Chapter 12 - Nerve Tissue

I. Introduction
A. The nervous system controls and integrates all body activities within limits that maintain
life.
B. There are 3 basic functions of nerve tissue:

1. _______________ changes with sensory receptors internally and externally.

2. ________________ changes in the internal and external environment.
3. _________________to changes with effectors by muscular contractions and glandular
secretions.
II. Structures of the Nervous System
A. The nervous system is made of the brain, cranial nerves, spinal cord, spinal nerves,
ganglia, enteric plexuses, and sensory receptors.
B. The nervous system has two major divisions:
1. Central nervous system (CNS)-made of the brain and ____________
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)-made of the cranial and spinal nerves that contain
both sensory and motor fibers. The PNS connects CNS to muscles, glands, and all
sensory receptors. The PNS can be subdivided:
a. _____________________ (voluntary) nervous system (SNS)-neurons travel
for the skin and special sensory receptors to the CNS and motor neurons
travel to skeletal muscle tissue.
b. _____________________ (involuntary) nervous system-sensory neurons
travel from visceral organs to the CNS and motor neurons travel to the
smooth and cardiac muscles and glands.
1. _____________________ division-(fight or flight)
2. _____________________ division- (rest and repose)returns the body to
normal

c. _____________________ (ENS)-involuntary sensory and motor neurons

control the GI tract. The neurons function independently of ANS and
CNS.
C. _____________________functional unit of nervous system. Most neurons do not divide.
 Neurons have the capacity to produce action potentials.
1. _____________________-made of a single nucleus with a prominent nucleolus, nissl
bodies (rough ER), neurofilaments which give the cell shape and support, and
microtubules that move material inside the cell.
2. _____________________carry messages into the cell body. They are short, highly
branched, and unmyelinated.
3. _____________________-carry impulses away from the cell body. They are long,
thin, cylindrical process of the cell. Side branches (collaterals) end in fine
processes called axon terminals. The swollen tips are called synaptic end bulbs.
They contain vesicles filled with neurotransmitters. Clostridium tetani (lock
jaw)bacteria enter the body through the axons of neurons. This disrupts motor
neurons and causes painful muscle spasms. Rabies and herpes viruses also enter
the axon and go to the cell body and CNS.

****Neurons are classified according to the number of processes that extend away from
them.
1. unipolar neuron-1 process
2. bipolar neuron-2 processes
3. _____________________-have many dendrites and a single axon. Dendrites carry
impulses to the cell body whereas the axon carries the impulse away from the cell body.
The majority of the neurons in the CNS are of the multipolar type.

III. Functional Classification of neurons

A. _____________________ (afferent neurons)-transport sensory information from the skin,
muscles, joints, sense organs, and viscera to the CNS.
B. _____________________ (efferent neurons)-send motor nerve impulses to muscles and
 glands and other neurons.
C. _____________________ (association neurons)-connect sensory to motor neurons. These
make up 90% of the neurons in the body.
IV. Other cells in nervous tissue
A. Neuroglial cells-do not produce action potentials. They make up half of the volume of the
CNS. They are smaller than neurons and are 50X more numerous. These cells can
divide rapidly to form tumors called gliomas. There are 4 neuroglial cell types in the
CNS-astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal. There are 2 neuroglial cell
types in the PNS-schwann and satellite cells.
B. Neuroglial cells in the CNS:
1. _____________________-star shaped cells, form the blood-brain barrier by covering
blood capillaries, metabolize neurotransmitters, regulate K+ balance, provide structural
support.
2. _____________________-most common glial cell type, forms myelin sheath around
more than one axon in the CNS. Schwann cells of PNS produce myelin around only
individual axons.
3. _____________________ -small cells found near blood vessels. They are phagocytic-
they clear away dead cells. They are derived from cells that also gave rise to
macrophages and monocytes.
4. _____________________-form epithelial membrane lining cerebral cavities and
central canal. They produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
C. Neuroglial cells in the PNS:
1. _____________________-flat cells surrounding neuronal cell bodies in peripheral
ganglia. They support neurons in the PNS ganglia.
2. _____________________-encircle PNS axons. Each cell produces part of the myelin
sheath surrounding an axon in the PNS.
V. Coverings in PNS
A. Myelin is a lipid and protein covering that is produced by Schwann cells. The
neurilemma is cytoplasm and nucleus of Schwann cells. The myelin sheath is the plasma
membrane of the Schwann cell. The gaps are called the _____________________.
Myelinated fibers appear white. The myelin acts as an “ion insulator.” They speed
 conduction of nerve impulses. Unmyelinated fibers are slow, small diameter fibers.
They are only surrounded by neurilemma but no myelin sheath wrapping.
B. Oligodendrocytes myelinate axons in the CNS.

VI. Gray and White matter

A. _____________________-myelinated processes (white in color)
B. _____________________nerve cell bodies, dendrites, axon terminals, bundles of
unmyelinated axons and neuroglia (gray color). In the spinal cord gray matter forms an
H-shaped inner core surrounded by white matter. DRAW:

C. In the brain a thin outer shell of gray matter covers the surface and is found in clusters
called nuclei inside the CNS.

DRAW:

VII. Action potentials in neurons

A. Neurons are excitable due to the voltage difference created by a flow of the ions
_____________________across the neuron membrane.
B. Resting membrane potential-occurs because of the unequal distribution of ions which
causes the membrane to be “charged”.
1. More _____________________ions (K) are found along the inside of the cell
membrane and more _____________________ ions (Na and Cl) are along the
outside of the membrane at rest. The potential energy difference is -70mv and
the cell is said to be “polarized”.
2. The membrane is 50-100x more permeable to K. The Na/K pump allows the
 K to leave the cell.
3. Two general types of ion channels
a. _____________________ (nongated) channels are always
open. This is what allows the K to leak out of the cell for the
action potential to occur.
b. _____________________-open and close in response to a
stimulus. This causes excitability.
1. voltage gated-open in response to change in voltage
2. ligand-gated-open and close in response to chemical
stimuli such as hormones and neurotransmitters
3. mechanically gated-open with mechanical stimulation
4. light-gated-open and close due to light stimulation
4. Graded potentials
a. hyerpolarization-membrane becomes more negative on the inside
b. depolarization-membrane becomes more positive on the inside
5. All-or-none principle-with stimulation, an action potential either happens one
specific way or not at all. It lasts 1/1000 of a second.

DRAW a graph of an action potential:

6. Refractory period of action potential-period of time during which the neuron

cannot generate another action potential.
a. _____________________refractory period-even a very strong stimulus
will not begin another action potential
 b. _____________________ refractory period-a supra-threshold stimulus
will be able to start an action potential. Extra gates will have to open to
start an action potential.
7. A traveling action potential is called a nerve impulse.

8. Local anesthetics-prevent opening of _____________________________.

The nerve impulse cannot pass along the anesthetized nerve, and the CNS does
not perceive the pain. Novacaine and lidocaine block the sodium gates.

9. Nerve impulse conduction-

a. continuous conduction-occurs in unmyelinated fibers-it is a step-by-
step depolarization of each portion of the length of the neuron.
b. salutatory conduction-occurs in myelinated fibers. The depolarization
only occurs at the nodes of Ranvier where there is a high density of
voltage-gated ion channels. The impulse jumps from node to node and is
much faster.

10. Chemical synapses-action potential reaches the end bulb and the calcium
channels open. Calcium flows inward which triggers the release of
neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic cleft and binds to the
ligand-gated receptors. The more neurotransmitter released the greater the change
in potential of the postsynaptic cell. Information can only travel from the dendrite
to the cell body to the axon and away from the neuron because the
neurotransmitters are located at the end of the axon!

DRAW a NEURON and demonstrate the impulse transmission:

 11. Neurotransmitters are removed by diffusion into the blood stream,
_____________________ (ex. Acetylcholinesterase degrades acetylcholine), or
uptake by neurons.

12. Neurotransmitters can be modified.

a. _____________________-anything that enhances a neurotransmitter
such as a drug that mimics a natural neurotransmitter.
b. _____________________anything that blocks the action of a
neurotransmitter.

VIII. Repair within the PNS-

 A. Axons and dendrites may be repaired if the neuron cell body remains intact, Schwann
cells remain active, and scar tissue does not form too rapidly.
1. Chromatolysis-24-48 hours after injury Nissl bodies break up into fine granular
masses.
2. _____________________-occurs by 3-5 days. This is a break down of the axon and
myelin sheath distal to the injury, retrograde degeneration occurs back one node.
3. Within several months, regeneration occurs. The _____________________on each
side of the injury repairs the tube. This is Schwann cell mitosis. The axonal buds grow
down the tube to reconnect (1.5 mm per day) hopefully to the effector (muscle, gland, or
neuron).

IX. Disorders of the nervous system

A _____________________ (MS)-autoimmune disorder causing destruction of myelin
sheaths in the CNS. The sheaths become scars or plaques. This affects ½ million people in
the U.S. It appears between the ages of 20 and 40 and occurs in females twice as often as
males. Symptoms include muscular weakness, abnormal sensations, or double vision.
Remissions and relapses result in progressive loss of function.

b. _____________________-the second most common neurological disorder. It affects 1%

of the population. It is characterized by short, recurrent attacks initiated by electrical
discharges in the brain. Lights, noise, or smells may be sensed. The skeletal muscles may
contract involuntarily and a loss of consciousness may occur. The causes of epilepsy may
include brain damage at birth, metabolic disturbances, infections, toxins, vascular
disturbances, head injuries, and tumors.