İHSAN DOĞRAMACI BİLKENT UNIVERSITY

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Lab 4 Report

INSTRUCTORS
Asst. Prof. Dr. Alperen Güney
Dr. Şakir Baytaroğlu

Prepared by
Diyar Sahra Karataş 22102477
Müfide Revan Özükan 22203692
Sinan Enis Çapkın 22002416
Umut Şeker 22103708
Ziya Emir Gün 22103546

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction……………………………………………………….3

2. Experiment and Procedure…………………………….............4-8

3. Traceability of the Experiment ……………………………….9

4. Result…………………………................................................10-14

5. Uncertainty………………………………………………………15

6. Conclusion……………………………………………………….16

7. References………………………………………………………..17

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1. Introduction

Commonly used in engineering fields such as manufacturing, construction and

transportation, cylindrical pressure vessels include items such as coke boxes, grain
silos, gas tanks and pipes. When filled with liquid and subjected to pressure, these
cylindrical vessels experience stress and strain distribution along their length
(longitudinal) and circumference (radial). In this lab experiment, we will use strain
gauges to measure the strain in an aluminum can and calculate and tabulate the
strain values with respect to the applied pressure.
To calculate the strain, we need to know some material properties. Modulus of
σ
Elasticity (Young's Modulus): 𝐸 = ϵ

𝝈: Stress [Pa, N/m2]

The cylindrical vessel expands longitudinally. To determine the longitudinal strain
𝑟𝑃
ϵ𝐿 = 2𝐸𝑡
the formula (P is the applied force, E is Young's Modulus, t is the thickness
and r is the radius of the cylinder) should be used. The cylindrical vessel can also
𝑟𝑃
grow in the radial direction. To define the radial strain ϵ𝐿 = 2𝐸𝑡
, the formula (P is the
applied force, E is Young's Modulus, t is the thickness and r is the radius of the
cylinder) is used.

Figure 1: Schema for σ

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2. Experiment and Procedure

This experiment was designed for students to gain experience in using strain
gauges, pressure and temperature sensors to measure strain and pressure
accurately. Furthermore, using a data acquisition system , collecting data and
interpreting the results play a crucial role. The primary objective was to understand
the relationship between applied pressure and the resulting strain in a controlled
environment. By gradually increasing the pressure within a container and recording
the changes in strain, temperature and pressure over time, students learned to utilize
advanced measurement instruments.

Materials used in the experiment:

1) Pressure Regulator
2) Pressure Sensors
3) DAQ
4) Strain Gauges
5) Temperature Sensors

Now, let’s examine each of them one by one.

2.1 Pressure Regulator

A pressure regulator is a device used to maintain and control the pressure of
gases or liquids at a desired level. It works by utilizing a feedback mechanism
that adjusts the flow of the fluid to achieve the set pressure.

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 Figure 2. Pressure Regulator

By turning the regulator clockwise, the pressure inside the container was
gradually increased to predefined levels (1, 2, and 3 bar). This allowed for stable
and repeatable conditions essential for accurate strain and pressure
measurements.

2.2 Pressure Sensors

A pressure sensor is an instrument designed to measure the pressure of gases
or liquids and convert this pressure into an electrical signal that can be
processed and analyzed. Pressure sensors function as transducers. They
convert the mechanical deformation caused by pressure into a measurable
electrical signal.
HBM P8AP Pressure Sensor Used in the Experiment:

Absolute Pressure Gauge: HBM P8AP (Pressure Sensor)

Measurement Range: 0-3.5 bar

Sensitivity: Millibar accuracy

Zero Calibration: It is conducted at the beginning of the experiment to obtain

readings.

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 Figure 3. Pressure Transducer

2.3 DAQ (Data Acquisition System)

The most important instrument for gathering and handling data from several
sources is a data acquisition (DAQ) system. One example of data acquisition is
monitoring and gathering data from a large-scale industrial process with several
connected sensors and variables. DAQ systems are essential for many different
applications, such as quality control, manufacturing, industrial processing,
industrial automation, and scientific research. A DAQ system connects a wide
range of instruments together by using sensors and measuring devices.
Examples of these instruments include sensors that monitor pressure, flow,
level, and temperature .In this experiment, the DAQ system was used to collect
strain and pressure data.

Figure 4: Experimental setup

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MX840A HBM

Figure 5: MX840A HBM spesifications

HBM QuantumX MX840A Specifications

The HBM QuantumX MX840A is a system used to collect data for many types of
measurements. It has eight channels, so it can connect to different sensors like
those for voltage, current, temperature, and pressure. It collects data quickly, at a
rate of 19.2 kHz for each channel, which gives clear and detailed results. It has filters
to improve the data quality and connects easily to other devices using FireWire and
Ethernet. It also has a feature called TEDS, which automatically recognizes sensor
settings, making it quick and easy to set up for experiments that need accurate data.

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HBM P8AP Pressure Transducer Specifications

Accuracy Class 0.3%

Nominal Pressure Ranges 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 bar

Protection Class IP67

Operating Temperature Range 40 °C to +80 °C

High-Temperature Version Available for temperatures up to +140

°C

Pressure Connection Options: M10x1, M20x1.5, G1/4 Form B, G1/2

Form B, NPT1/4, G1/4 Form Z,
M8x1.25, Tubus DA-10

Cable Length Option 1.5 m (HT version), 5 m, 20 m, or with

HS6P connector (HT version)

2.4 Strain Gauge

Strain Gauges An electrical sensor called a strain gauge measures variations in

material resistance brought on by stress or deformation. When an item is bent or
stretched by outside forces, it measures the stress placed on the materials.
Installed for evaluating variations in tension, these devices show how a material
reacts to mechanical forces like bending or deformation. By monitoring the
changes in electrical resistance that ensue, they are able to quantify mechanical
strain. Strain gauges are used in engineering, structural analysis, load cells, and
materials testing to offer crucial details on the performance, longevity, and
integrity of the material.

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 Figure 6. Strain Gauge

3. Traceability of the Experiment

Strain, defined as the derivative of displacement, is a non-dimensional quantity that

provides insight into the deformational response of a material under applied loads.
This intrinsic property reflects the ratio of the change in length to the original length,
making it inherently unitless and a fundamental characterization of material
response. Importantly, strain measurements can be linked to displacement values as
they can be traced back to the physical deformation experienced by the material.

Mathematically, strain (ε) is expressed as ε = ∆𝐿/𝐿, where ∆𝐿 represents the

progressive change in length along the direction of force application and 𝐿 is the
gauge length, typically the original, non-deformed length of the piece of material
under observation. This relationship emphasizes that strain measurements are
directly related to the displacement experienced by the material (∆𝐿), thus enabling
displacement values to be reconstructed or subtracted when the strain and gauge
length are known.

∆𝑅/𝑅
𝐺𝐹 = 𝑘 = ε
, 𝑘 = 2 approximately

For each longitudinal and radial strain measurement, the apparatus is calibrated to
ensure traceability of the strain measurement results. However, even with a resistive

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strain gauge, strain calibration poses challenges. Usually, we assume that
manufacturers supply k-values (strain gauge factor) and that they are correct.
Besides the strain gauge, other factors such as length (Strain and Pressure), mass
(Pressure), time (Force and Gravitational Acceleration), and electrical quantities
(such as voltage (𝑉), resistance (𝑅) and current (𝐼)) also contribute to the traceability
of experiments.

4. Results

Figure 7. Pressure Graph

Figure 8: εH graph

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 Figure 9. Temperature Graph

Figure 10. εL Graph

The strain in soda can was analyzed using the formula below

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 Assume the following material properties and can dimensions: E = 69 GPa, t = 0.1
mm, 𝜈 = 0. 33, r = 33 mm.

Table 1: Ratio of Strain Values

Pressure Value
εH(µ𝑚/𝑚) εL (µ𝑚/𝑚) TEMPERATURE
[Pa]

UP DOWN UP DOWN

1x10^5 3,56 2,45 -3,66 -4,24 21.23

2x10^5 39,36 37,20 58,39 57,61 21.65

3x10^5 101,74 100,92 82,32 76,81 21.90

Table 2: Ratio of Stress Values

Pressure Value [Pa] σ𝐻 (Mpa) σ𝐿 (Mpa)

Up down up down

1x10^5 2.45 1.6905 -2.5254 -2.9256

2x10^5 27.15 25.66 40.2891 39.7509

3x10^5 69.6 69.63 56.8008 52.9989

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Pressure (Pa) 𝜎𝐿 /𝜎𝐻

1x10^5 -1.35

2x10^5 1.51

3x10^5 0.82

200
Safety Factor SFH at 1x10^5 Pa for σ𝐻 ) 𝑆𝐹𝐿 = 2.07
= 96

200
Safety Factor SFH at 2x10^5 Pa for σ𝐻 ) 𝑆𝐹𝐿 = 26
= 7.69

200
Safety Factor SFH at 3x10^5 Pa for σ𝐻 ) 𝑆𝐹𝐿 = 69
= 2.89

200
Safety Factor SFH at 1x10^5 Pa for 𝜎𝐿 𝑆𝐹𝐿 = 2.72
= 73.2

200
Safety Factor SFH at 2x10^5 Pa for 𝜎𝐿 𝑆𝐹𝐿 = 39.9
= 5. 01

200
Safety Factor SFH at 3x10^5 Pa for 𝜎𝐿 𝑆𝐹𝐿 = 54
= 3. 70

Temperature Stability and Effects:

The temperature stayed consistent throughout the experiment, with average values
between 21.45°C and 22.45°C. The extended uncertainty for temperature was
minimal, fluctuating between ±0.001°C and ±0.035°C, ensuring that it had a
negligible effect on the strain measurements. This stability demonstrates the success
of the calibration methods and environmental controls in preserving the experiment's

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precision. All of these results validate the experimental design and offer a
dependable foundation for understanding the stress-strain relationships in
thin-walled pressure vessels, which is essential for structural analysis and design.

Figure 11: εH / 𝜎𝐻 graph

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 Figure 12: εL/ 𝜎L graph

5. Uncertainty Analysis

There must be some level of uncertainty in experiments involving measuring

devices. These uncertainties are categorized as Type A and Type B uncertainties.
Type A uncertainties are those that can be calculated, while Type B uncertainties are
those that cannot. The traceability of experiments depends on the contribution of
various factors, including length (strain and pressure), mass (pressure), time (force
and gravitational acceleration), and electrical quantities (such as voltage (V),
resistance (R), and current).

σ
● 𝑈𝐴 = (Based on strain measurement)
𝑛

● 𝑈𝐵1 = 0. 001 ( resolution of the strain measurement)

𝑀𝑎𝑥−𝑀𝑖𝑛
● 𝑈𝐵2 = (stability value of the strain during 50 data measurements)
3

● 𝑈𝐵3(Strain gauge error due the temperature error is [0.73, -0.81] 𝜇𝑚/m)

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Combined uncertainty and expanded uncertainty are calculated as

2 2 2 2
𝑈𝐶 = 𝑈𝐴 + 𝑈𝐵1 + 𝑈𝐵2 + 𝑈𝐵3

𝑈𝐸 = 𝑘 × 𝑈𝐶 = 2 × 𝑈𝐶

Uncertainties for Longitudinal Strain εL are tabulated below

Pressure (Bar) 1 bar 2 bar 3 bar

𝑈𝐴 0.00756 0.062 0.027

𝑈𝐵1 0.001 0.001 0.001

𝑈𝐵2 0.4348 0.4503 1.3112

𝑈𝐵3 0.4676 0.4676 0.4676

𝑈𝐶 0.638 0.6521 1.328

𝑈𝐸 1.276 1.3042 2.656

Uncertainties for radial strain εH are tabulated below

Pressure (bar) 1 bar 2 bar 3 bar

𝑈𝐴 0.0153 0.0338 0.0411

𝑈𝐵1 0.001 0.001 0.001

𝑈𝐵2 0.6408 1.247 0.4734

𝑈𝐵3 0.4676 0.4676 0.4676

𝑈𝐶 0.7934 1.3322 0.667

𝑈𝐸 1.5868 2.6644 1.334

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Suggested Methods to Improve Accuracy of The Measurement This experiment’s
accuracy may have been jeopardized by several factors. These factors of error and
the proposed solutions for them are:
● The strain gauge itself, as it is affected by temperature change. The temperature
change should be compensated by using the formula and graph provided by the
producer of the instrument.
● The material of the can loses elasticity over time. To solve this, the cola can may
be changed regularly.
● The adhesion of the strain gauge to the can may be improper. To eliminate this
factor, utmost care should be taken when mounting the strain gauges to the cola
can.

6. Conclusion

This experiment aimed to provide participants with the knowledge and skills required
to mount strain gauges on chosen surfaces to measure temperature accurately. The
equipment used included strain gauges, a box and a pressure inlet. After opening
the valve and gradually increasing the pressure inside the box, we could collect data
from the associated computer using data acquisition (DAQ) measurements. We
would then analyze the data to determine the associated uncertainties. Finally, the
estimated values for strain and stress are presented, along with their respective
uncertainties. However, there are some inaccuracies inherent in the experiment due
to human error, the quality of the equipment and subjective judgments while setting
the controlled variables. To increase accuracy, we could have considered acquiring
new (more precise) equipment and using a more complex combination of MATLAB
to improve our estimations.

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References

1-http://contents.kocw.or.kr/KOCW/document/2015/hanyang/hanseogyoung1/03.pdf

2-https://www.omega.com/en-us/resources/strain-microstrain

3-“HBM QuantumX MX840A Specifications,” HBM. Available:

https://www.hbm.com/en/. Accessed: 27-Nov-2024.

4-“Pressure Regulators: Principles and Applications,” Emerson Automation

Solutions. Available: https://www.emerson.com/. Accessed: 29-Nov-2024.

5-T. Hübert, “Measurement Uncertainty and Traceability in Strain Measurements,”

Measurement Science and Technology, vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 1–15, 2024. DOI:
10.1088/0957-0233/23/5/054005.

6- M. Singh, “Introduction to Pressure Sensors,” Sensors and Actuators: A Review,

vol. 56, pp. 234–245, 2023. DOI: 10.1016/j.sna.2023.01.005.

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