UNIT 7: HOMEOSTASIS

A state of BALANCE in the body.

WHAT IS HOMEOSTASIS?
• The human body has a set of conditions under
which it operates optimally. However, we know that
all living organisms are exposed to ever changing
external environmental conditions.
• Homeostasis (Greek for “staying the same”) – term
used to describe the constant state of the body’s
internal environment.
• It is the body’s attempt to adjust to a fluctuating
external environment. The body maintains a constant
internal balance, or steady state, through a series of
monitored adjustments.
In order for the body to maintain homeostasis,
three components are needed:
1. Receptor: These are sensors that are located
throughout the body to detect any changes that
exceed the “normal” limits.
2. Integrator (Coordinating Centre): This
component, usually located in the brain or spinal
column, receives signals from the sensors and
transmits important information to the
appropriate effector.
3. Effector/Regulator: This component attempts to
restore homeostasis by inducing an appropriate
response.
 C. Nerve cells (integrator) from the
brain carry impulses to muscles
(effector) that increase the rate
and depth of breathing

B. Chemical receptors D. Increased breathing

in the brain stem are movements help flush
stimulated (monitors) excess CO2 from the
body

A. CO2 levels increase

during exercise

EX: CARBON DIOXIDE

DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
• Dynamic Equilibrium:
condition that remains
stable within
fluctuating limits
• There is a tolerable
range for different
levels in the body
FEEDBACK LOOPS
• Feedback is a mechanism that makes an adjustment
within the body.
• There are two feedback mechanisms:
1. Negative Feedback: process whereby a mechanism
is activated to restore conditions to their original
state
2. Positive Feedback: process by which a mechanism is
activated that amplifies the change in the original
state
1. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
• Most of the feedback mechanisms in the human
body are controlled by negative feedback.
• These negative feedback systems work in a
similar manner as the thermostat in your house.
• The action taken aims at changing a situation so
that the action is no longer required.
THERMOSTAT EXAMPLE
• Set thermostat to 20°C (set point)
• If temperature falls below 20°C, the thermometer
switches ON the heater
• When thermometer detects that temperature is now
above 20°C, the thermostat switches the heater OFF
• Therefore, change in variable (temperature) triggers
mechanism that counteracts the change (cold) to prevent
further change in the same direction (more cold)
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK: EXAMPLES
A. Thermoregulation: controlling heat
gain/loss using the integumentary
system
B. Blood Glucose Regulation: controlling
the amount of glucose in the blood
using the pancreas and liver
C. Osmoregulation: controlling water and
ion gain/loss in the body using the
excretory system (mainly kidneys)
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK EXAMPLE :
THERMOREGULATION
• The body of a mammal/bird has thermoreceptors
in the skin and in the heat centre in the brain
(hypothalamus)
• This way, it monitors temperature changes in the
environment as well as changes in the blood
temperature
 THERMOREGULATION:
COOLING DOWN
If the organism is too hot, it can cool down using one
or more of the following mechanisms:
 Vasodilation: the blood vessels in the skin
become wider, which increases the flow of
blood to the skin; as a result the skin
becomes warmer which increases heat loss
to the environment
 Sweating: evaporation of fluid from the
skin; change of phase (liquid to gas)
requires energy which is taken from the
body. Panting has the same effect.
THERMOREGULATION:
WARMING UP
If an organism is too cold, it can warm up using one
or more of the following mechanisms:
 Vasoconstriction: the blood vessels in the
skin contract, which decreases the blood
flow to the skin; as a result the skin becomes
colder reducing the heat loss to the
environment
 Shivering: any reaction will produce heat
as a by-product. Muscular contractions
produce a lot of heat.
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK EXAMPLE:
BLOOD GLUCOSE REGULATION
• The endocrine system consists
of endocrine glands which
produce hormones that are
secreted into the blood.
• Endocrine glands are
ductless glands; they do not
release their product into
ducts like exocrine glands do
(ex. sweat glands).
• Endocrine glands secrete their product (hormones) into
the blood which transports it around the body.
• As the hormone passes cells, only those with special
receptors will react to the presence of the hormone.
• These cells are called target cells.
 BLOOD GLUCOSE
CONCENTRATION CONTROL
The pancreas is both an exocrine gland and an
endocrine gland.
 The exocrine cells in the pancreas
produce digestive enzymes which
are released into the small
intestine via the pancreatic duct.
 The endocrine cells are clustered
together in groups called the Islets
of Langerhans. They produce
hormones, which help in regulating
blood glucose levels
BLOOD GLUCOSE
CONCENTRATION CONTROL
• Cells in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas
have chemoreceptors which are sensitive to levels
of glucose in the blood
• Glucose is absorbed from digested food and is
used in cellular respiration. It can also be converted
to glycogen and stored.
• Levels of glucose could go up after a meal and
down after exercise, if not carefully regulated.
LOW BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS
• If blood glucose levels are TOO LOW, the alpha
cells in the islets of Langerhans will secrete
glucagon.
• Glucagon is a hormone and is secreted into the
blood. It will travel to all parts of the body, but the
liver is the main target organ
• Hepatocytes (liver cells) will respond to the
presence of glucagon by converting glycogen into
glucose and releasing it to the blood
HIGH BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS
• If blood glucose levels are TOO HIGH, the beta
cells in the Islets of Langerhans will secrete insulin
• Insulin is a hormone and is secreted into the blood.
It will travel to all parts of the body
• The presence of insulin makes the muscle cells
absorb more glucose and the muscle cells and
hepatocytes (liver cells) convert glucose into
glycogen
DIABETES MELLITUS
2. POSITIVE FEEDBACK
• Positive feedback systems for homeostatic control
are rare.
• A positive feedback system enhances the effect of
the stimulus, pushing it further away from its normal
range. It is the opposite of negative feedback
systems which resists change.
• Positive feedback systems can be useful since they
allow a physiological event to happen rapidly and
once the event has taken place, the feedback
system stops.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK: CHILDBIRTH
• An example of positive feedback in homeostasis
occurs during childbirth
• A decrease in progesterone (a pregnancy hormone)
stimulates small uterine contractions
• These contractions trigger another hormone, oxytocin
which stimulates stronger uterine contractions
• As the baby’s head puts pressure on the cervix (the
opening of the uterus), even more oxytocin is
released and thus even stronger contractions
• This continues until the baby is born. Then the
contractions stop, which stops oxytocin production.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK: CHILDBIRTH