
their is negative quotient terms, we do not
need to finish and we can conclude that P(s)
is not Hurwitz.
Note that for more example you can see on your textbook “Singh Network Analysis and
Synthesis” part 16.2 on page 1140

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Positive Real function

These functions are important because they represent physically realizable passive
driving-point immittances. A function F(s) is positive real (p.r.) if the following
conditions are satisfied:
1 F(s) is real for real s.
2 The real part of F(s) is greater than or equal to zero when the real part of s is greater
than or equal to zero, i.e.,
Re F(s) ≥ 0 for Re(s) ≥ 0

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Positive Real function

Next let us consider some useful properties of p.r. functions.

1 If F(s) is positive real then 1/F(s) is also positive real.
2 The sum of two positive real functions is positive real.
3 The poles and zeros of a positive real function cannot have positive real parts, i.e., they
cannot be in the right half of the s plane.
4 Only simple poles with real positive residues can exist on the jw-axis.
5 The poles and zeros of a positive real function are real or occur in conjugate pairs.
6 The highest powers of the numerator and denominator polynomials may differ at most
by unity. This condition prevents the possibility of multiple poles and zeros at s = ∞.
7 The lowest powers of the denominator and numerator polynomials may differ by at most
unity. Hence, a positive real function has neither multiple poles nor zeros at the origin.

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Positive Real function

The necessary and sufficient conditions for a function with real coefficients F(s) to be
positive real are the following:
1 F(s) must have no poles and zeros in the right half of the s-plane. (You can use Hurwitz
method)
2 The poles of F(s) on the jw-axis must be simple and the residues evaluated at these
poles must be real and positive.
3 Re F (jw) ≥ 0 for all w. For this to be true A(w2 )¿0 for all w. where,

A(w2 ) = M1 (s)M2 (s) − N1 (s)N2 (s)|s = jw

Where, M1 (s) is even part of numerator of system function, M2 (s) is even part of
denominator of system function, N1 (s) is odd part of numerator of system function, and
N2 (s) is odd part of denominator of system function

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 Here are some of examples from your textbook
"Singh Network Analysis and Synthesis"

s+3
Example 16.23 Test whether F ( s) = is a positive real function.
s +1 jw
Solution
N ( s) s + 3
(a) F ( s) = =
D ( s) s + 1
The function F(s) has pole at s = −1 and zero at s = −3 as shown in
Fig. 16.1. s
Thus, pole and zero are in the left half of the s-plane. −3 −2 −1 0
(b) There is no pole on the jw axis. Hence, the residue test is not carried
out. Fig. 16.1
16.18 Network Analysis and Synthesis

(c) 3

Odd part of N s )

Odd part of D s ) =

A(w2) is positive for all w ≥ 0.

Since all the three conditions are satisfied, the function is positive real.

s2 s+
Example 16.24 Test whether F s is positive real function.
s2 s+ 4
Solution jw

N s s2 s+ s s
(a) F s
D s s 2
s+ 4 s s
The function F (s) has poles at s = −7 and s = −2
and zeros at s = −5 an s = −1 as shown in Fig. 16.2.
s
7 6 5 −4 3 2 −1 0
Thus, all the poles and zeros are in the left half
of the s plane. Fig. 16.2
(b) Since there is no pole on the jw axis, the residue
test is not carried out.
(c) 5

Even part o D s 2
+ 14

s
2
ω s s2 70
A(w2) is positive for all w ≥ 0.
Since all the three conditions are satisfied, the function is positive real.

ss s
Example 16.25 Test whether F s = is positive real function.
s s
Solution

N s ss s s s + 5s
(a) F s
D s s s s 2
s+
 16.3 Positive Real Functions 16.19

The function F(s) has poles at s = −1 and s = −4 and jw

zeros at s = 0, s = −3 and s = −5 as shown in Fig. 16.3.
Thus, all the poles and zeros are in the left half of
the s plane.
(b) There is no pole on the jw axis, hence the residue test s
is not carried out. −5 4 3 2 1 0

(c) s2
15s Fig. 16.3
Even pa 4
s

s j = 2

A(w2) is positive for all w ≥ 0.

Since all the three conditions are satisfied, the function is positive real.

s2 + 1
Example 16.26 Test whether F s is positive real function.
s3 s
Solution

N s s2 + 1 s jw
(a) F s
D s s3 s ss s j2

The function F(s) has poles at s = 0, s = −j2 and s = j2 and zeros at s = −j1 j1
and s = j1 as shown in Fig. 16.4. s
0
Thus, all the poles and zeros are on the jw axis.
j1
(b) The poles on the jw axis are simple. Hence, residue test is carried out.
j2
s2 + 1 s2 + 1
F s = =
s s ss Fig. 16.4
By partial-fraction expansion,

K K 2*
F s = + +
s s j2 2
The constants K1, K2 and K2* are called residues.
s2 + 1 1
s
s +4
2
s=0
4

s2 + 1 + 3
K
s s j2 j 2 j2 8
2

3
*
=
8
Thus, residues are real and positive.
16.20 Network Analysis and Synthesis

(c) Even part off N ( s) m1 s 2 1

Odd part of N ( s) = n1 = 0
Even part of D( s) = m2 = 0
Odd part off ( s) n2 s3 4s
Aω( )2
m1m2 n1n2 |s jω ( s 2 + 1)( ) ( )(
)(ss3 + 4s) |s jω = 0

A(w2) is zero for all w ≥ 0.

Since all the three conditions are satisfied, the function is positive real.

2ss3 + 2 s 2 + 3 s + 2
Example 16.27 Test whether F ( s) = is positive real function.
s2 + 1
Solution
N ( s) 2ss3 + 2 s 2 + 3s + 2 2ss3 + 2 s 2 + 3s + 2
(a) F ( s) = = =
D ( s) s2 + 1 ( s j )(s
)( s j )
Since numerator polynomial cannot be easily factorized, we will prove whether N(s) is Hurwitz.

Even part off N ( s) m( s) 2s 2 + 2

Odd part off N ( s) n( s) 2s 3 + 3 s
By continued fraction expansion,

⎞ ⎛
2s2 2 2 3
3s s
⎠ ⎝
2 s3 2s
⎞ ⎛
s 2s2 2s 2s
⎠ ⎝
2s2
⎞ ⎛1
2 s s
⎠ ⎝2
s
0

Since all the quotient terms are positive, N(s) is Hurwitz. This indicates that zeros are in the left half
of the s plane.
The function F(s) has poles at s = −j1 and s = j1.
Thus, all the poles and zeros are in the left half of the s plane.
(b) The poles on the jw axis are simple. Hence, residue test is carried out.

2ss3 + 2 s 2 + 3s + 2
F ( s) =
s2 + 1
As the degree of the numerator is greater than that of the denominator, division is first carried out
before partial-fraction expansion.
 16.3 Positive Real Functions 16.21

s2 s3 + s s+ s+2

s
2s s 2
2s 2
s
s
F s = s+ +
s +12

By partial-fraction expansion,
K1
F s s+ + 1
s j1 1
j1 1
K = =
2
1
K1
2
Thus, residues are real and positive.

(c) 2
+2
3
+ 3s
Even p 1
Odd part of D s = =0

3
s 4
+ 4s = − )
2 2

A(w2) ≥ 0 for all w ≥ 0.

Since all the three conditions are satisfied, the function is positive real.