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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
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Revision
Certainly! Here's a table defining and providing a clear distinction between the specified
concepts:

Concept Definition and Examples

Volatile and Non-volatile - Volatile: Loses data when device is turned off. Include RAM

storage devices - Non-volatile: Retains data with or without power. Include SSD, HDD.

- Hardware: Physical components of the computer….CPU, GPU.

Hardware and software
- Software: Programs and instructions that run on hardware…OS, Ms Word

Upgrading: Modifying existing SW or HW …adding RAM, OS update

Upgrading & Clean installation
Clean installation: Installing SW or OS from scratch

Warm(Reboot): Restarting a computer without turning off the power.

Warm & Cold Booting
Cold booting: Restarting a computer after turning off the power.

Primary storage and Primary: Fast volatile storage used for active data and processes…RAM

Removable Media Removable: Portable storage devices … USB drives, SD cards

IT: manages the use of computer systems and networks for data

IT and ICT processing

ICT: Encompases IT and includes communication technologies

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Memory

Computer memory refers to the internal storage areas within a computer system that
are used for storing and retrieving data. It plays a crucial role in the functioning of a
computer by allowing it to temporarily or permanently store data, instructions, and
results of computations. Memory is essential for the execution of programs and the
overall operation of the computer.

Two Main Types of Computer Memory:

​ Primary Memory (RAM - Random Access Memory):

● Volatility: Volatile (temporary storage).
● Function: Used to store data and machine code that are actively being
used by the CPU during the execution of programs.
● Characteristics: It has fast access times, allowing the CPU to quickly read
and write data. However, data is lost when the computer is powered off or
restarted.
● Examples: DDR4 RAM, DDR5 RAM.
​ Secondary Memory (Storage Devices - HDD, SSD, etc.):
● Volatility: Non-volatile (permanent storage).
● Function: Secondary memory serves as long-term storage for data that
needs to be retained even when the computer is powered off. It stores the
operating system, applications, and user files.
● Characteristics: It has slower access times compared to RAM but offers
higher storage capacity. Data remains intact even when the power is
turned off.
● Examples: Hard Disk Drives (HDD), Solid State Drives (SSD), Flash Drives.

These two main types of computer memory work together to facilitate the seamless
operation of a computer system.

Key differences between main memory and secondary memory:

​ Volatility:
● Main Memory (RAM): Volatile memory, meaning it loses its contents when
the power is turned off. RAM is used for temporary storage of data and
program instructions while the computer is running.
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● Secondary Memory (Hard Drives, SSDs): Non-volatile memory, retaining

data even when the power is off. Secondary memory is used for long-term
storage of data, including the operating system, software applications, and
user files.
​ Speed:
● Main Memory (RAM): Faster access times compared to secondary
memory. RAM provides quick access to data and instructions, allowing the
CPU to retrieve information rapidly during active processes.
● Secondary Memory (Hard Drives, SSDs): Slower access times compared
to RAM. While storage devices have higher capacities, accessing data
from them takes more time compared to the near-instantaneous access
provided by RAM.
​ Capacity:
● Main Memory (RAM): Typically has lower capacity compared to secondary
memory. RAM is designed for fast access but is more expensive per unit
of storage. Modern computers usually have RAM in the range of gigabytes
or terabytes.
● Secondary Memory (Hard Drives, SSDs): Offers higher capacity for
long-term storage. Hard drives and SSDs can store large amounts of data,
often measured in terabytes or petabytes, making them suitable for
retaining a variety of files over the long term.
​ Functionality:
● Main Memory (RAM): Used for actively running processes and programs.
It provides a workspace for the CPU to perform computations and
temporarily store data during the execution of tasks.
● Secondary Memory (Hard Drives, SSDs): Used for storing the operating
system, software applications, and user-generated files. It retains data
even when the computer is powered off and serves as a long-term storage
solution.
​ Cost:
● Main Memory (RAM): More expensive per unit of storage compared to
secondary memory. The cost of RAM limits the amount that can be
included in a computer system.
● Secondary Memory (Hard Drives, SSDs): Generally less expensive per unit
of storage compared to RAM. Storage devices offer higher capacities at a
lower cost but with slower access times.
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Software
Software refers to a set of instructions that tell a computer how to perform specific
tasks. There are two main types of software: system software and application software.

​ System Software:
● System software is fundamental software that provides a platform for
other software to run and facilitates interaction between hardware
components.
● Function: It is responsible for managing computer hardware and providing
essential services to applications.
● Examples:
● Operating Systems (OS): Examples include Microsoft Windows,
macOS, Linux, and Android. The OS manages hardware resources,
provides a user interface, and runs essential system processes.
● Device Drivers: These are specialized programs that enable the
operating system to communicate with hardware devices such as
printers, graphics cards, and storage devices.
​ Application Software:
● Application software is designed to perform specific tasks for end-users.
It is the software that users interact with directly to accomplish their goals
or solve particular problems.
● Examples:
● Word Processing Software: Microsoft Office Suite (Word, Excel,
PowerPoint), Google Workspace, and Adobe Creative Cloud.
● Productivity Software: Adobe Photoshop, CorelDRAW, GIMP.
Graphic design software is used for editing and creating images.
● Antivirus Software: Norton, McAfee, Avast. These programs protect
computers from malware and security threats.
● Utilities Programs: Utilities provide tools for specific tasks like file
management, backup, and system maintenance. For example
WinRAR, 7-Zip (file compressors), CCleaner (system optimization).
● Web Browsers: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge.
Web browsers allow users to access and interact with content on
the internet.
● Media Players: VLC Media Player, iTunes, Windows Media Player.
These applications play audio and video files.
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● Games: Fortnite, Minecraft, League of Legends. Video games are a

form of application software designed for entertainment.

Aspect System Software Application Software

Provides a foundational platform

Designed to perform specific tasks
Purpose for running applications and
for end-users.
managing hardware resources.

Installed during the setup of the Installed separately based on the

Installation
computer system. user's needs and preferences.

Interacts and Manages directly Interacts with system software, a way

Interaction with Hardware
the computer hardware. to communicate with hardware.

Provides a platform for running Provides a UI for users to interact and

User Interface
applications. accomplish specific tasks.

- Operating Systems: Windows, - Productivity Software: Microsoft

macOS, Linux. Office (Word, Excel, PowerPoint).

Examples
- Device Drivers: Graphics card - Graphics Software: Paint, Adobe

drivers, printer drivers. Photoshop.

Performance
The performance of a personal computer is influenced by various factors, both
hardware and software. Here are the
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Key factors affecting the performance of a personal computer:

​ Processor (CPU) Speed and Architecture:

● The speed of the central processing unit (CPU) influences how quickly the
computer can execute instructions.
● The architecture and number of cores in the CPU also impact multitasking
and parallel processing capabilities.
​ Random Access Memory (RAM):
● Adequate RAM is essential for storing and quickly accessing data that
programs and the operating system need.
● Insufficient RAM can lead to slow performance, especially when running
multiple applications simultaneously.
​ Storage Type and Speed:
● The type of storage, such as Solid State Drives (SSD) or Hard Disk Drives
(HDD), affects data access speeds.
● SSDs generally provide faster read and write speeds compared to
traditional HDDs.
​ Graphics Processing Unit (GPU):
● A dedicated GPU is crucial for graphics-intensive tasks, including gaming,
video editing, and 3D rendering.
● Integrated graphics are suitable for basic tasks but may limit performance
in demanding applications.
​ Operating System:
● The efficiency of the operating system (OS) affects overall system
responsiveness.
● Optimized and updated operating systems can enhance performance and
security.
​ Software and Background Processes:
● The number and nature of running applications and background processes
impact system resources.
● Unnecessary or resource-intensive software can slow down the computer.
​ Malware and Security Software:
● Malware, viruses, and other security threats can degrade system
performance.
● Resource-intensive security software may impact overall responsiveness.
​ Network Connection:
● Internet speed and network latency affect the performance of online
applications and activities.
● A stable and fast network connection is essential for smooth
internet-related tasks.
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​ Cooling and Thermal Management:

● Overheating can lead to thermal throttling, causing the CPU or GPU to
reduce performance to prevent damage.
● Proper cooling solutions help maintain optimal temperatures for
components.
​ Hardware Compatibility:
● Incompatible or outdated hardware can lead to performance issues.
● Ensuring that hardware components are compatible with each other and
meet system requirements is essential.
​ BIOS/UEFI Settings:
● Configuring BIOS or UEFI settings correctly can impact system
performance.
● Optimizing settings such as memory timings and CPU configurations can
enhance efficiency.
​ User Practices:
● User habits, such as keeping the system updated, managing files
efficiently, and avoiding excessive multitasking, contribute to overall
performance.
​ Hardware Aging:
● Over time, components may degrade or become outdated, affecting
performance.
● Regular maintenance and, when necessary, upgrading hardware can
address aging-related performance issues.

Classification
Computers can be classified into various categories based on their size, purpose,
functionality, and usage. Here are five main classifications of computers:

​ Supercomputers:
● Description: These are very expensive, rare, extremely powerful
specialized machines designed for executing complex calculations and
simulations at very high speeds.
● Function: They are used in scientific research, weather modeling, nuclear
simulations, and other fields requiring massive computational power.
● Characteristics: High processing speed, parallel processing capabilities,
large-scale data handling.
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​ Mainframe Computers:
● Description: These are large, powerful computers designed for handling
extensive data processing and managing multiple tasks simultaneously.
● Function: They are commonly used in large organizations for critical
applications such as financial transactions, enterprise resource planning
(ERP), and database management.
● Characteristics: High data throughput, reliability, scalability, and
multitasking capabilities.
● Example: IBM z15 is an example of a mainframe computer.
​ Mini Computers (Midrange Computers):
● Description: Single user computer system having more powerful
microprocessor compared to PCs
● Functions: They are often used for tasks such as graphic design, video
editing, and engineering simulations.
● Characteristics: Moderate processing power, smaller physical size
compared to mainframes, suitable for mid-sized organizations.
● Example: DEC PDP-11 was a classic minicomputer.
​ Microcomputers (Personal Computers):
● Description: Single user computer system having moderately powerful
microprocessor.
● Function: Are designed for individual use. widely used for general-purpose
computing tasks.
● Examples: They include desktop computers, laptops, workstations, and
even smaller devices like tablets and smartphones.
● Characteristics: Compact size, affordability, versatility,
​ Embedded Systems:
● Description: Embedded systems are computers integrated into other
devices to perform specific functions.
● Function: They are dedicated to a particular task and often operate behind
the scenes in everyday objects, such as household appliances,
automobiles, medical devices, and industrial machinery.
● Characteristics: Specialized functionality, often limited to specific tasks,
optimized for power efficiency and reliability.
● Example: In-car computers controlling engine functions. Smart
thermostats like Nest, which have embedded computing for temperature
control.
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User Interface
The point of interaction between a user and a computer system. It includes graphical
elements like icons, buttons and menus that allow users to communicate with and
control the software. These include: GUI, CLI, API, Web interface, Hardware Interface etc

​ Command Line Interface (CLI):

● Definition: A text-based interface where users interact with a computer or
software by typing commands into a terminal or console.
● Example: Command Prompt on Windows, Terminal on macOS or Linux.
​
​ Graphical User Interface (GUI):
● Definition: A type of user interface that uses graphical elements for user
interaction such as icons, buttons, and windows.
● Example: The desktop environment in macOS or Windows, where users
can interact with applications using a mouse and keyboard.
​
​ Application Programming Interface (API):
● Definition: A set of rules, protocols, and tools that define how different
software applications communicate with each other.
● Example: The Twitter API allows developers to integrate Twitter
functionality into their applications, enabling tasks like posting tweets or
retrieving user data.
​
​ Hardware Interface:
● Definition: The point where software interacts with hardware devices. It
includes device drivers and protocols that facilitate communication
between the operating system and hardware components.
● Example: USB is a hardware interface standard that allows various
peripherals (e.g. keyboards, printers) to connect to a computer.
​
​ Web Interface:
● Definition: The user interface for web applications, typically accessed
through web browsers.
● Example: The user interface of websites like Google, Facebook, or
Amazon, where users interact with various features and services.