Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

Solutions
Solutions are homogeneous with variable compositions with different ratios of solvent to solute.

Aqueous solutions - A solution in which water is the solvent

Solvent - The substance present in the largest amount (by volume, mass, mole #) and has
other substances dissolved in it

Solute - The substance in the smallest amount

Miscible - Liquids that will readily dissolve into each other

Immiscible: Liquids that won’t readily dissolve into each other

Alloys: Solution of two metals (Bronze)

Amalgam: Alloy that is made of metals dissolved in mercury (Used in Dentistry)

Solubility: The amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent is often
100g of the solvent.

Saturated: A solution that does not allow anymore solute to dissolve in a solution and excess
solute is present.

Unsaturated: A solution that can dissolve more of the same solute, that is not yet saturated

Solutions can be dilute (small amounts of solute) or concentrated (large amounts of solute).

Solute in Solvent Example

Gas in gas Oxygen in nitrogen

Gas in liquid CO2 in pop

Solid in solid Zinc and copper (brass)

Solubility and Saturation:

Solubility describes the amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent
under given conditions. It is usually expressed in g/100 mL.
Ex. The solubility of NaCl at 20℃ is 36 g/100 mL of water.
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

The Three Main Levels of Saturation at a Specific Temperature of a Solution Are:

1. Saturated: A solution that does not allow anymore solute to dissolve in a solution and
excess solute is present
2. Unsaturated: A solution that can dissolve more of the same solute, that is not yet
saturated
3. Supersaturated: A solution that contains more dissolved solute than a saturated solution
at the same temperature. This occurs when a temperature change occurs.
Supersaturated solutions are unstable and a disturbance can precipitate out the excess
solute.

Note:
All solutes have a different degree of solubility
a) Soluble: > 1g/100 mL (more that 1g is dissolved in 100 mL)
b) Slightly Soluble: between 0.1g to 1g is dissolved in 100 mL
c) Insoluble: < 0.1g dissolved in 100 mL of solvent

What are the factors affecting Solubility?

Solubility can be explained in terms of the forces that act between the particles of the
substances in solutions. The formation of most solutions depends on the relative strength of
three categories of forces:
● Forces that attract particles of the solute to each other
● Forces that attract particles of the solvent to each other
● Forces that attract particles of the solute to particles of the solvent

1. Ion Charge
Small charges tend to be soluble, while ions with large charges tend to be insoluble.

Ex. Na+ vs Fe+3

Ions with larger charges increase the nuclear forces holding the ions together in a compound
resulting in Fe+3 being less soluble than Na+.

2. Ion Size
As ion size increases, solubility increases too.
● Compounds with small ions tend to be less soluble
● Small ions have stronger bonds and are harder to dissociate/separate
● Large ions have weak bonds - easier to dissociate
● Remember: the size of an ion increases as you go down a family

3. Molecular Size: Small molecules tend to be more soluble than larger molecules in polar
solvents like water

4. Temperature
Solids in liquids: Solubility of solids ↑ with an ↑ in temperature
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

At higher temperatures, solvent particles have more energy, resulting in frequent and energetic
collisions between particles

Gases in liquids: solubility of gases ↓ with an ↑ in temperature

There is a large change in the kinetic energy of gas molecules when they enter or leave a
solution. Increasing the temperature of a solution increases the kinetic energy of the molecules,
allowing them to escape.

5. Pressure: only affects the solubility of gases in liquids.

When pressure ↑, the solubility of gases ↑.
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of that same particular
gas above the liquid

6. Type of Solvent: the general rule is “like dissolves like”

This means that a polar solvent will dissolve a polar solute or an ionic compound, which a
non-polar solvent will dissolve a non-polar solute.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Dissolution:

1. Temperature:
Increasing the temperature of the solvent increases the kinetic energy. This increases the
number of collisions between the solvent and the solute.

2. Agitation:
Stirring or shaking brings fresh solvent into contact with solute, which increases the number of
collisions that solvent molecules have with the solute molecules.

3. Particle Size:
Crushing the solute into smaller pieces increases the surface area and therefore the number of
molecules available to collide with the solvent.
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

Solubility Curves
Temperature and Solubility:
● The solubility of a given compound will change as the temperature changes
● Solubility graphs can tell exactly what the solubility of a compound is at a given
temperature

How to Read a Solubility Graph & Curve:

● Points above the curve represent a supersaturated solution
○ The vertical difference between a point above the curve and a point on the curve
represents the mass of solute/100 g H2O that will crystallize out of the solution at
that temperature
● Points directly on the curve represent a saturated solution
● Points below the curve represent an unsaturated solution
● The vertical difference between a point below the curve and a point on the curve
represents the additional mass of solute/100 g H2O required to saturate the solution at
that temperature
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

Example:
1. Answer the following using the solubility curve (the graph).
a. What are the levels of saturation of the following mixtures (unsaturated,
saturated, supersaturated)
i. 50 g of KCI in 100 mL of H2O at 70°C
Supersaturated
ii. 80 g of NaCl in 200 mL of H2O at 90°C
Saturated (remember to divide both the 80 g and the 200 mL by 2 to get 40 g at 100 mL)
b. What mass of ammonium chloride can be dissolved in 100 mL of water at 60°C?
55 g of NH4Cl
c. What is the minimum temperature at which 30 g of KCIO; will dissolve in 100 mL
of H2O?
68°C
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

Solubility in Water - Generalizations and Examples:

● Solids have a higher solubility in water at higher temperatures (ionic and molecular)
● Gases always have higher solubility in water at lower temperatures (inverse and linear
relationship
● Polar liquids in water, solubility usually increases with increasing temperature

● Non-polar liquids do not dissolve, they are immiscible (from a separate layer)
● Liquids containing small polar molecules with H bonding) dissolve in water, they are
miscible (mix well in all proportions)

● Elements have low solubility in water e.g. Carbon is used in water filtration systems
● Halogens and oxygen dissolve to a very tiny extent but they are still very reactive even in
small concentrations.

Percentage of Solute Equation:

% solute = [masssolute/(masssolute + masssolvent)] x 100%

Molar Concentration
Molarity or molar concentration (mol/L → C or M) is the number of moles of solute dissolved
per liter of solvent.

The equation used to calculate molar concentration:

C = n/V

C (or M) = molarity (mol/L)

n = number of moles (mol)
V = volume of solvent (L)

Examples:
1. What is the molar concentration of 1.20 g of NaNO3 in 800.00 mL of solution?
Convert mL to L:
800 mL/1000 = 0.800 L

Find number of moles:

n = m/Mm
= 1.20 g/84.99 g/mol
= 0.0141 mol

Find the molarity:

C = n/V
= 0.0141 mol/0.800 L
= 0.01765 mol/L
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

2. Calculate the molarity if the volume of the previous solution is reduced to 0.50 L by
evaporation?
C = 0.0141 mol/0.50 L
= 0.0282 mol/L

3. How many grams of potassium hydroxide will be required to prepare 650 mL of 0.430 M
solution?
V = 0.650 L
C = 0.430 M
m=?

n=CxV
= 0.650 L x 0.430 M
= 0.280 mol

m = n x Mm
= 0.280 mol x 56.11 g/mol
= 15.7 g

Concentration of Solutions
Concentration is defined as the amount of solute per quantity of solvent. Square brackets [ ]
around a chemical formula indicate concentration. ([HCl] → concentration of HCl)

1. Calculation as Mass/Volume (m/v) Percent

Gives the mass of solute dissolved in a volume of solution, expressed as a percentage.

Mass/Volume % = (mass of solute (g)/volume of solution (mL)) x 100%

m/v % = (msolute/vsolution) x 100%

Examples:
a) 2.00 mL of distilled water is added to 4.00 g of a powdered drug. The final volume of the
solution is 3.00 mL. Calculate the percent m/v and then express the drug concentration
in g/100 mL.
msolute = 4.00 g
vsolution = 3.00 mL

m/v % = (4.00 g/3.00 mL) x 100%

= 133.33%

b) What mass of a drug is required to make a 2.0 L solution if the recommended

concentration is 1.7%?
msolute = ?
vsolution = 2000 mL
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

m/v % = (msolute/vsolution) x 100%

1.7% = msolute/2000 mL
msolute = (1.7/100) x 2000
= 34 g

2. Calculation as Mass/Mass (m/m) Percent

Gives the mass of solute divided by the mass of solution, expressed as a percentage.

Mass/Mass % = (mass of solute (g)/mass of solution (g)) x 100%

m/m % = (msolute/msolution) x 100%

Example:
a) An aqueous solution of calcium chloride has a mass 23.47 g. The solvent was
evaporated and the residue has a mass of 4.58 g. Calculate the m/m % of calcium
chloride in the solution. How many grams of calcium chloride would be present in a 100
g sample?
msolute = 4.58 g
msolution = 23.47 g

m/m % = (4.58 g/23.47 g) x 100%

= 19.5%
= 19.5 g present in a 100g solution

3. Concentration as Volume/Volume (v/v) Percent

Gives the volume of solute divided by the volume of solution, expressed as a percentage.

Volume/Volume % = (volume of solute (g)/volume of solution (g)) x 100%

v/v % = (vsolute/vsolution) x 100%

Example:
a) Rubbing alcohol is sold as a 70% (v/v) solution. What volume of alcohol is used to make
500 mL of rubbing alcohol?
Method 1: Method 2:
(70 mL/100 mL) = (x mL/500 mL) vsolute = (v/v % x vsolution)/100
x = 350 mL = (70% x 500 mL)/100
= 350 mL

4. Parts per Million (ppm) and Parts per Billion (ppb)

Describes the concentration of very small quantities. Usually expressed in terms of mass/mass
relationships.

ppm = (msolute (g)/msolution (g)) x 106

 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

ppb = (msolute (g)/msolution (g)) x 109

Note: Your final answer does not refer to the number of particles per million or billion, but rather
the mass of solute compared to the mass of solution.

Example:
a) A shipment of oranges is returned if it contains more than 25 ppb of mould. A company
received 20 000 kg of oranges. What is the maximum mass of mould allowed before the
shipment should be sent back?
ppb = 25

25g/1 x 109 g = x/20 000 000 g

x = 0.50 g

Preparing Solutions and Dilutions

A standard solution is a solution with known concentration.

There are 2 ways to prepare such a solution:

1. Dissolve a measured mass of solution in a volume of solvent
2. Dilute a solution of known concentration

A useful tool in preparing solutions is a volumetric flask → a pear-shaped glass

flask with a flat bottom and a long neck. Volumetric flasks are very accurate tools
for measuring volumes.

Steps to Follow When Preparing a Solution:

a. Determine the mass (g) required to make the desired volume and concentration of
solution
b. Measure out and dissolve the solute in approximately half the volume of solvent
c. Raise the volume of solvent to the desired total volume by adding more water

Example of the Preparation of a Stock Solution:

Write out how you would go about preparing a 0.250 L solution of 1.0 M (remember M = mol/L)
NaCl.
1. Find the moles of NaCl
n=CxV
= 1.0 M x 0.250 L
= 0.250 mol
2. Find the mass of NaCl
m = n x Mm
= 0.250 mol x 58.44 g/mol
= 14.61 g
3. Transfer 14.61 g of NaCl to 250 mL volumetric flask
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

4. Add 125 mL of distilled water, stopper and shake

5. Add distilled water to the meniscus, stopper and shake

Diluting is a process that makes a solution that is less concentrated. This can be done by either
adding more solvent or adding less solute to the same volume of solution.

Dilution Calculations:
Step 1: Find the amount of solute you need
Step 2: Find the volume of the concentrated solution you need
Step 3: Top up with water

Involves preparing a diluted solution from a more concentrated stock solution.

Where,
M1 = initial concentration
V1 = initial volume
M2 = final concentration
V2 = final volume

M1V1 = M2V2

Examples of the Making of a Dilute Solution:

1. How do you make a 2.00 L solution of HCl with a concentration of 2.00 M form a stock
solution with a concentration of 10.0 M?
M1 = 10.0 M
V1 = ?
M2 = 2.00 M
V2 = 2.00 L

M1V1 = M2V2
V1 = (M2V2)/M1
= (2.00 M x 2.00 L)/10.0 M
= 0.400 L

Written Dilution Steps:

1) Using a clean volumetric flask (2.00 L), add 100 mL of water
2) Transfer 400 mL of 10.0 M HCl to flask, stopper and shake
3) Add 1.5 L of water to meniscus, stopper and shake

2. If 85.0 mL of 0.950 M sodium sulfate solution was used to prepare 200 mL of a dilute
sodium sulfate solution, what is the new concentration made?
M1 = 0.950 M
V1 = 0.085 L
M2 = ?
V2 = 0.2 L
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

V1 = (0.15 mol/L x 0.2 L)/0.95 mol/L

= 0.032 L
= 31.58 mL

Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

When an ionic compound is placed in water, most will dissolve which means they are soluble in
water. Some ionic compounds will remain as a precipitate and are insoluble.

If an ionic compound dissolves in water, it means that the compound is temporarily splitting
apart into its ions. This process is referred to as an ionic compound dissociation.

A chemical reaction between two aqueous solutions that contains ions is called double
displacement reaction. Double displacement reactions occur in water, and are a direct result of
ionic compounds dissociating into their ions. Recall that a double displacement reaction will only
occur if gas, water or a precipitate forms. If no reaction occurs, the ions stay in solution.

A precipitate is seen as sudden cloudiness or an obvious solid formed when 2 solutions are
mixed. A solubility table can be used to predict which of the possible products formed is the
precipitate.

We can show the step-by-step process of a double displacement reaction by writing out an ionic
equation from the molecular equation. There are several different components to an ionic
equation.

Term Definition

Total Ionic Describes the # and type of ions in solution in the chemical reaction of the
Equation soluble compounds.

Net Ionic An ionic equation with no spectator ions, showing only the ions that react
Equation and the insoluble product (s) or precipitates that is produced. This can also
be the formation of water in Neutralization reactions.

Spectator Ion Non-reacting ions that appear on both sides of the equation

Rules for Writing Net Ionic Equations:

1. Write the complete chemical equation for the reaction.
2. Rewrite the soluble ionic compounds as ions. For example, show ammonium chloride as
NH4+ (aq) and Cl- (aq), instead of NH4Cl (aq).
3. Leave insoluble ionic compounds as formula units. For example, zinc sulfide is insoluble,
so you write it as ZnS (s), not Zn+2 (aq) and S-2 (aq).
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

4. Leave molecular compounds as molecular formulas since these compounds produce

relatively few ions in an aqueous solution. For example, write aqueous carbon dioxide as
CO2 (aq) and water as H2O (l).
5. Write all acids as formula units, except for the six strong acids listed below. Since these
strong acids ionize almost completely in water, write them as ions:
a. Write hydrochloric acid, HCL, as H+ (aq) and Cl- (aq).
b. Write hydrobromic acid, HBr, as H+ (aq) and Br- (aq).
c. Write hydroiodic acid, HI, as H+ (aq) and I- (aq).
d. Write sulfuric acid, H2SO4 as 2H+ (aq) and SO4-2 (aq).
e. Write nitric acid, HNO3, as H+ (aq) and NO3- (aq).
f. Write perchloric acid, HClO4, as H+ (aq) and CIO4- (aq).
6. Cancel out the spectator ions. Keep only covalent compounds, the ions that react, and
the precipitates that form in the reaction. Any gas that is involved in the reaction must
appear in the net ionic equation.
7. Check that both the charges and the atoms are balanced in the net ionic equation.

Examples:
Word Equation Reaction of aqueous solutions of Silver nitrate with sodium chloride

Balanced AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl (s)

Molecular
Equation

Total Ionic Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) → AgCl (s) + Na+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)
Equation

Net Ionic Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) → AgCl (s)

Equation

Spectator Ions NO3- (aq), Na+ (aq)

Word Equation Reaction of aqueous solutions of Magnesium bromide with ammonium

carbonate

Balanced MgBr2 (aq) + (NH4)2CO3 (aq) → MgCO3 (s) + 2NH4Br (aq)

Molecular
Equation

Total Ionic Mg+2 (aq) + 2Br- (aq) + 2NH4+ (aq) + CO3-2 (aq) → MgCO3 (s) + 2Br- (aq) +
Equation 2NH4+ (aq)

Net Ionic Mg+2 (aq) + CO3 (aq) → MgCO3-2

Equation
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

Spectator Ions Br- (aq), NH4+ (aq)

Word Equation Reaction of aqueous solutions of Hydrobromic acid and Potassium

hydroxide

Balanced HBr (aq) + KOH (aq) → KBr (aq) + H2O (l)

Molecular
Equation

Total Ionic H+ (aq) + Br- (aq) + K+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l) + K+ (aq) + Br- (aq)
Equation

Net Ionic H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l)

Equation

Spectator Ions Br- (aq), K+ (aq)

Electrochemistry
● Electron transfer reactions are oxidation-reduction, or redox reactions
● Results in the generation of an electric current (electricity) or be caused by imposing an
electric current
● Therefore, this field of chemistry is often called electrochemistry

Terminology:
Oxidation - loss of electrons
Reduction - gain of electrons

Oxidizing Agent - electron acceptor/gains electrons; element/reactant is reduced

Reduction Agent - electron donor/loses electrons; element/reactant is oxidized

Direct Redox Reaction - Oxidizing and reducing agents are indirect contact
Ex. Cu (s) + 2Ag+ (aq) → Cu+2 (aq) + 2Ag (s)

Indirect Redox Reaction - a battery functions by transferring electrons through an external wire
from the reducing agent to the oxidizing agent

Applications of Electrochemistry:
● Batteries
● Corrosion
● Industrial production of chemicals such as Cl2, NaOH, and F2
● Biological redox reactions
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

Basic Concepts of Electrochemical Cells:

With time Cu plates out onto the Zn metal strip, and Zn strip
“disappears”.

Zn is oxidized and is the reducing agent.

Zn (s) → Zn+2 (aq) + 2e-

Cu+2 is reduced: Cu+2 (aq) + 2e- → Cu (s)

To obtain a useful current, we separate the oxidizing and reducing agents with a salt bridge so
that electron transfer occurs through an external wire.
This is accomplished in a galvanic or voltaic cell. A group of such cells is called a battery.

Common Components:
Electrodes - conducts electricity between cell and surroundings
Electrolyte - mixture of ions involved in reaction or carrying charge

Salt Bridge - Completes circuit between half-cells (contains an electrolyte solution allowing a
current to flow but preventing contact between the oxidizing agent and reducing agent)
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

Anode - oxidation occurs here

Cathode - reduction occurs here

Remember: AN OX ate RED CAT

ANode OXidizes; REDuction CAThode

Voltaic (galvanic) cells - a spontaneous reaction generates electrical energy

Electrolytic cells - absorb free energy from an electrical source to drive a nonspontaneous
reaction

Voltaic Cells (aka Galvanic Cells) can be represented using cell notation:

Conventions on Cell Notation:

● Anode on left, cathode on right
● Single line represents phase boundaries
● Two lines represent a physical boundary

Examples:
1. Write the shorthand notation for a galvanic cell that uses the following reaction:
Cu (s) + 2Ag+ (aq) → Cu2+ (ag) + 2Ag (s)
Cu (s) | Cu+2 (aq) || Ag+ (aq) | Ag (s)

Shorthand notation is read from left to right:

“A solid copper anode is in a solution of copper (II) ions which is connected by a salt bridge to a
solution of silver (I) ions into which a solid silver cathode has been placed. The electrodes are
connected by a wire.”

2. Write the shorthand notation for a galvanic cell that uses the following reaction
Fe (s) + Sn2+ (aq) → Fe2+ (aq) + Sn (s)
Fe (s) | Fe+2 (aq) || Sn2+ (aq) | Sn (s)
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

Oxidation Numbers
Many reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one species to another. This is called a
redox reaction.
Ex. Na+ (aq) + 1e- → Na (s) [reduction reaction]
Ex. Ca (s) → Ca+2 (aq) + 2e- [oxidation reaction]

Oxidation Number Rules:

1. Group 1 and 2 elements are +1 and +2
2. Oxidation number for oxygen is -2
3. Halogens are usually -1

Applying to Atoms or Molecules:

1) For ions the oxidation number is always the superscript
2) Any element or diatomic gas is zero
a) Ex. H2 = 0, Ag = 0
3) The sum of all oxidation numbers in a molecule is zero

Examples of Oxidation Numbers:

a) NaCl
Na+ Cl- = 0
b) AlCl3
Al: +3
Cl: -1(3) = -3
=0
c) CCl4
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

Examples of Redox Reactions:

a) 2H2 + O2 - 2H2O
b) 2KCIO3 - 2KCI + 3O2

Acids and Bases

Common Acids:
Chemical Name Formula Common Name or Use

Acetic Acid CH3COOH Vinegar

 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

Sulphuric Acid H2SO4 Battery acid

Carbonic Acid H2CO3 Carbonated water/drinks

Boric Acid H3BO3 Antiseptic eye drops

Acetylsalicylic Acid C9H8O4 Aspirin

Common Bases:
Chemical Name Formula Common Name or Use

Ammonia NH3 Cleaners

Sodium hydroxide NaOH Lye (soap making/pulp)

Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 Baking soda

There are two main theories about acids and bases:

❖ Arrhenius Theory
❖ Bronsted-Lowry Theory

The Arrhenius Theory:

Acids - a molecular compound that ionizes to produce hydrogen ions in water (hydrogen ions
give acids their characteristic properties)
Ex. HNO3 (aq) → H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)

Bases - an ionic compound that dissociates in H2O into cations and OH ions (OH ions give
bases their characteristic properties)
Ex. Ca(OH)2 (aq) → Ca+2 (aq) + 2OH- (aq)

Limitations to Arrhenius Theory:

1. Many acid-base reactions don’t require water to occur
NH3 (g) + HCl → NH4Cl (s)

2. In acid-base reactions with water, water is left out (Hydrogen ions don’t exist in isolation
in an aqueous solution)
3. Can’t explain the basic properties of compounds such as ammonia (NH3 (aq))

The Bronsted-Lowry Theory:

Acids - A substance that donates a proton, H+ (a proton can be removed from it)
Ex. HCl (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
HCl donates proton

Bases - A substance that accept a proton, H+ (a proton can be added to it)

 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

Ex. NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) → NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Base accepts proton from water (water is acting as both an acid and a base)

The two molecules that are related by the transfer of the proton are called conjugate acid-base
pairs.
Ex. HCN (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + CN- (aq)
Acid Base conj. acid conj. Base

In Conclusion:
● When a proton is removed from an acid the product form is a conjugate base
● When a proton is added to a base the product formed is a conjugate acid
● A substance acting like an acid and a base is referred to as amphiprotic (it is both a
proton donor and proton acceptor)

pH Review:
● To determine pH: -log [H+]
● To determine [H+]: 10-pH
● A measure of how acidic or basic a solution is
● A change of one pH unit represents a tenfold change in how acidic or basic a solution is

Strong and Weak Acids and Bases:

Strong Acid - A substance that ionizes completely in water

Strong Acid Examples

Name Formula

Hydrochloric acid HCl (aq)

Hydrobromic acid HBr (aq)

Hydroiodic acid HI (aq)

Perchloric acid HClO4 (aq)

Nitric acid HNO3 (aq)

Sulfuric acid H2SO4 (aq)

Weak Acid - A substance that only partially ionizes in water

 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

Strong Binary Acids

● Ex. HCl, HBr
● Acid strength increases as electronegativity increases left to right

Strong Oxoacids (contains oxygen)

● The hydrogen atom that ionizes is always attached to an oxygen atom

The easier it is to remove a H atom from the molecule the higher the dissociation and therefore
the acid strength.

Some Useful Terms:

Term Definition Example

Monoprotic acid Acids with only 1 H atom to ionize HCl, HBr

Diprotic acid Acids with 2 H atoms to ionize H2SO4

Triprotic Acids with 3 H atoms to ionize H3PO4

Strong Base - A substance that dissociates completely in an aqueous solution

Weak Base - A substance that only partially dissociates in an aqueous solution

Strong Base Examples

Name Formula

Lithium hydroxide LiOH (aq)

Sodium hydroxide NaOH (aq)

Potassium hydroxide KOH (aq)

Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 (aq)

Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2 (aq)

Stoichiometry of Solutions
When two aqueous ionic compounds are mixed, there are 2 possibilities:
1. Both compounds will remain in solution (no reaction)
2. One will react with the other (...recall DD reactions & proof of reactions...)
➔ Precipitate formation
➔ Formation of a gas
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

➔ Formation of water (H+ & OH- ions removed from solution)

Once a reaction is predicted and the atoms or ions involved are identified, it is possible to apply
the principles of mass-mole stoichiometry and limiting & excess reactants to reactions
involving solutions...

Now, if a reactant is aqueous, we can apply the concentration formula (C=n/V) to get moles and
use them in stoichiometry.

Problem Types
1. Find the Concentration of Ions:
Calculate the molar concentration of chloride ions in a 100 mL solution that contains 19.8 g of
potassium chloride.

KCl (aq) → K+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

mKCl = 19.8 g
MmKCl = 74.55 g/mol
CCl = ?

nKCl = 19.8g/74.55g/mol
= 0.266 mol

nCl = 0.266 molKCl x 1Cl/1KCl

= 0.266 molCl

C = n/V
= 0.266 mol/0.1 L
= 2.66 mol/L

2. Finding the Minimum Volume of Reactant to Precipitate:

What is the minimum volume of 0.25mol/L of magnesium chloride needed to precipitate all the
silver ions in 60mL of 0.3mol/L silver nitrate?

MgCl2 (aq) + 2AgNO3 (aq) → Mg(NO3) (aq) + 2AgCl (s)

CMgCl2 = 0.25 M
VMgCl2 = ?
CAgNO3 = 0.3 M
VAgNO3 = 0.06 L

nAgNO3 = C x V
= 0.3 mol/L x 0.06 L
= 0.018 mol
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

nMgCl2 = 0.018 molAgNO3 x 1MgCl2/2AgNO3

= 0.009 molMgCl2

V = n/C
= 0.009 mol/0.25 mol/L
= 0.036 L

3. Limiting Reactants in Solution Reaction:

50mL of a 0.10M solution of silver nitrate reacts with 25mL 0.15M solution of sodium chromate
to form a brick red precipitate. Which reactant will limit the formation of the precipitate? What is
the precipitate?

2AgNO3 (aq) + Na2CrO4 (aq) → Ag2CrO4 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

VAgNO3 = 0.05 L VNa2CrO4 = 0.025 L

CAgNO3 = 0.10 M CNa2CrO4 = 0.15 M
nAgNO3 = C x V nNa2CrO4 = C x V
= 0.005 mol = 0.00375 mol
Divide # of moles by coefficient (in this case, 2) Divide # of moles by coefficient (in this case, 1)
= 0.005 mol/2 = 0.00375 mol/1
= 0.0025 mol = 0.00375 mol

AgNO3 is limiting, precipitate is Ag2CrO4

4. Finding the Mass of a Precipitate:

Suppose that mercury (Il) nitrate - a poisonous compound used in industry - enters a water
holding tank resulting in 50L of 0.1M solution. To remove the mercury ions, sodium sulfide is
added. What mass of mercury will precipitate if 25L of 0.08M sodium sulfide is added?

Hg(NO3)2 (aq) + Na2S (aq) → HgS (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

nNa2S = 0.08 M x 25 L
= 2 mol

nHgS = 2 molNa2S x 1HgS/1Na2S

= 2 molHgS

m = n x Mm
= 2 mol x 232.67 g/mol
= 465.34 g
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

Titrations
Neutralization Reactions:
Neutralization occurs when OH- ions (base) and H+ ions (acid) are mixed to make H2O and a
salt. The general word equation is:

Acid + Base → Water + Salt

Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → water + sodium chloride

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → H2O (l) + NaCl (aq)

Examples:
Aqueous solutions of hydrobromic acid and beryllium hydroxide undergo a neutralization
reaction to produce water and beryllium bromide.
2HBr (aq) + Be(OH)2 (aq) → 2H2O (l) + BeBr2 (aq)

Complete the following equations:

H2SO4 (aq) + 2LiOH (aq) → 2H2O (l) + Li2SO4 (aq)
3Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 2H3PO4 (aq) → 6H2O (l) + Ca(PO4)2 (aq)

Which acid and base would you react together to produce the following salts:
1. KNO3
KOH (aq) + HNO3 (aq)
2. Ca(CH3COOH)2
CH3COOH (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq)

Acid-Base Titrations:
A “titration” refers to a technique that involves the careful measuring of the volume of one
solution required to completely react with a known quantity of another.

In an acid-base titration, measuring the volume of a base (of known concentration) allows us to
determine the C of the acid. The solution with the known concentration is called the titrant. It is
poured into a burette (a clear tube with volume markings). The solution of unknown
concentration, the acid, is pipetted into an erlenmeyer flask.

An indicator is used to indicate when the neutralization reaction is complete. Phenolphthalein is

the most common indicator used. It will be clear when added to the acid (pH of 0-8) and turn
pink abruptly at pH 8. Neutralization occurs at the first signs of the solution staying faint pink.
The point when the colour changes is called the end point.

The goal is to know when the amount of titrant is just enough to react with all the acid or base
the sample contains. This point is the equivalent point. Ideally, this point and the end point are
the same.
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

Note: phenolphthalein is a good indicator for titrating a strong acid with a strong base or a weak
acid with a strong base.

Acid-Base Titrations Terminology:

A titration is a process used to find out the molarity (M or C) of a solution:
Titrant - solution used with known concentration
Analyte - solution whose concentration is being determined
Equivalence point - the point when the number of moles of titrant = the number of moles of
analyte
Endpoint - point where the indicator changes color

Examples:
1. In an acid-base titration, 25.00 mL of HCI is required to neutralise 33.00 mL of 0.25 M
NaH. Calculate the molarity of the acid.
analyte titrant
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → H2O (l) + NaCl (aq)
VHCl = 0.025 L
CHCl = ?
VNaOH = 0.033 L
CNaOH = 0.25 M
nNaOH = C x V
= 0.00825 mol

nHCl = 0.00825 mol x 1/1

= 0.00825 mol

C = n/V
= 0.00825 mol/0.025 L
= 0.33 M

2. In an acid-base titration, 43.00 mL of 0.30 M H,SO, is required to neutralise 10.00 mL of

KOH. Calculate the molarity of the base.
titrant analyte
H2SO4 (aq) + 2KOH (aq) → K2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
VH2SO4 = 0.043
CH2SO4 = 0.3 M
nH2SO4 = 0.0129 mol
VKOH = 0.01 L
CKOH = ?

nKOH = 0.0129 mol x 2KOH/1H2SO4

= 0.0258 molKOH

CKOH = n/V
 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

= 0.0258 mol/0.01 L
= 2.58 M

Acid–Base Titration Curves:

1. Titration curve of a strong acid and strong base

2. Titration curve for a weak acid and strong base

3. Titration curve for a weak base and strong acid

 Unit 4: Solutions & Solubility

Note: the equivalence point occurs when the number of moles of acid equals the number of
moles of base. The endpoint of the indicator is determined when it changes colour. The two
should match as close as possible in an acid-base titration.