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Data Collection
Interview & Questionnaire
Interview • A-Unstructured Interview: loosely structured self-report methods provide narrative data for qualitative analysis.
• Start with some general questions or topics & allow
respondents to tell their stories in a narrative fashion.
• Unstructured interviews encourage respondents to define
the important dimensions of a phenomenon & to elaborate on what is relevant to them, rather than being guided by investigators’ a priori notions of relevance. Interview • B-Semi-structured Interviews: • Researchers sometimes want to be sure that a specific set of topics is covered in their qualitative interviews.
• They know what they want to ask, but cannot predict
what the answers will be. Their role in the process is somewhat structured, whereas the participants’ is not.
• Topic guide, which is a list of areas or questions to be
covered with each respondent. Focus Group Interviews • In a focus group interview, a group of four or more people is assembled for a discussion.
• The interviewer (often called a moderator) guides the
discussion according to a written set of questions or topics to be covered, as in a semi-structured interview.
• Focus group sessions are carefully planned discussions
that take advantage of group dynamics for accessing rich information in an efficient manner. Interview • C- Structured Interview: • They know what they want to ask & predict what the answers will be. • Their role in the process is structured, & the participants’ same.
• Collecting data by asking questions included in
questionnaire.
• The questions are asked orally in either face-to-face or
telephone interviews. Quantitative self-report instruments Questionnaire or an SAQ (self administered questionnaire) when respondents complete the instrument themselves. The researcher used paper-&-pencil format but occasionally directly onto a computer.
Structured instruments consist of a set of questions (also
known as items) in which the wording of both the questions & in most cases, response alternatives is predetermined. When structured interviews or questionnaires are used, subjects are asked to respond to same questions, in same order, and with same set of response options Open & Closed Questions Open-ended questions allow respondents to respond in their own words, in narrative fashion.
The question, “What was the biggest problem you faced
after your surgery?”
This would be used in qualitative studies.
In questionnaires, respondents are asked to give a written
reply to open-ended items & therefore, adequate space must be provided to permit a full response. Open & Closed Questions Closed-ended (or fixed-alternative) questions offer respondents alternative replies, from which subjects must choose the one that most closely matches the appropriate answer.
1- What is Coronary Heart Disease? ( Check one)
Chest pain A valve problem Reduced blood flow to the heart Malfunction of the heart Don’t know Other (specify) _________________
Heredity is a risk factor of heart disease that you cannot change.
A-Yes B-No C-I don not know Advantages of Questionnaires • 1-Cost. Questionnaires, relative to interviews, are in general much less costly & require less time & energy to administer.
• 2-Anonymity. Unlike interviews, questionnaires offer the
possibility of complete anonymity.
• 3-Interviewer bias. The absence of an interviewer ensures
that there will be no interviewer bias. Advantages of Interviews • 1-Response rates. Response rates tend to be high in face- to-face interviews.
• 2-Audience. Many people simply cannot fill out a
questionnaire. Examples include young children & blind, elderly, illiterate, or uneducated individuals.
• 3-Clarity. Interviews offer some protection against
ambiguous or confusing questions. Interviewers can determine whether questions have been misunderstood and can clarify matters. Advantages of Interviews 4-Depth of questioning. The information obtained from questionnaires tends to be more superficial than interview data, largely because questionnaires typically contain mostly closed-ended items.
5-Missing information. Respondents are less likely to
give “don’t know” responses or to leave a question unanswered in an interview than on questionnaires.
6-Order of questions. In an interview, researchers have
control over question ordering. Questionnaire respondents are at liberty to skip around from one section of the instrument to another. Advantages of Interviews • 7-Sample control. Interviews permit greater control over sample. Interviewers know whether the people being interviewed are the intended respondents. People who receive questionnaires, by contrast, can pass the instrument on to a friend, relative, & so forth, and this can change the sample composition.
• 8-Supplementary data. Finally, face-to-face interviews can
result in additional data through observation. Specific Types of Closed-Ended Questions
• 1-Dichotomous questions require respondents to make a
choice between two response alternatives, such as yes/no or male/female. . • 2-Multiple-choice questions offer more than two response alternatives. • A multiple choice close ended questions are easy & flexible and helps the researcher obtain data that is clean & easy to analyze. • It typically consists of stem - the question, correct answer, closest alternative and distractors. . • 3-Cafeteria questions are a special type of multiple choice question that asks respondents to select a response that most closely corresponds to their view. Specific Types of Closed-Ended Questions People have different opinions about the use of estrogen replacement therapy for women at menopause. Which of the following statements best represents your point of view?
1. Estrogen replacement is dangerous and should be banned.
2. Estrogen replacement has undesirable side effects that suggest the need for caution in its use. 3. I am undecided about my views on estrogen replacement. 4. Estrogen replacement has many beneficial effects that merits its use. 5. Estrogen replacement is a wonder treatment that should be administered routinely to most menopausal women. Specific Types of Closed-Ended Questions 4-Rank-order questions ask respondents to rank target concepts along a continuum, such as most to least important.
People value different things in life. Below is a list of things
that many people value. Please indicate their order of importance to you by placing a “1” beside the most important, “2” beside the second-most important, and so on. ____ Career achievement/work ____ Family relationships ____ Friendships, social interactions ____ Health ____ Money ____ Religion .
• These closed ended questions come with multiple options
from which the respondent can choose based on their preference. From most preferred to least preferred (usually in bullet points). Specific Types of Closed-Ended Questions
• 5-Forced-choice questions require respondents to
choose between two statements that represent polar positions or characteristics.
• Which statement most closely represents your point of
view? • 1. What happens to me is my own doing. • 2. Sometimes I feel I don’t have enough control over my life. Specific Types of Closed-Ended Questions 6-Rating questions ask respondents to evaluate something along an ordered dimension. Rating questions are typically bipolar, with the end points specifying opposite extremes on a continuum.
On a scale from 0 to 10, where 0 means ”extremely
dissatisfied” and 10 means “extremely satisfied,” how satisfied were you with the nursing care you received during your hospitalization? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 Extremely dissatisfied Extremely satisfied Specific Types of Closed-Ended Questions Checklists encompass several questions that have same response format.
A checklist is a two dimensional arrangement in which a
series of questions is listed along one dimension (usually vertically) & response alternatives are listed along the other.
Checklists are relatively efficient & easy for respondents to
understand, but because they are difficult to read orally, they are used more frequently in SAQs than in interviews. Specific Types of Closed-Ended Questions
• 8- Calendar questions are used to obtain retrospective
information about the chronology of different events & activities in people’s lives.
• Questions about start dates & stop dates of events are
asked and recorded on a calendar grid. Specific Types of Closed-Ended Questions Visual analogue scales (VAS) are used to measure subjective experiences, such as pain, fatigue, nausea & dyspnea.
The VAS is a straight line, the end anchors of which are
labeled as the extreme limits of the sensation or feeling being measured.
Subjects are asked to mark a point on line corresponding
to the amount of sensation experienced. Traditionally, the VAS line is 100 mm in length. . Composite Scales • A scale provides a numeric score to place respondents on a continuum with respect to an attribute being measured, like a scale for measuring people’s weight.
• Many studies that collect data through self-report use a
psychosocial scale, which is used to discriminate quantitatively among people with different attitudes, fears, motives, perceptions, personality traits, and needs. • Scales are usually created by combining several closed- ended items. Likert Scales The most widely used scaling technique is the Likert scale, named after the psychologist Rens is Likert.
A Likert scale consists of several declarative items that
express a viewpoint on a topic.
Respondents are asked to indicate the degree to which they
agree or disagree with the opinion expressed by statement.
A person’s total score is determined by adding together
individual item scores. Such scales are often called summated rating scales because of this feature. Likert Scales • High level of noise is a source of stress • Less ventilation is a source of stress • High level of income is a source of stress • SA A N D SD •5 4 3 2 1 Semantic Differential Scales • Respondents are asked to rate a concept (e.g., primary nursing, team nursing) on a series of bipolar adjectives, such as effective/ineffective, good/bad, important/unimportant, or strong/weak.
• Respondents place a check at the appropriate point
on seven-point rating scales extending from one extreme of dimension to the other. Semantic Differential Scales nurse practitioners • Competent 7654321 Incompetent • Worthless 7654321 Valuable • Important 7654321 Unimportant • Bad 76543 21 -------------- • Successful 7654321 Unsuccessful • . .
Response Biases Response Biases • This term refers to the various conditions & biases that can influence survey responses.
• The bias can be intentional or accidental, but with
biased responses, survey data becomes less useful as it is inaccurate.
• Response biases--that is, tendency of respondents
to distort (misrepresent) their responses. Response Biases • Social desirability response bias refers to the tendency of some individuals to misrepresent their responses consistently by giving answers that are congruent with prevailing/usual social values.
worded questioning sometimes can help to alleviate this response bias. Response Biases • This type of response bias results from participants answering sensitive questions with socially desirable, rather than truthful answers. • Example: . • This type of response bias results from participants answering sensitive questions with socially desirable, rather than truthful answers.
• A question like this cannot get a truthful response.
• People know the appropriate answer & will give it
regardless of their real view. Response Biases
• Some response biases are most commonly observed in
composite scales. These biases are sometimes referred to as response sets.
• Extreme responses are an example of a response set that
introduces biases when some individuals consistently select extreme alternatives (e.g., “strongly agree”). • It refers to the survey bias that is characterized by respondents providing extreme answers to questions. • This can manifest as extreme positive or negative responses, & both render the data ineffective. .
• This type of bias occurs most commonly in surveys
that offer a scale for responses in order to rate individual components, whether that is numbers (such as 1 to 5, star ratings) or even a selection of statements (such as satisfied, mostly satisfied, somewhat dissatisfied, & dissatisfied). • What happens is that the answers tend to be either 1 or 5, 1 star or 5 stars, satisfied or dissatisfied. • Through various response bias studies, it has been shown that there are cultural influences on this kind of behavior. • Studies show that education level also matters. The lower education level, the more likely participant display extreme response traits. • Lastly, wording bias can also be a cause. Sensitive questions that offer blame to someone or something for a difficult situation will result in extreme responses too. . • ThisNeutral type ofResponding response bias is the exact opposite of extreme responding, as here the participant chooses the neutral answer every time.
• This is usually a result of the participant not being
interested in the survey at all and is simply looking to answer questions as quickly as possible. Neutral Responding Response Biases • Some people have been found to agree with statements regardless of content. • Such people are called yea-sayers, & the bias is known as the acquiescence (acceptance) response set.
• A less common problem is the opposite tendency for other
individuals, called nay-sayers, to disagree with statements independently of question content. Acquiescence Bias • Acquiescence bias is a form of response bias where participants respond in agreement with all questions within the survey. • In most cases, if your survey is well designed, that results in the participant agreeing with at least two contradictory statements. • The answers provided this way are then no longer accurate or truthful. . Dissent Bias • Finally, this is the exact opposite of acquiescence bias where participant seeks to disagree with every statement or question the researcher makes.
• With the same causes, dissent bias can be just as
problematic for researchers as acquiescence bias, & it must be remedied in the same way.