DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND FABRICATION OF

FIXED WING UAV

A Project Report Submitted to

Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi

in partial fulfilment of requirements of VIII semester Project work 21AE8DCPW2 of BACHELOR OF
ENGINEERING in AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

Adithya Sayee Ganesh 1BM19AS002

Chandana G 1BM19AS007

G Shashank Gowda 1BM19AS012

K M Sanjana 1BM19AS014

Sarthak M 1BM19AS040

Under the guidance of

Dr D Saravanan
Department of Aerospace Engineering

Department of Aerospace Engineering

B.M.S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi) PB 1908, Bull
Temple Road, Bengaluru-560 019

14th July - 2023

 Acknowledgment

We are grateful to the sanctum of “B.M.S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING” the temple of learning for
providing an excellent platform to purpose our project work in good spirit.

We express gratitude to our honorable chairman Dr. P. DAYANANDAPAI for all his initiatives and for providing
us a congenial atmosphere to learn

We would also like to thank Dr. S. MURALIDHARA, Principal, B. M. S. College of Engineering, Bengaluru for
his consistent support to our endeavors.

We would like to express our gratitude to our HOD Dr. Y. S. RAMMOHAN, Department of Aerospace
Engineering, B. M. S. College of Engineering, Bengaluru for his invaluable guidance, comments and suggestions
throughout the course of this project. His inputs have been very helpful in clarifying our doubts and in maintaining
a balance between understanding and implementing the project work.

Our sincere gratitude to our guide Dr.D.SARAVANAN, Department of Aerospace Engineering for his guidance,
timely suggestion and encouragement at every step during the course of this project, which helped us to complete
the work successfully.

We would like to thank the Project Coordinator Dr.CHETHANA K Y, Assistant Professor, B.M. S. College of
Engineering, Bengaluru and Dr.Y.S. RAMMOHAN, Professor and Head, Department of Aerospace Engineering,
B. M. S. College of Engineering, Bengaluru for giving us an opportunity to work on the project.

We thank all the teaching faculties and non– teaching staff of our department for their constant support.

Finally, we are thankful to our beloved parents who have motivated and installed confidence in us.
 Contents

1 Abstract 10

2 Introduction 11

3 Problem Statement 15

4 Objectives 16

5 Planning 17

6 Literature Survey 18

7 Requirements 21

8 Preliminary Design 24

8.1 Initial Weight Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

8.2 Airfoil Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

8.3 Wing Configuration and Planform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

8.4 Empennage Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

8.5 Fuselage Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

9 Detail Design 30

9.1 Aerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

9.1.1 3D Lift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

9.1.2 Drag Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

9.2 Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

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 9.3 Stability and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

9.3.1 Tail Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

9.3.2 Static Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

9.3.3 Dynamic Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

9.4 Aircraft Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

9.4.1 Power required estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

9.4.2 Endurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

9.4.3 Climb Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

9.4.4 Level Turn Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

9.4.5 Glide Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

9.5 Structural Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

9.5.1 Wings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

9.5.2 Fuselage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

9.6 Detailed Weight breakdown and Final CG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

9.7 Pitch Attitude Hold Autopilot System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

9.8 Final CAD model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

10 Fabrication 55

11 Conclusion 58

12 Future Scope 60

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 List of Figures

5.1 Schedule Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

8.1 Results obtained from xflr5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

8.2 Tandem Wing Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

8.3 Fuselage Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

9.1 2D and 3D Lift Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

9.2 Drag Polar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

9.3 Thrust vs Stator Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

9.4 Dynamic Thrust Measurement Experiment Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

9.5 Cm vs α . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

9.6 Root Locus Plot for Lateral Dynamic Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

9.7 Root Locus Plot for Longitudinal Dynamic Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

9.8 Flight Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

9.9 Time for each mission phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

9.10 Power for Various Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

9.11 Power for Various Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

9.12 Endurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

9.13 Wing Boundary Conditions and Loads (left), Mesh (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

9.14 Equivalent Stress and Total Deformation Contours for 1g loading . . . . . . . . . . 49

9.15 Equivalent Stress and Total Deformation Contours for 2g loading . . . . . . . . . . 49

9.16 Fuselage Boundary Conditions and Loads (left), Mesh (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

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9.17 Equivalent Stress and Total Deformation Contours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

9.18 Datum Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

9.19 Fianl CAD model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

10.1 Wing Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

10.2 Fuselage Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

10.3 Final Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

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 List of Tables

8.1 Initial Weight Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

9.1 Minimum drag coefficient for various components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

9.2 Calculated Thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

9.3 Measured Thrust Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

9.4 Performance Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

9.5 CG Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

9.6 Weight Breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

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 Chapter 1: Abstract
This project focuses on the design, analysis and fabrication of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(UAV) with the aim of exploring its potential applications. The project begins with the detailed

innovational design followed by extensive analysis of UAV design and their key components. The

work was then proceeded to design a custom airframe and control mechanisms that can meet the

specific requirements of the application. The fabrication phase involves the use of laser cutting,

and other manufacturing techniques to produce the UAV’s individual parts, followed by assembly

and integration. The final stage of the project involved testing and optimization of the UAV’s

performance, including its stability, maneuverability, and payload capacity. The results of the

project can contribute to the development of UAV technology for a variety of applications, such

as aerial surveillance, search and rescue operations, and environmental monitoring. The use of

UAVs has become increasingly popular in recent years due to their versatility and efficiency in

a wide range of applications. Overall, the increasing demand for UAV technology underscores

its importance in many industries. Thus, the designed model is innovative and has a unique

configuration while helping out in performing the key objectives.

Keywords - Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), Semi-monocoque, Stagger, Stator volume, decelage,

3D printing, manoeuverability, Stability, Spiral divergence, weighted fraction,

10
 Chapter 2: Introduction
An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), is an aircraft that operates without a human pilot onboard.

It is commonly referred to as a drone. UAVs can be remotely controlled by a human operator or

operated autonomously using pre-programmed flight plans or artificial intelligence algorithms.

They are equipped with various sensors, cameras, and communication systems to perform a wide

range of tasks, including aerial photography and videography, surveillance, mapping, package

delivery, agricultural monitoring, disaster response, and military operations. UAVs offer advantages

such as increased maneuverability, access to hard-to-reach areas, cost-effectiveness, and reduced

risks to human operators. They have gained significant popularity and are widely used in both

commercial and non-commercial sectors.

Types of UAV:

There are several types of UAVs, each designed for specific purposes and operating characteristics.

Here are some common types:

• Fixed-Wing UAVs: These UAVs have a fixed wing and are similar to traditional airplanes.

They offer longer endurance, higher speeds, and can cover larger distances. Fixed-wing

UAVs are commonly used for tasks such as aerial mapping, surveillance, and long-range

missions.

• Multirotor UAVs: Multirotor UAVs, such as quadcopters, have multiple vertically oriented

rotors that provide vertical takeoff and landing capabilities, as well as hover and maneuverability

in confined spaces. They are popular for applications like aerial photography, videography,

and inspections.

• VTOL UAVs: Vertical Takeoff and Landing (VTOL) UAVs combine the benefits of both

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 fixed-wing and multirotor UAVs. They can take off and land vertically like a helicopter but

transition to forward flight like a fixed-wing aircraft.

• Hybrid UAVs: Hybrid UAVs combine the features of different types, often incorporating

both fixed-wing and multirotor capabilities. They offer flexibility in terms of takeoff and

landing and can switch between hovering and forward flight.

• Nano UAVs: Nano UAVs are miniaturized drones with a size range of a few centimeters to

a few inches. They are lightweight and can be deployed in indoor or urban environments for

surveillance, reconnaissance, or search and rescue operations.

These are just a few examples, and the field of UAVs is rapidly evolving, with new types and

variations being developed to suit specific applications and requirements.

Applications of UAV:

UAVs have various applications in the aerospace industry, revolutionizing traditional operations

and enabling new capabilities. Here are some examples of UAV applications in aerospace:

• Aerial Photography and Videography: UAVs equipped with high-resolution cameras are

used to capture aerial images and videos for surveying, mapping, cinematography, and

promotional purposes. For example, the DJI Phantom series is popular among professional

photographers and filmmakers.

• Surveillance and Security: UAVs are used for monitoring and surveillance in aerospace

facilities, airports, and restricted areas. They can provide real-time video feeds and help

detect unauthorized activities or security breaches. The AeroVironment Puma AE and the

General Atomics Predator series are examples of UAVs used for surveillance and security

purposes.

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 • Search and Rescue Operations: UAVs equipped with thermal imaging cameras and other

sensors assist in search and rescue missions. They can cover large areas quickly, locate

missing individuals or disaster victims, and transmit critical information to rescue teams.

The DJI Matrice series and the Parrot ANAFI Thermal are commonly used in search and

rescue operations.

• Environmental Monitoring: UAVs are employed to monitor environmental conditions, such

as air quality, water pollution, and wildlife habitats. They provide valuable data for research,

conservation efforts, and disaster response planning. The Sensefly eBee and the Lockheed

Martin Indago are examples of UAVs used for environmental monitoring.

• Cargo Delivery: UAVs have the potential to revolutionize the logistics industry by enabling

autonomous delivery of goods. Companies like Amazon and Wing have been testing UAVs

for delivering packages in urban and remote areas. The Amazon Prime Air drone and the

Wing delivery drone are examples of UAVs designed for cargo delivery.

• Research and Development: UAVs are used as platforms for scientific research and development

in the aerospace field. They facilitate data collection for atmospheric research, weather

monitoring, and studying the Earth’s surface and atmosphere. The NASA Global Hawk and

the Atmos UAV Marlyn are used for research purposes.

These examples illustrate how UAVs are transforming various aspects of the aerospace industry,

offering efficient and innovative solutions in areas such as photography, surveillance, search and

rescue, environmental monitoring, cargo delivery, and scientific research.

Advantages of UAV:

UAVs, or drones, offer numerous advantages across various industries and applications. Some key

advantages of UAVs include:

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• Cost-Effective: UAVs are generally more affordable than manned aircraft, making them a

cost-effective option for tasks such as aerial photography, surveillance, and mapping. They

require fewer resources to operate and maintain compared to traditional aircraft.

• Enhanced Safety: By removing human pilots from the cockpit, UAVs can perform risky

or hazardous tasks without endangering human lives. They are often used in situations

where human presence may pose a safety risk, such as in disaster response or inspection

of infrastructure like bridges and power lines.

• Accessibility and Maneuverability: UAVs can access hard-to-reach or remote areas that may

be challenging for manned aircraft or ground vehicles. Their compact size and ability to

hover, fly at low altitudes, and maneuver in tight spaces make them versatile for applications

like search and rescue, aerial inspections, and monitoring.

• Improved Efficiency: UAVs can perform tasks with greater efficiency and speed compared to

traditional methods. They can cover large areas quickly, conduct surveys or inspections more

rapidly, and collect real-time data for analysis. This efficiency translates into cost savings

and reduced operational downtime.

• Environmental Benefits: UAVs have a smaller carbon footprint compared to manned aircraft,

as they operate on electric or hybrid power systems. They emit fewer greenhouse gases and

pollutants, contributing to environmental sustainability.

• Data Collection and Analysis: UAVs enable precise and detailed data collection from various

sensors, cameras, and instruments. This data can be used for mapping, surveying, agricultural

monitoring, and scientific research. Advanced analytics and machine learning algorithms

can process the collected data, providing valuable insights and actionable information.

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 Chapter 3: Problem Statement
Developing an Optimized Design and Fabrication Process for a Fixed-Wing UAV to Improve

Efficiency and Performance.

UAVs are playing progressively important roles in military and civil applications, such as

mapping,surveillance and remote sensing. Generally the UAVs designed for any application will

be suitable for a specific payload, hence restricting its spectrum of adaptability. This problem

has been overcome by a design considering a generalized payload in terms of weight and

dimensions.Autopilot systems are automatic command systems that reduce the workload on the

pilot and enables accomplishing complex mission.To begin with the autopilot design one axis

control was found optimum.

The limitations of present-day fixed-wing UAV have been overcome by incorporating a

semi-monocoque structure, tandem wing configuration, and raked wingtips to achieve enhanced

aerodynamic performance and flight characteristics. While these design features offer potential

advantages such as improved stability, increased lift-to-drag ratio, and reduced induced drag, the

challenge lies in optimizing their integration within the UAV’s overall design. This includes

determining the optimal dimensions, materials, and structural layout for the semi-monocoque

construction, as well as ensuring proper aerodynamic interactions between the tandem wings

and raked wingtips. The objective is to develop a UAV design that maximizes efficiency,

maneuverability, and endurance, while maintaining structural integrity and meeting specific

performance requirements

15
 Chapter 4: Objectives
Our primary objectives revolve around the development of a comprehensive design approach

for fixed-wing UAVs. To achieve this, we focus on performing conceptual design and thorough

analysis of UAV systems. Through this process, we also aim to enhance the model’s performance

by applying drag reduction techniques.

In pursuit of our objectives, we also emphasize the construction of both full-scale and scaled-down

prototypes of the UAV. This allows us to test and validate our design concepts in real-world

scenarios. To ensure precise estimations, we determine stability derivatives through wind tunnel

testing, which provides valuable data for further improvements.

Furthermore, our objectives include conducting comprehensive flight tests, both manually

and autonomously. These tests serve as crucial evaluations of the UAV’s performance and

functionality, allowing us to identify any areas for refinement or optimization.

By focusing on these objectives, we aim to develop a comprehensive design approach that

maximizes the capabilities and efficiency of fixed-wing UAVs.

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 Chapter 5: Planning
The planning for the execution of the entire project was divided into three main phases. Firstly,

the conceptual design was aimed at choosing the right configuration based on the requirements and

the objectives to be full-filled.This was further divided into sub phases , each for a period of three

weeks duration.The initial design concepts were developed to perform structural analysis before

moving to the preliminary design phase. Here,the refinement of the design drawings are done and

detailed structural analysis with fixed boundary conditions were performed.The final stage was the

detailed design phase where the prototype was tested by assembling all the components which was

close to the final model specifications. Tests of various kinds were performed in-order to validate

the results obtained and the necessary changes were incorporated.Finally,the model was fabricated

and tested successfully.

Figure 5.1: Schedule Summary

17
 Chapter 6: Literature Survey
The tandem wing configuration was chosen due to its supremacy as described thereafter. A

tandem wing configuration has two main wing planes, with one located forward and the other to

the rear. This configuration provides additional lift due to increased wing span, allowing for larger

payload capacity, longer range, and endurance.The wing loading decreases and consequently the

stall velocity also decreases, thus providing inherent longitudinal stability. Tandem wing aircraft

can exhibit enhanced maneuverability due to the arrangement of the wings. The forward wing,

often smaller than the rear wing, provides better pitch control and allows for tighter turns.

Also, various solutions were introduced into the design to further tackle each requirement that we

mentioned beforehand. To achieve this, we used a two pronged approach. Tandem wing aircraft

are known for their ability to operate at low speeds. The configuration facilitates slower flight

characteristics, making them suitable for applications such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).

An extensive literature survey was carried out and the same is presented below:

• Daniel F. Scharp and Thomas J. Muellert in “An experimental study of a closely coupled

tandem wing configuration at low Reynolds numbers“ [2] performed experiments and

showed that for a tandem wing there was a decrease in aerodynamic loads and that the total

drag reduction and increased lift led to a significant improvement in the lift-to-drag ratio for

several configurations at the given Reynolds number.

• Thanda Win et al. in “Pitch Attitude Hold Autopilot for YTU EC-00 Fixed-Wing

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle“ [10] have proved that the advantages of the UAV’s nonlinear

model allow for accurate estimation of flight dynamics in various altitude conditions,

enabling the development of an adaptive controller.

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• Dr. Leland M. Nicolai, Technical Fellow Lockheed Martin Aeronautical Company in

“Estimating R/C Model Aerodynamics And Performance“ [6] has said that R/C models

have significantly lower wing loadings compared to full-scale airplanes, resulting in lower

stall speeds and shorter take-off and landing distances. R/C models typically operate at

Reynolds Numbers below 5,00,000, which leads to a predominately laminar boundary layer

on the wings.

• R. H. Liebeck in “Laminar Separation Bubbles And Airfoil Design At Low Reynolds

Numbers“ [3] has said that the laminar portion of the separation bubble has a two-

dimensional structure, and simple sweep theory can effectively describe bubble behavior

on swept wings. Importantly, the dynamics of the bubble are found to be independent of

airfoil shape, angle of attack, and Reynolds number. These findings hold promise for the

design and analysis of low Reynolds number airfoils.

• I. Kitsios et al. in “Longitudinal Dynamics Analysis and Autopilot Design for a fixed-

wing, tactical Blended-Wing-Body UAV“ [11]examines the longitudinal flight dynamics

of a Blended Wing Body (BWB) UAV and develops an autopilot system using an H

output feedback methodology. The autopilot design employs an H SOF method with

heuristic tuning and dynamic pressure gain scheduling, which proves effective in meeting

the specifications.

• Jeevan H. L. et al. in “Development of Pitch Control Subsystem of Autopilot for a Fixed

Wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle“ [9] focus on the development of an autopilot system for

a UAV called Casper using state space methods. The traditional PID controller commonly

used for fixed-wing aircraft autopilots is compared with a state feedback controller. The

results show that the state feedback controller outperforms the PID controller in terms of

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 command following performance. However, the PID controller exhibits smoother transient

performance and a settling time 75s faster than the state feedback controller. The feasibility

and advantages of using a state feedback controller for pitch control in a fixed-wing UAV are

established.

• Tomasz Goetzendorf-Grabowski and Marcin Figat in “Aerodynamic and stability analysis

of personal vehicle in tandem-wing configuration“ [8]discuss about the concept and

potential advantages of the tandem-wing configuration for personal air transport systems.

The

aerodynamic design and dynamic stability of the aircraft are analyzed using professional

software.The stability analysis indicates that the proposed vehicle can be designed to be

stable, and the use of a sufficient flight control system can further enhance flying qualities

and pilot satisfaction.

• Wonjin Jin and Yung-Gyo Lee in “Drag Reduction Design for a Long-endurance Electric

Powered UAV“ [7]focus on computational analyses and modifications aimed at reducing the

drag of a long-endurance UAV called EAV-2, developed by the Korean Aerospace Research

Institute. The investigation primarily targets the wing configuration, including the airfoil

shape, aspect ratio, and implementation of raked wingtips. The results show a significant

reduction in total drag by 54% compared to a previous version. The low-drag design also

demonstrated static stabilities.

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 Chapter 7: Requirements
• Hand Launch: A Hand Launch UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) is a form of drone that is

launched into the air by hand, rather than using a conventional takeoff runway or launching

mechanism. These unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are typically lightweight and designed

to be carried and deployed by a single operator. Hand Launch UAVs provide portability and

ease, making them ideal for applications requiring limited space or rapid deployment. The

designed UAV model is a Hand Launch model as well.

• Weight: In UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles), empty weight refers to the UAV’s starting

weight, which includes the airframe, propulsion system, avionics, and other required

components. The empty weight is an important factor in defining the UAV’s performance

parameters, such as maximum payload capacity, endurance, and range. The empty weight of

the designed UAV should be less than 1.25 kg, ensuring a lightweight design for improved

maneuverability and efficiency.

• Payload Capacity: The maximum weight of additional equipment, sensors, or cargo that a

UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) may carry during a flight is referred to as payload capacity.

It denotes the UAV’s capacity to deliver diverse payloads for certain missions or purposes.

Cameras, sensors, communication equipment, scientific instruments, and even goods for

delivery might be included in the payload. When selecting a UAV for a certain assignment,

payload capacity is a significant issue since it influences the amount and type of equipment

that can be carried, which directly impacts the UAV’s operational capabilities, flight duration,

and overall mission effectiveness. The designed UAV should have a maximum payload

capacity of 0.75 kg, enabling the integration of necessary equipment or sensors for specific

21
 mission requirements.

• Span: In UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles), wing span refers to the distance between the

wingtips, which represents the complete breadth of the wingspan when viewed from above.

It is a fundamental measurement that determines the size and aerodynamic properties of

the wings of the UAV. The wing span is critical to the flight performance, stability, and

manoeuverability of the UAV. A longer wing span gives more lift and stability, allowing for

better endurance and cargo capacity. It may, however, result in higher drag and decreased

agility. The wing span is an important design aspect that determines the UAV’s overall

efficiency and capability. The wingspan of the designed UAV should be 1.5 m, determining

the size and aerodynamic characteristics of the aircraft.

• Endurance: It is an important performance statistic that defines how long the UAV can

fly before landing for refueling or charging. Endurance is determined by a variety of

parameters, including the design of the UAV, the effectiveness of the propulsion system, the

payload weight, and the energy storage capacity. Longer endurance allows UAVs to traverse

greater distances, conduct extended surveillance missions, and collect data for longer periods

of time. Improving endurance is an important emphasis in UAV development in order

to improve operational capabilities and effectiveness. The designed UAV should have a

minimum endurance of 15 minutes, allowing for operational missions and surveillance tasks.

• Power Limitation: Power limitation in UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) refers to the

limitations or constraints imposed on the aircraft’s available power supply and consumption.

UAVs operate their propulsion system, avionics, sensors, and other electronic components

using onboard power sources such as batteries or fuel-powered engines. To guarantee safe

and effective flight operations, UAVs must operate within the stated power limits, while also

22
 optimizing the utilization of power resources to meet mission objectives. Power management

is critical for maximizing flight time and maintaining dependable and sustainable UAV

operations. The power consumption of the designed UAV should be limited to less than

250 Watts, ensuring efficient energy usage and adherence to power constraints.

• Maximum Velocity: Maximum Velocity in UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) refers

to the aircraft’s maximum possible speed while in flight. The maximum velocity is a

critical performance characteristic that impacts the UAV’s ability to deploy quickly, execute

missions efficiently, and overall operational effectiveness. The maximum velocity of the

UAV was restricted to 20m/s due to structural integrity limitations.

• Autopilot System: A pitch attitude hold autopilot system will be designed, the function

which is to follow the pitch angle command given by the pilot, without pilot intervention

even in the presence of an external disturbance. The design of autopilot for pitch control of

UAV will be based on the PID controller.

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 Chapter 8: Preliminary Design

8.1 Initial Weight Estimates

The initial weight estimate was done at sub systems level as shown in table(8.1), to gain the

understanding of the relationship between contribution of every subsystem to weight and the

performance or features of the UAV, which further gives assistance to optimize the model by

conducting trade off studies. The estimation of weight was done based on the literature survey

of commercially available drones of similar kind and the previous experience of the teammates in

building fixed wing UAVs.

Table 8.1: Initial Weight Estimates

24
8.2 Airfoil Selection
The airfoil selection is largely influenced by the operating Reynolds number, generally for the

velocity range in which a small unmanned aerial vehicle (SUAV) [1] operates would result in a

transition boundary layer. The estimated Re of operation was around 0.2 × 106 , wherein the flow

is dominated by lower transition and laminar boundary layer which enhances the boundary layer

separation causing the formation of a separation bubble [2]. In order to minimize this effect a

airfoil with medium camber is suitable.

The criteria for airfoil selection was high CL max , aerodynamic efficiency and stall angle. The

range of stall velocities for our model was calculated as 8.7 - 11.8 m/s, and the corresponding

Reynolds number as 139139-188718. For this range of Reynolds number the flow over the wings

will be characterized by mostly laminar or transition boundary layer. In general a laminar boundary

layer enhances boundary layer separation whereas a turbulent boundary layer suppresses it. Thus

our choices were limited to airfoil with minimum camber [3].

Further airfoil performance parameters - Clmax , stall angle, Cmo and Cl/Cd, stability parameters;

Cmα and structural requirements, airfoil thickness were considered. A comparative study of the

low Re airfoils (Clark-y, SD7032) was performed using the XFoil code and the obtained results

are shown in fig(8.1). SD7032 airfoil was chosen as it has a relatively better performance in all the

aspects mentioned above compared to the Clark Y airfoil.

We intended to fix the wing at an angle of maximum aerodynamic efficiency α( L / D ) max hence the

difference between αst al l and α( L / D ) max was also considered.

From past experience of using airfoils like S1223 and Fx73-CL1320, we faced difficulties in

fabricating the wing due to thin trailing edge. Thus, we decided to go with SD7032 airfoil, that has

25
 Figure 8.1: Results obtained from xflr5

a medium camber, αst al l of 14◦ and α( L / D ) max of 4◦ as obtained from Xflr5 software.

8.3 Wing Configuration and Planform

Arriving at an appropriate wing configuration was one of the most critical part in the designing

process. The requirement limits the maximum planform wingspan to 47 inches i.e 120 cm. Thus,

in order to get the required lift we chose a tandem wing configuration rather than a delta wing

configuration for stability reasons. The front and rear wings had a high and low wing configuration

respectively. Factors such as gap, stagger and decalage determine the aerodynamic characteristics

of the tandem wing configuration.

A rectangular planform was chosen to maximize the planform area for the given span and reduce

Figure 8.2: Tandem Wing Parameters

26
the wing loading. Rectangular wings are straightforward to design and manufacture compared to

more complex wing shapes. Their simple geometry reduces the overall manufacturing costs and

simplifies the construction process. The absence of complex curves and wingtip devices reduces

the number of structural components and simplifies the wing’s internal support structure. This

weight reduction can contribute to improved efficiency and increased payload capacity.

Rectangular wings generally offer better low-speed performance characteristics compared to swept

or tapered wings. They generate higher lift coefficients, which enable the aircraft to take off and

land at lower speeds.The rectangular wing design provides a rigid structure due to its straight

leading and trailing edges, which can enhance the wing’s structural strength, reducing flutter and

increasing overall stability during flight.The straight leading and trailing edges of rectangular

wings create more internal volume within the wing structure. This additional volume can be

utilized for storage, components, offering greater flexibility in aircraft design.

Another important phenomenon is that in the rectangular wing, flow separation propagates from

the root to the tip chord, this provides for adequate post-stall lateral control.

8.4 Empennage Configuration

The aft wing acts as the horizontal stabilizer, eliminating the requirement for a separate horizontal

tail, and a vertical tail will be attached to the fuselage. Thus, the vertical tail helps to provide

stability and control in the yaw axis of the aircraft. It helps counteract adverse yaw and assists

in maintaining directional stability during flight. By exerting a stabilizing force, the vertical tail

helps the aircraft maintain a straight flight path.

The vertical tail, along with the rudder, enables the pilot to control the yaw motion of the aircraft.

The rudder, which is attached to the trailing edge of the vertical tail, can be deflected to create a

side force that induces a yawing motion. This allows the pilot to counteract asymmetrical thrust or

27
other forces that may cause the aircraft to deviate from its intended heading.The streamlined shape

of a single tail can contribute to improved aerodynamic efficiency and reduced parasite drag.

A single large vertical tail can be optimized for aerodynamic efficiency, allowing for smoother

airflow over the tail surface. This can contribute to reduced drag and improved overall aircraft

performance. An additional structural advantage is that the centroid of the tail area is much lower,

so the aerodynamic side force generated by the tail produces lower torsional loads on the fuselage.

8.5 Fuselage Configuration

The dimensions of the fuselage were decided based on the volume of the payload being carried

and their quantity, and parameters such as the gap and stagger of the wings.The fuselage of the

prototype was made of foam in-order to make it crash-worthy and facilitate multiple flight test

rounds to understand the capabilities of our model.This was also done to understand the maximum

capacity and limitations and so as to how much payload can be carried.The outer dimensions were

kept the same as the foam fuselage and the semi- monocoque structure was adapted in the final

model due to its unique design, fabrication technique and a stressed skin that takes some of the

load, but is reinforced by the underlying structure, which also takes load. Basically, both the

skin and the underlying structure share the load, hence proves to be very advantageous over the

conventional fuselage.

Figure 8.3: Fuselage Configuration

The payload which has more volume can also be easily kept in this kind of fuselage, hence has

28
an upper hand for delivering materials in case of emergency.Added advantage of this structure is

that it integrates a high level of redundancy into aircraft structural design , thus making it fail safe

design. This structure allows for structural integrity to be distributed across the aircraft structure

via external and internal elements such as aircraft skin and stringers, frame, ribs respectively.The

stresses and flight loads encountered by an aircraft are spread across the airframe rather than on a

singular structural component.The semi-monocoque structures are easier to work with compared

to monocoque structures because the rigidity and strength of the aircraft can be significantly more.

29
 Chapter 9: Detail Design

9.1 Aerodynamics

9.1.1 3D Lift

The differential pressure on the top and bottom surfaces of a wing causes a circular or vortex

motion of the air about wingtips, and these induce a downwash at the wing aerodynamic center

which gives a lower effective angle of attack. The finite wing lift curve slope was calculated from

equation (9.1).

dCL m0
= m (1+τ)
(9.1)
dα 1 + [ 0πAR ]

Where m0 is section lift coefficient in per radians, AR is the aspect ratio and τ is the correction

factor to account for the deviation from an elliptical lift distribution. m0 is 4.6,the wing was

designed to have an AR of 4.8 and τ was calculated as 0.16 [1]. The above equation gave a

numerical value of 3.6. The 3D lift curve is constructed using the zero lift angle of attack of the

airfoil as an intercept.

9.1.2 Drag Analysis

Aerodynamic forces resolved in a direction parallel to free stream velocity is called drag. Skin

friction drag is caused due to net imbalance of shear stress acting on the body, induced drag is

caused by downwash velocity associated with the wingtip vortices and viscous drag due to lift is

caused by flow separation. The general drag polar equation is as shown in equation (9.2).

30
 Figure 9.1: 2D and 3D Lift Curves

CD = CD min + KCL2 (9.2)

Where CD min is the skin friction drag coefficient that depends on the type of boundary layer and the

geometric parameters of the body. Since the flight velocities vary depending on the payload carried,

the average of the Reynolds number corresponding to the velocities was used for calculations. The

flow has a turbulent boundary layer over the fuselage, transition boundary layer over the wing and

laminar boundary layer over the empennage [6]. OpenVSP software was used to calculated the

parasitic drag of the aircraft.

31
 Component CDmin

Fuselage 0.00431

Boom 0.00069

Wings 0.01934

Vertical Tail 0.00103

Total 0.02537

Table 9.1: Minimum drag coefficient for various components

K is the inviscid drag due to lift factor, defined by equation (9.3).

1
K= (9.3)
πeAR

e is calculated as 0.9881, and K as 0.06711 [1]. Thus the Drag polar was plotted based on

equation (9.4).

CD = 0.02537 + 0.06711CL2 (9.4)

9.2 Propulsion
The objective set out for propulsion system design was to find the right combination of motor and

propeller that produces adequate thrust to achieve desired T/W ratio, consumes minimum power

to obtain satisfactory performance and is lightweight as it contributes significantly to the total

weight of the UAV.

The main focus was to design a propulsion system that provides maximum efficiency under

32
 Figure 9.2: Drag Polar

hovering conditions as the majority part of the mission requires the UAV to be in steady

equilibrium flight.

Motor selection: Stator volume(SV) and Kv rating are the motor specifications that define the

performance of it. The thrust produced depends on stator volume, Kv rating, battery voltage

and torque generated. To make the analysis simple, each of these relations has been evaluated

individually. Propulsion system data was collected from commercially available drones and

equipment manufacturers about the stator volume and the maximum thrust produced when

powered with a 3s or 4s LiPo battery with a maximum compatible propeller. Although the data

was inconsistent, this was due to the fact that only the relation between stator volume and thrust

was studied ignoring all other parameters, a rough estimate for the stator volume was obtained to

be in the range of 350 − 450 mm2 for the required T/W based on initial weight estimates.

A higher Kv motor will draw more current to produce the same amount of thrust than a lower Kv

one, so a lower Kv motor is always more efficient. Torque produced is directly proportional to SV,

33
 Figure 9.3: Thrust vs Stator Volume

and a higher Kv motor will have a lower drop in torque with reduction in RPM making it suitable

for drones that perform rapid maneuvers. And from the data collected we decided a motor around

1000Kv would be adequate for the mission.

Based on the available combinations of SV and Kv rating, a 2317 880KV and 2321 950KV motors

were chosen for further calculations.

Propeller selection: The performance characteristics of the propeller is defined by propeller

pitch(p) and diameter(d). Propeller is the load on the motor. Greater the load, the motor draws

more current making it inefficient and causing the motor to heat up eventually. So the selection

of the propeller of the correct size was very important. Propeller pitch is the displacement of air

produced by one rotation, a low pitch propeller will have static thrust and higher efficiency in

dynamic conditions and vice-versa in the case of a high pitch propeller. A pitch of 5.5“ was found

to be optimum.

Empirical formula based on blade element theory was used, and the calculations were carried out

for the above-mentioned motors powered by 11.1V and 14.8v batteries.

34
 d (3/2)
F = 0.00000004392399 × RPM × × [(0.000423333) × RPM × p −V0 ] (9.5)
p(1/2)

Table(9.2) shows the thrust calculated using equation(9.5) for different propellers.

The 2317 880 Kv motor produces greater thrust adequate to maintain the desired thrust to weight

Table 9.2: Calculated Thrust

ratio, additionally as explained above this combination is more efficient, can generate more torque

and the weight is reasonable. Consequently we decided to go with a 2317 880 Kv motor and a

12x5.5 propeller.

Testing - Tmotor brand was chosen for the motors due to its reliability. The propulsion system

was tested under dynamic conditions at cruise velocity and the measured data is presented in

table(). The measured data was used for the performance estimation in the design process. A

trade off between obtaining better UAV performance (ie, climb rate, turn rate etc) by using a 4s

battery, or having lower weight of the propulsion system(resulting in a lower T/W ) by using a 3s

battery had to be performed since both the combinations had similar efficiency under hovering

conditions.

We decided to go with a 3s battery and take advantage of the lower weight propulsion system which

35
 Table 9.3: Measured Thrust Data

Figure 9.4: Dynamic Thrust Measurement Experiment Setup

would in turn reduce the thrust required. This involves the risk of difficulty in maneuverability.

The choice was found to be reasonable as the mission does not require significant aggressive

maneuvers.

9.3 Stability and Control

9.3.1 Tail Sizing

Tail size plays an important role in the degree of stability of the aircraft. By varying the tail size,

one can make the aircraft either more stable or more maneuverable. We have used the Tail Volume

Coefficients to determine the tail sizes.

36
Vertical Tail The vertical tail consists of the vertical stabilizer and the rudder. The Vertical tail

volume coefficient VV T was assumed as 0.04 and designed for an aspect ratio of 1.7. The height

of the tail was determined to be 20cm. It was tapered with a taper ratio of 0.567 to a tip chord of

8.5cm. Equation (9.6) is the formula of vertical tail volume coefficient.

LV T SV T
VV T = (9.6)
bw Sw

Control Surface Sizing

The elevator, rudder and aileron sizing are crucial in determining the degree of control a pilot has

on the airplane. Thus it becomes important to carry out the sizing of these control surfaces keeping

in mind some basic principles.

For the rudder, a width of 5cm was taken to have the rudder area as 42.5% of the vertical stabilizer

area.

For the ailerons, it is good to have total aileron area anywhere between 15-25% of the wing area

for proper roll control. We sized each aileron at 8cm by 37.5cm to have an area that is 20% of the

wing area.

Servo Sizing

The purpose of servo sizing is to make sure that the maximum torque produced by the control

surfaces was below the maximum rated torque of the servo. The team obtained the servo’s torque

from the given technical data table that came with the servo motors.

In order to size up the Servos, the torque produced by each control surface on the servo was

measured individually, assuming a maximum flight velocity of about 17m/s(2g loading). The

calculations mentioned helped the team come up with a list of requirements for the servo motor.

37
An EMAX ES08A II (8.5g) was chosen as an ideal servo motor.

Equation (9.7) was used to calculate the torque on each control surface.

c2 v2 Lsin(s1 )tan(s1 )
T = 8.5 × 10−6 · (9.7)
tan(s2 )

where c is control surface chord in cm, L is control surface length in cm, s1 is control surface

deflection, s2 is maximum servo deflection in degrees. Using this formula, the torque required

for the control surfaces was calculated and summarized in table (4). We have, v=17m/s, s1 =35◦ ,

s2 =40◦ . EMAX ES08A II (8.5g) has a stall torque of 0.1471 N-m. Thus we can conclude that the

servo can handle the torque produced by the control surfaces.

9.3.2 Static Stability

Static stability is one of the primary necessities for an aircraft. It is the initial response of

the aircraft to a disturbance. Usually, static margin is used to determine the degree of static

stability. Static margin depends on the distance between the location of CG and that of the Neutral

Point(NP), and the latter is strongly influenced by the tail size. It is important to find a balance

between stability and manoeuvrability, and this required iterating through the tail sizing process

or moving the CG to have the desired level of static stability, and a static margin around 15 to

25% was found suitable for trainer RC models. Criteria for static stability is that the slope of the

moment coefficient versus angle of attack curve should be negative and the coefficient of moment

at zero angle of attack should be positive so that the aircraft can be trimmed at a positive angle of

attack. A static stability analysis was performed in Flow5 software, the figure (9.5) shows the plot

obtained. We intended the aircraft to have a trimmed flight at zero angle of attack as the motor

is not fixed at a tilt angle , and a positive moment at zero angle of attack is not acceptable as this

38
might result in stall, thus we decided to go with a static margin of 11%.

Additionally the motor was placed such that the thrust force produced a positive moment due to an

offset between the thrust line and center of gravity of aircraft for empty weight and with payloads.

Hence the net moment would become almost zero and a trimmed flight can be achieved.

Figure 9.5: Cm vs α

9.3.3 Dynamic Stability

Dynamic stability is the transient response of the aircraft after it has been disturbed from

its equilibrium condition and has responded initially according to its static stability. There

are two longitudinal modes (Phugoid,Short Period) and three lateral-directional modes(Roll,

Dutch Roll, Spiral) for an aircraft. All these modes have a pair of eigenvalues associated with

them, using which one can determine if the aircraft is stable in that mode or not and to what degree.

Phugoid Mode When aircraft is disturbed from its equilibrium condition it undergoes

oscillations such that the velocity of the aircraft changes but not the angle of attack, due to this

39
aircraft starts increasing and decreasing the altitude accordingly, this mode of dynamic stability is

called as phugoid mode.

Short Period Mode When aircraft is disturbed from its steady level fight by any external gust,

if the aircraft undergoes oscillations by varying the angle of attack with constant velocity this

oscillations takes place at high frequencies, this condition of dynamic stability is referred as short

period oscillations.

Dutch roll mode Oscillatory motion which is combination of roll and yaw motion is called Dutch

roll mode.

Spiral divergence mode A lateral unstable condition characterized by low angle of attack and

high speed where strong directional stability tends to yaw the aircraft towards the side slip velocity

which is responsible for the disturbance is called spiral divergence

Roll Subsidence Roll subsidence mode is simply the damping of rolling motion.

When the real part of the eigenvalue is negative, it implies that the motion is converging towards an

equilibrium point, so it is statically stable. If it is positive, the motion is diverging, so it is statically

unstable. The conjugate part of the eigenvalue represents the damped frequency of oscillation of

the motion. Thus if the eigenvalue is real, the motion is monotonically converging or diverging, and

if it is complex, it is oscillating about the equilibrium and either converging or diverging depending

on the sign of the real part.

If the eigenvalues for a mode are real, negative and identical then it is critically damped, and if

it is real, negative and distinct then the motion is overdamped. If the eigenvalue is complex, then

the mode is underdamped.

Figures (9.6) and (9.7) show the Root Locus plots for the lateral and longitudinal dynamic modes

respectively.

40
As can be seen, the aircraft is stable in all the modes.

As can be observed from the table, the real part of eigenvalues are negative for all the modes,

implying that the aircraft is stable in all modes.

Figure 9.6: Root Locus Plot for Lateral Dynamic Modes

Figure 9.7: Root Locus Plot for Longitudinal Dynamic Modes

41
 Figure 9.8: Flight Path

Figure 9.9: Time for each mission phase

9.4 Aircraft Performance

9.4.1 Power required estimation

Since the time spent in each phase of the flight during the mission varies significantly, taking an

average of the power consumed in each phase is inaccurate for performance estimations. Thus,

a new concept for the estimation of power draw was introduced using the concept of weighted

average. Where the weights were defined as the fraction of time spent during each phase of the

mission compared to the total mission time. Figure(9.8) shows the intended flight path and the

table(9.9) shows the estimated time for each phase of the mission along with their respective

weights.

The total power consumed by the UAV is the sum of power drawn by the propulsion system

42
(Pprop ) and additional systems (Padd ) (ie Flight controller, peripheral hardwares, OBC etc).

Ptotal = PProp + Padd (9.8)

Padd remains constant throughout all the phases of the flight, Pprop for different phases mentioned in

fig(9.8) was calculated using equation(9.9) based on the static thrust test table(9.2), using the curve

fitting feature in Matlab by generating a polynomial of fifth degree, and is presented in table(9.3).

Further the calculations were performed for with payload and without payload conditions.

The following assumptions were made for the calculations: Launch phase takes place at full

throttle; the climb phase takes place at 1.25g loading condition; cruise at equilibrium steady flight

conditions; hover phase takes place at 1.1g loading and decent phase at 0.80g loading condition.

Figure 9.10: Power for Various Phases

Figure 9.11: Power for Various Components

43
 PTotal−prop = W 1 × P1 +W 2 × P4 +W 3 × P3 +W 4 × P2 +W 5 × P5 (9.9)

The power consumed by different components was obtained by the equipment manufacturer

table(9.11).

Padd−Manual = PPixhawk + PGPS + PRx−Radio + Psa f etyswitch + PV T x + PRadioTelemetry (9.10)

Padd = 4.36 Watts

PTotalWO−Payload = PTotal−propWOP ayload + Padd (9.11)

PWO−Payload = 63.39 Watts

PTotalWP ayload = PTotal p ropWP ayload + Padd (9.12)

PTotalW −Payload = 90.79 Watts

9.4.2 Endurance

Battery capacity required was calculated using the equation(9.14). Where AAD is the mean current

discharged by the battery calculated using equation(9.13), V is the average voltage of the battery

and is 11.1V in our case ref(propulsion system), P is the estimated power required ref(9.2.1),time is

the endurance required and discharge is the percentage of total capacity available for usage which

we decided to be 80% to prevent battery degradation.

P
AAD = (9.13)
V

(Time × AAD)
Capacity = (9.14)
Discharge

44
 Figure 9.12: Endurance

Battery selection was primarily based on the capacity required. Other parameters such as discharge

rate, weight and dimensions of the battery were also considered as they had significant impact and

performance and sizing of the UAV.

Battery capacity had to be greater than the calculated capacity from equation(9.14), and maximum

discharge current, equation(9.15), greater than the maximum current withdrawn by the UAV

equation(9.16).

Maximum Discharge current = capacity in amperes × discharge rate (9.15)

PTotal100% throttle
Maximum current withdrawn = (9.16)
Voltage

There were many commercially available batteries that satisfy the above conditions, further the

sorting was done based on the weight and dimensions of the battery.

Accordingly a 5200 mAh 3s 40C LiPO battery was selected that had a maximum discharge current

of 208A.

Endurance was calculated using the modified equation(9.17) and is shown in table(9.12).

Capacity
Time = Discharge × (9.17)
AAD

Performance data is the information that is related to climb, descent, level turn, and gliding flight.

A detailed explanation for all the above factors is given below [4].

45
9.4.3 Climb Performance

Rate of climb of an aircraft is defined as the vertical speed, that is the rate of change of altitude

change with respect to time. For a steady unaccelerated climbing flight, the climbing velocity is

calculated from equation (9.18).

TV∞ − DV∞
Rate of climb , RC = V∞ sin(θ ) = (9.18)
W

For the free stream velocity equal to stall velocity and thrust at 50% throttle, the climb velocity for

various payload fraction is shown in table(9.4).

9.4.4 Level Turn Performance

The fixed path followed by an aircraft is called the flight path, and the change in flight path direction

is termed as turn. A level turn is a maneuver in which the curved flight path is in a horizontal

plane parallel to the plane of the ground.Thus the altitude remains constant and centrifugal force

is balanced by the radial force Lsin(φ ). Turn radius R is defined as the distance between the flight

path and the instantaneous center of curvature. R is calculated from equation(9.19).

nVst al 2l
R= √ (9.19)
g n2 − 1

where n is the load factor defined as the ratio of lift to gross weight of the aircraft and equal

cos−1 (φ ). The bank angle φ is assumed to be 45◦ , in this case, hence the load factor value is

obtained as 1.414. The turn radius for different payload fractions is represented in table (9.4).

46
9.4.5 Glide Performance

Zero thrust flight conditions is called gliding. The velocity in a glide flight is referred to as glide

velocity.
s s
2W cos(θ ) 2cos(θ ) W
V∞ = = · (9.20)
ρ∞ SCL ρ∞CL S

Equation (9.20) gives the glide velocity for a θ - Glide angle,CL - Lift coefficient,W/S - Wing

loading.

The glide angle θ is assumed as 8◦ and the coefficient is obtained as 0.6. Glide velocity for

different payload fractions is represented in table(9.4)

Sink rate is defined as the vertical component of the glide velocity. This is given by V sin(θ )

v
u W
u S
V sin(θ ) = t (9.21)
CL3 /2
ρ∞ CD

Climb rate(m/s) Turn radius (m) Glide velocity (m/s) Sink rate (m/s) Vst al l (m/s)
9.18 27 12 0.88 11.5

Table 9.4: Performance Parameters

9.5 Structural Analysis

9.5.1 Wings

In aircraft design, the primary force that supports flight is lift, generated by the wings. This lift

load is crucial for overcoming the aircraft’s weight and enabling vertical movement. The wings

bear the brunt of this load, which is directly exerted on their structure. To effectively distribute

and transfer the load to various parts of the aircraft, a well-designed wing is necessary.The wing’s

internal structure consists of ribs and spars as the main components. Ribs, running perpendicular

47
to the wing’s span, provide support and maintain the wing’s shape, transferring the lift load to

other parts of the aircraft. Spars, running parallel to the span, act as the wing’s backbone, bearing

a significant portion of the load and facilitating load transfer to the fuselage.

Different materials used are:

• Carbon fiber rod: Spar

• Balsa Wood: Spar and Ribs

The mesh was done using tetrahedron and quadrilateral shaped elements. Different sizing options

were done to each individual part to obtain the best suitable mesh. Total number Nodes and

elements generated were 383869 and 203356 respectively.

Boundary Conditions: For the Lift load, the data was obtained by simulation results obtained

Figure 9.13: Wing Boundary Conditions and Loads (left), Mesh (right)

from flow5 software, where the wing was subjected to flight conditions. And it also specified the

location of the resulting load acting on the wing. The small red arrows in figure (9.13) show the

discretized lift forces acting at certain points along the wing span.

Fixed support condition was given to the root rib of the wing as that will be attached to the fuselage.

Results:

Total Deformation: Maximum deflections were observed at the wing tip as expected, with

deflections of 2cm and 4.4cm under 1g and 2g loading respectively.

Equivalent (von-misses) stress: The maximum stress was observed at the root of carbon fiber rod

48
and it was well within the Tensile ultimate stress of carbon fiber rod. The maximum stresses

observed in this part are 20.698MPa and 47.061 MPa respectively under 1g and 2g loading. The

other parts of balsa wood and Aeroply were well within the acceptable limit.

Figure 9.14: Equivalent Stress and Total Deformation Contours for 1g loading

Figure 9.15: Equivalent Stress and Total Deformation Contours for 2g loading

9.5.2 Fuselage

The fuselage, having a semi-monocoque structure, takes the lift loads and the resulting moment

from each of the wings. Additionally, the thrust force is also transmitted to the fuselage through

the motor mount. Thus, it is imperative that we perform a quasi-static structural analysis for the

fuselage as well.

Different materials used are:

• Carbon fiber strips: Side Longerons

• Aeroply: Motor mount, Bulkheads and Longerons

The properties for Balsa and Aeroply (Birchwood) were taken from [5], assuming their anisotropic

in nature.

49
Boundary Conditions: The discretized lift load from each wing was added as a resultant force and

moment at respective wing attachments; the thrust force was added to the screw holes attaching

the motor to the motor mount. Inertial relief was applied to simulate the fuselage flying in the air

in a steady state.

Figure 9.16: Fuselage Boundary Conditions and Loads (left), Mesh (right)

Results:

Total Deformation: Maximum deformation was observed at the bulkheads in the middle of the

fuselage, with deformations of 6.66mm.

Equivalent (von-mises) stress: The maximum stress was observed at the carbon fibers at the wing

attachments. The maximum stress observed was 151 MPa, which is well within the tensile strength

of Carbon Fiber.

Figure 9.17: Equivalent Stress and Total Deformation Contours

50
9.6 Detailed Weight breakdown and Final CG
The detailed weight breakdown of all the components along with their respective distance from

datum Fig(), and the final Cg location for with and without payload conditions is presented in

table(), showing that the Cg is in the desired position (Stability analysis).

Figure 9.18: Datum Location

Table 9.5: CG Location

9.7 Pitch Attitude Hold Autopilot System

The function of pitch control autopilot is to follow the pitch angle command given by the pilot,

without pilot intervention even in the presence of an external disturbance. The design of autopilot

for pitch control of UAV was based on the PID controller using the transfer functions derived from

the mathematical model. The mathematical model was based on the state space representation of

the longitudinal equations of motion of the aircraft.

The applied aerodynamic forces were expressed in terms of variables such as airspeed, attitude,

angle of attack, sideslip angle and the rotation rates using Taylor’s series expansion. Considering

the first order approximation the resulting equations will contain stability derivatives, mass and

51
 Table 9.6: Weight Breakdown

inertia characteristics of the airplane as the coefficients of the differential equation. Vortex particle

method (VPM) was used to obtain the stability derivatives of the UAV through Flow5 software.

The force from the propulsion system was estimated using the trust measurement data table(9.3),

using the curve fitting tool in Matlab.

The longitudinal equations of motion are expressed in the form of state space representation.

Where; x is state vector, u is input vector, A is state coefficient matrix, B is driving matrix C

is output matrix and D is feed-forwards matrix. The primary controls in the longitudinal dynamic

model are elevator deflection and throttle setting so the input control vector u consists of elevator

52
deflection angle and throttle position.

The number of state variables required to describe the system depends on the number of degrees

of freedom of the model. Driving matrix B is composed of control derivatives, output matrix C

is an identity matrix since the output of the model are the state variables itself and feed-forward

matrix is a null matrix. Pitch angle and pitch rate transfer functions for longitudinal dynamics are

described as follows. A Proportional Integral-Derivative (PID) controller structure was chosen to

achieve the system design requirements, the settling time less than 3 seconds and overshoot should

not exceed 3% [11].

The PID controller was tuned using the PID tool in Simulink, and will be implemented in a

hardware in-loop simulation.

9.8 Final CAD model

53
Figure 9.19: Fianl CAD model

54
 Chapter 10: Fabrication
The fabrication process of the prototype aircraft was a well-planned procedure so as to

accommodate the wide variety of materials selected along with the limitations that come with their

properties.

We began the procedure by constructing the wings in two parts. Balsa wood was initially laser cut

and machined according to drawings. The choice of balsa was made for its better machinability,

good strength to weight ratio and simple fabrication techniques. The ribs were precisely aligned

with the help of a carbon fibre tube and balsa spars, and attached using 743 glue. This offered

great strength to the frame of the wing. Thin 1mm sheets of balsa were used to cover the leading

and trailing portion of the airfoil contour in order to support the film of Ultracote® heat shrink

covering. The flexibility of these sheets was enhanced by the use of ammonia-based cleaning

solution. Subsequently, the ailerons of the wing were manufactured in a similar method. The

attachment of the ailerons to the wing frame was done using plastic hinges. Finally, the servo and

actuating elements like push-rod and connectors were installed along with the electronics on the

bottom part of the wing.

The fuselage of the prototype was made of foam board due to its ease of handling, crash

worthiness and structural tolerance. Laser cutting simplified the process of fabricating the fuselage

in one piece. It was cut and folded to produce the cross-sectional rectangular shape as calculated.

Hot glue and fibre composite tape was used to maintain the shape of the structure. The sidewalls

were reinforced by longerons and beadings made of aero plywood. This strengthened the fuselage

longitudinally. Aluminium clamps were used to tightly hold the motor mount in place and

55
 Figure 10.1: Wing Fabrication

improve its strength. The electronics and actuating mechanisms were installed to each of the

control surfaces and secured to the fuselage walls.

Figure 10.2: Fuselage Structure

For the fuselage of the final model, a semi-monocoque structure was implemented.After

successful testing of the foam fuselage , the outer dimensions were kept the same and the semi

monocoque structure was adapted due to its unique design, fabrication technique and a stressed

skin which is the layer of Ultracote, is used that takes some of the load, but is reinforced by the

56
underlying structure, which also takes load. The bulkheads were carefully aligned with the help

of the longerons made of aeroply. The aeroply of 2mm and 3mm were used for the same. The

longerons were again reinforced with the carbon fibre strips for providing maximum strength.

The structure was thus made strong with longerons on either side of the fuselage including the

top and the base. Thus, strength was ensured from all the sides. 1mm balsa coating was done to

provide smooth contour to enhance the easy coating of the Ultracote. Basically, both the skin and

the underlying structure share the load, hence this structure proves to be very advantageous over

the conventional fuselage.

Figure 10.3: Final Model

The fabrication process is concluded by attaching the wings onto the fuselage and securing

it using two carbon fibre rods and fiber tape. The single vertical tail along with the rudder was

attached to the rear end of the fuselage with hot glue and reinforced by aeroply strips to make it

strong. The entire process of fabrication was accomplished within a span of four days.

57
 Chapter 11: Conclusion
The purpose of this report is to summarize the key findings, achievements, and implications

of the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) project. The project aimed to conceptualize, design,

optimize, fabricate, and test a UAV model with a focus on emphasizing the understanding of

the flight dynamics, aerodynamics, and performance of the UAV. This conclusion will provide

an overview of the project objectives and highlight the major outcomes.

The UAV project aimed to achieve several objectives. Firstly, it involved conceptual design and

analysis of the UAV, considering factors such as aerodynamics, structural integrity, and payload

capacity. Secondly, efforts were made to optimize the model for long endurance by implementing

drag-reduction methods to improve efficiency. Additionally, both a full-scale prototype and a final

model were fabricated and tested to validate the design and enhance performance. Flight testing

of both models was successfully done in manual mode which gives confidence to implement the

autopilot system in the future.

The tandem configuration of the aircraft is a concept that is tested very few times in the field

of small UAVs, a successful flight test of this increased the understanding of this configuration.

A novel methodology was introduced to calculate the power drawn by the UAV system which

results in the most accurate endurance estimations. Pitch attitude autopilot system was designed

by developing a mathematical model using the stability parameters obtained using a new analytical

method.

The future of small UAVs with integrated autonomous systems holds immense potential for various

applications. These UAVs can be deployed for surveillance and monitoring, allowing for efficient

and widespread coverage. In the field of precision agriculture, autonomous small UAVs equipped

58
with sensors and cameras can monitor crop health, detect pests and diseases, assess soil conditions,

and optimize irrigation. They also have the ability to revolutionize the delivery and logistics

industry, providing swift and efficient transportation. Additionally, these UAVs can be utilized

for mapping, surveying, and 3D modeling applications, as well as playing a crucial role in search

and rescue operations.

Furthermore, they can contribute to environmental monitoring efforts and be employed for

infrastructure inspections, including bridges, power lines, pipelines, and buildings. Performing

rigorous flight tests it was realized that impact resistance of the model is an important feature to

consider during the design as it is a hand launch model and prone to damage during landing, the

structural integrity of the fuselage has to be increased to enhance the impact resistance.

The team emphasized the significance of iterative design in improving UAVs, achieving an

optimized design with improved endurance. They recognized the need to integrate knowledge

from various disciplines such as aerodynamics, structures, control systems, flight mechanics and

manufacturing. Practical considerations were also highlighted as crucial in the early stages of the

design process. Rigorous testing and validation were deemed essential for ensuring performance.

Compliance with regulations and safety standards were emphasized throughout the project. The

importance of continuous learning and adaptation was stressed, as well as the value of collaboration

and knowledge sharing with stakeholders, industry partners, and research institutions.

59
 Chapter 12: Future Scope
The tuned PID values will be implemented on the flight controller hardware through a

hardware in loop simulation to accomplish a pitch attitude hold autopilot system, and flight

testing the autonomous mode. A tradeoff between the empty weight and payload weight can be

performed to tailor the endurance of the aircraft. The tandem configuration of the aircraft makes

it uncomplicated to implement a vertical takeoff and landing feature by converting the fixed wing

into a rotary wing aircraft by adding a motor to each wing. A scaled-down model will be tested in

the wind tunnel to obtain the flight dynamics to further develop an accurate mathematical model.

60
 References
[1] Leland Malcolm Nicolai. Fundamentals of aircraft design. Nicolai, 1975.

[2] DANIEL SCHARPF and THOMAS MUELLER. “An experimental study of a closely

coupled tandem wing configurationat low Reynolds numbers”. In: Flight Simulation

Technologies Conference and Exhibit. 1989, p. 3094.

[3] R Liebeck. “Laminar separation bubbles and airfoil design at low Reynolds numbers”. In:

10th Applied Aerodynamics Conference. 1992, p. 2735.

[4] Thomas R Yechout. Introduction to aircraft flight mechanics. Aiaa, 2003.

[5] J Lawrence Katz et al. “On the anisotropic elastic properties of woods”. In: Journal of

materials science 43 (2008), pp. 139–145.

[6] Leland M Nicolai. “Estimating R/C model aerodynamics and performance”. In: Lockheed

Martin Aeronautical Company (2009), pp. 1–13.

[7] Wonjin Jin and Yung-Gyo Lee. “Drag reduction design for a long-endurance electric

powered UAV”. In: International Journal of Aeronautical and Space Sciences 16.2 (2015),

pp. 311–324.

[8] Tomasz Goetzendorf-Grabowski and Marcin Figat. “Aerodynamic and stability analysis

of personal vehicle in tandem-wing configuration”. In: Proceedings of the Institution

of Mechanical Engineers, Part G: Journal of Aerospace Engineering 231.11 (2017),

pp. 2146–2162.

61
 [9] HL Jeevan, HK Narahari, and AT Sriram. “Development of pitch control subsystem of

autopilot for a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle”. In: 2018 2nd International Conference

on Inventive Systems and Control (ICISC). IEEE. 2018, pp. 1233–1238.

[10] Thanda Win, Hteik Tin Cho Nyunt, and Hla Myo Tun. “Pitch attitude hold autopilot for

YTU EC-001 fixed-wing unmanned aerial vehicle”. In: 2019 First International Symposium

on Instrumentation, Control, Artificial Intelligence, and Robotics (ICA-SYMP). IEEE. 2019,

pp. 78–81.

[11] I Kitsios et al. “Longitudinal dynamics analysis and autopilot design for a fixed-wing,

tactical blended-wing-body UAV”. In: 2020 International Conference on Unmanned

Aircraft Systems (ICUAS). IEEE. 2020, pp. 149–157.

62
 DESIGN AND NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF
FINITE WING USING TUBERCLES
A Project Report Submitted to

Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi

in partial fulfilment of requirements of VIII semester Major Project 21AE8DCPW2

of BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING in AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

Manasi Manohar 1BM19AS020

Nivedita Patil 1BM19AS026

Pragathi S 1BM19AS029

Rohit Subhash 1BM19AS035

Under the guidance of Dr. D Saravanan, Assistant Professor

Department of Aerospace Engineering

Department of Aerospace Engineering

B.M.S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi) PB 1908, Bull
Temple Road, Bengaluru-560 019

July-2023
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our guide Dr.D Saravanan , Assistant Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering, B.M.S. College of Engineering, Bengaluru for his
invaluable guidance, comments and suggestions throughout the course of the project. His inputs
have been very helpful in clarifying our doubts and in maintaining a balance between
understanding and implementing the project work.

We would like to thank the Project Coordinator Dr.Chethana K Y, Assistant Professor, B. M. S.

College of Engineering, Bengaluru and Dr. Rammohan Y S, Professor & Head, Department of
Aerospace Engineering, B. M. S. College of Engineering, Bengaluru for giving us an opportunity
to work on the project.

We would also like to thank Dr. S. Muralidhara, Principal, B. M. S. College of Engineering,

Bengaluru for his consistent support to our endeavors.
 ABSTRACT

Aerodynamic efficiency of an airplane wing can be improved either by increasing its lift
generation tendency or by reducing the drag. Recently, bio-inspired designs have drawn more
notice for the geometric alterations of airplane wings. One of the bio-inspired patterns has
sinusoidal Humpback Whale (HW) tubercles, or protuberances, at the leading edge of the wings
(LE). At low Reynolds numbers, the tubercles exhibit good flow control properties.

Researchers have recently become intrigued in the leading-edge tubercles on the pectoral fins of
humpback whales since they seek to incorporate this characteristic in the design of aircraft leading
edged wings to enhance aerodynamic efficiency. The aim of this project is to perform numerical
analysis of the aerodynamic efficiency of a tubercled wing and a straight leading-edge wing. The
objective of the present study is to carry out a numerical study of the flow around a NACA0021
modified wing by the incorporation of sinusoidal tubercles on its leading edge at a low Reynolds
number .

It is anticipated that leading-edge wing planform modifications based on protuberances found on

humpback whale flippers will enhance lift and drag characteristics in the near-stall regime.When
compared to conventional wings at high Reynolds numbers, the unconventional geometry makes
flow forecasts extremely sensitive to turbulence models.Results show that for lower angles of
attack, tubercles reduce the drag coefficient with a slight increase in lift.

KEYWORDS: Aerodynamic efficiency, Bio-inspired design, lift, drag, protuberances, leading-

edge wing, NACA0021, near-stall regime
 TABLE OF CONTENT

LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………………...
NOMENCLATURE……………………………………………………………………………………...
CHAPTER 1…………………………………………………………………………………….………...1-3
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 HISTORY ......................................................................................................................... 1-2
1.2 CONCEPT ........................................................................................................................ 2-3
CHAPTER 2 .............................................................................................................................................. 4-5
LITERATURE SURVEY ............................................................................................................. 4-5
CHAPTER 3 .................................................................................................................................................. 6
PROBLEM STATEMENT............................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 4 .................................................................................................................................................. 7
AIRFOIL SELECTION .................................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 5 .............................................................................................................................................. 8-9
DESIGN OF STRAIGHT LEADING-EDGE WING ...................................................................... 8
5.1 GEOMETRY ........................................................................................................................ 8
5.2 MODEL ................................................................................................................................ 8
5.3 DOMAIN SIZE ................................................................................................................. 8-9
5.4 SETUP………………………………………………………………………………………9
5.5 SOLVER SETTINGS………………………………………………………………………9
CHAPTER 6 .......................................................................................................................................... 10-12
ANALYSIS OF STRAIGHT LEADING-EDGE WING ............................................................... 10
6.1 VARIATION OF CL WITH α............................................................................................ 10
6.2 VARIATION OF CD WITH α .......................................................................................... 11
6.3 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................... 11-12
CHAPTER 7 .......................................................................................................................................... 13-15
DESIGN OF TUBERCLED WING 1 (A10W40) .......................................................................... 13
7.1 GEOMETRY ....................................................................................................................... 13
7.2 DOMAIN SIZE .................................................................................................................... 14

7.3 SOLVER SETTINGS .......................................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER 8 .......................................................................................................................................... 16-19
ANALYSIS OF TUBERCLED WING 1 (A10W40) ..................................................................... 16
8.1 VARIATION OF CL WITH α ........................................................................................... 16
8.2 VARIATION OF CD WITH α ........................................................................................... 17
8.3 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................... 17-19
CHAPTER 9 .......................................................................................................................................... 20-22
DESIGN OF TUBERCLED WING MODEL 2 (A8W18) ............................................................. 20
9.1 GEOMETRY ...................................................................................................................... 20
9.2 DOMAIN SIZE................................................................................................................... 21
9.3 SOLVER SETTINGS ................................................................................................... 21-22
CHAPTER 10 ....................................................................................................................................... 23-26
ANALYSIS OF TUBERCLED WING 2 (A8W18 ........................................................................ 23
10.1 VARIATION OF CL WITH α .......................................................................................... 23
10.2 VARIATION OF CD WITH α ........................................................................................ 24
10.3 RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 24-26
CHAPTER 11 ....................................................................................................................................... 27-29
DESIGN OF TUBERCLED WING 3 (A8W15) ............................................................................ 27
11.1 GEOMETRY .................................................................................................................... 27
11.2 DOMAIN SIZE ................................................................................................................ 28
11.3 SOLVER SETTINGS ................................................................................................. 28-29
CHAPTER 12 ....................................................................................................................................... 30-32
ANALYSIS OF TUBERCLED WING 3 (A8W15) ....................................................................... 30
12.1 VARIATION OF CL WITH α .......................................................................................... 30
12.2 VARIATION OF CD WITH α ......................................................................................... 31
12.3 RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 31-32
CHAPTER 13 ............................................................................................................................................. 33
GRID INDEPENDENT STUDY ................................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER 14 ....................................................................................................................................... 34-35
AERODYNAMIC COMPARISION OF RESULTS ..................................................................... 34
14.1 LIFT CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................................................. 34
14.2 DRAG CHARACTERISTICS .......................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER 15 ............................................................................................................................................. 36
MATERIAL SELECTION ............................................................................................................. 36
CHAPTER 16 ....................................................................................................................................... 37-38
3D PRINTING PROCESS ............................................................................................................. 37
16.1 METHOD.......................................................................................................................... 37
16.2 ADVANTAGES ............................................................................................................... 38
16.3 MACHINE ........................................................................................................................ 38
CHAPTER 17 ....................................................................................................................................... 39-41
FLOW VISUALIZATION ............................................................................................................. 39
17.1 STUDY ............................................................................................................................. 39
 17.2 SETUP AND APPARATUS....................................................................................... 39-40
17.3 FLOW VISUALISATION AT DIFFERENT ANGLE OF ATTACK ....................... 40-41
CHAPTER 18 ............................................................................................................................................. 42
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE ....................................................................................... 42
REFERENCES ...............................................................................................................................................
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Inspiration of the concept of tubercles………………………………...………......2

Figure 2: NACA 0021 airfoil ……………………………………………………………..…7
Figure 3: : Straight leading-edge model …………………………………………………….8
Figure 4: Lift vs AOA graph …………………………………………….………………... 10
Figure 5: Drag vs AOA graph …………………………………………………………… 11
Figure 6: Fig 6: Velocity contour……………………………………………..…………… 11
Figure 7: Pressure contour………………………………………………………………….12
Figure 8: Tubercle wing model 1(A10W40) …………………………………………….…14
Figure 9: Lift vs AOA graph …………………………………………………………...…. 16
Figure 10: Drag vs AOA graph …………………………………………………………….17
Figure 11: Pressure contour ………………………………………………………………. 17
Figure 12: Pressure contour(cut plot)………………………………………… ……………18
Fig 13: Pressure contour ……………………………………………………………………18
Fig 14: Velocity and pressure contour………………………………………………………18
Fig 15: Flow trajectories contour……………………………………………………………18
Fig 16: Flow trajectories contour (cut plot) ………………………………………………..19
Fig 17: Tubercle wing model 2 (A8W18) ………………………………………………… 21
Fig 18: Lift vs AOA graph…………………………………………………………………..23
Fig 19: Drag vs AOA graph…………………………………………………………………24
Fig 20: Pressure and velocity contours ……………………………………………………..24
Fig 21: Pressure and velocity contours ……………………………………………………..25
Fig 22: Vorticity contours …………………………………………………………………..25
Fig 23: Vorticity contours …………………………………………………………………..25
Fig 24: Pressure contour…………………………………………………………………….26
Fig 25:Tubercle wing model 3 (A8W15) …………………………………………………..28
Fig 26: Lift vs AOA graph………………………………………………………………….29
Fig 27: Drag vs AOA graph………………………………………………………………...30
Fig 28: Pressure contour…………………………………………………………………….31
Fig 29: Velocity contour……………………………………………………………………32
Fig 30: Velocity contour……………………………………………………………………32
Fig 31: Velocity contour (cut plot) …………………………………………………………32
Fig 32: Comparative graph of Lift vs AOA of all the models………………………………33
Fig 33: Comparative graph of Drag vs AOA of all the models…………………………….34
Fig 34: 3D printing of model……………………………………………………………….36
Fig 35: 3D printed model…………………………………………………………………...36
Fig 36: FDM process………………………………………………………………………..37
Fig 37: 3D printing machine………………………………………………………………..37
Fig 38: Wind tunnel model arrangement……………………………………………………39
Fig 39: Flow visualisation at 0 ° AOA………………………………………………………40
Fig 40: Flow visualisation at 5 ° AOA………………………………………………………41
Fig 41: Flow visualisation at 15 ° AOA……………………………………………………..41
 NOMENCLATURE

Re Reynolds Number

SLE Straight Leading Edge

TLE Tubercled Leading Edge

NACA National Advisory Committee for

Aeronautics.

CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics

AOA Angle of Attack

CL Coefficient of Lift

CD Coefficient of Drag

CX Axial component of force acting on the

aircraft body

CY Normal component of force acting on the

aircraft body
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Tubercles are bio-inspired airfoil components that take their inspiration from the humpback whale's
(Magaptera no-vaeangliae) flipper, which resembles knuckles protruding out from a wing leading edge.
The humpback is well known for its ability to make precise maneuvers, and biologists have concluded
that tubercles are responsible for creating the required aerodynamic forces. One should infer that
tubercles may contribute to enhancing maximum lift since the radius of curvature of a maneuver is
inversely proportional to the lift.

The design of aircraft wings has always been a critical area of research and development, with engineers
constantly seeking ways to improve aerodynamic performance and fuel efficiency. In recent years, the
use of tubercles on the wings of aircraft has emerged as a promising design approach.

In this project, the use of tubercles on aircraft wings has been explored, with the goal of improving lift,
reducing drag, and increasing efficiency. Tubercles are small, raised bumps or protrusions along the
leading edge of the wing, inspired by the fins of humpback whales. These bumps alter the flow of air
over the wing, creating vortices that help to delay the onset of turbulence and increase lift.

This project involves developing the design of two distinct wing models for a comprehensive
comparative study. One model features a straight leading-edge design, while the other incorporates a
tubercled wing configuration. The primary objective of this study is to analyse and evaluate the
performance of both wing models based on the results obtained from analysis. By meticulously
examining the aerodynamic performance of each design, the team aims to gain valuable insights into
the advantages and drawbacks of straight leading-edge wings versus tubercled wings. This study will
contribute to the advancement of aerospace engineering and aid in optimizing future wing designs.

The outcomes of this project could have significant implications for the aviation industry, with the
potential to improve aircraft performance and reduce fuel consumption. This research will effectively
contribute to the ongoing efforts to improve the design of aircraft wings and will be beneficial for the
broader engineering community.

1.1 HISTORY

The history of tubercles in the field of aerospace engineering dates back to the early 1980s when
scientist Dr. Frank Fish studied the unique features of humpback whale flippers. He observed that
tubercles, small bumps on the leading edge of the flippers, contributed to their remarkable agility
and maneuverability.

Intrigued by this discovery, engineers and researchers began investigating the application of
tubercles in aerodynamics. They hypothesized that tubercles could improve the performance of
aircraft wings and airfoils by reducing drag and enhancing lift.

1
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, experiments and computational studies were conducted to validate
the potential benefits of tubercles. The research demonstrated that these small protrusions could
delay the onset of flow separation, resulting in improved lift-to-drag ratios and increased overall
aerodynamic efficiency.

The implementation of tubercles in aerospace engineering gained momentum as more studies

confirmed their advantages. Airfoil designs with tubercles showed reduced drag, increased lift, and
improved stall characteristics. These benefits attracted attention from various sectors, including
commercial aviation, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and wind turbine technology.

Today, tubercles continue to be explored and integrated into various aerospace applications. Their
impact extends to areas such as wing design, rotor blades, and even biomimetic aircraft concepts.
Tubercles have played a significant role in enhancing aerodynamic performance, contributing to
more efficient and sustainable aerospace systems.

1.2 CONCEPT

Biomimetics is the study and imitation of nature's solutions to problems and challenges, with the
goal of creating new and innovative technologies. By studying natural systems, scientists and
engineers can gain insights into efficient and effective design principles that can be applied to
human-made technologies.

Tubercles, also known as Leading Edge Protuberances (LEPs), are small bumps or protrusions
placed along the leading edge of an airfoil or wing. These bumps are inspired by the flippers of
humpback whales, which have a series of bumps along their leading edge that help them to swim
more efficiently. Tubercles on wings create vortices that help to improve lift and reduce drag,
resulting in more efficient flight.

The idea of tubercled wings was first proposed by aeronautical engineer and physicist Michael Selig
in the late 1990s, based on his research on humpback whale flippers.

Fig 1: Inspiration of the concept of tubercles

2
Tubercled wings have a series of rounded bumps, or tubercles, on the leading edge of the wing.
These bumps disrupt the airflow over the wing, causing small vortices to form which help to reduce
drag and improve lift. This results in better overall aerodynamic performance for the aircraft. One
of the key benefits of tubercled wing design is that it can increase the maximum lift coefficient of
the wing, allowing for better performance at high angles of attack. This can be especially useful for
aircraft that operate at low speeds or for aircraft that need to take off and land on short runways.

Tubercled wings have been tested on a variety of aircraft, including small drones, gliders, and full-
sized aircraft. Some studies have shown that tubercled wings can reduce drag by up to 32% and
increase lift by up to 6%, compared to conventional wing designs.

In addition to improving lift and reducing drag, tubercled wings have other benefits as well. They
can help to reduce noise and vibrations, and they may be more resistant to icing than traditional
smooth wings.

In this project, the use of tubercles on aircraft wings has been explored, with the goal of improving
lift, reducing drag, and increasing efficiency.

This project involves developing computational models of tubercled wings and simulating their
aerodynamic performance.

The design of aircraft wings has always been a critical area of research and development, with
engineers constantly seeking ways to improve aerodynamic performance and fuel efficiency. In
recent years, the use of tubercles on the wings of aircraft has emerged as a promising design
approach.

While tubercled wing design has shown promise in improving aircraft performance, it is not yet
widely used in commercial aviation. This is because the design is still relatively new and more
research and testing is needed to fully understand its potential benefits and limitations.

The outcomes of this project could have significant implications for the aviation industry, with the
potential to improve aircraft performance and reduce fuel consumption. This research will
effectively contribute to the ongoing efforts to improve the design of aircraft wings and this project
will be beneficial for the broader engineering community.

3
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE SURVEY
This literature survey aims to comprehensively explore and analyze the existing research on the
application of tubercles in aerospace engineering.

By examining the studies conducted in this area, the report seeks to provide insights into the benefits
and challenges associated with tubercle-based designs. The findings will contribute to a
comprehensive understanding of the role of tubercles in enhancing aerodynamic efficiency and
sustainability in aerospace engineering.

In the field of biomimetics, the term “tubercles” has a more recent history. It is used to describe
small, rounded protrusions or bumps that are found on the surfaces of some marine animals, such as
sharks and dolphins. The study of these tubercles began in the 1960s, when researchers began to
investigate the hydrodynamic properties of shark skin. They found that the rough, sandpaper-like
texture of shark skin, which is covered in tiny dermal denticles or “skin teethcreates a pattern of
vortices in the water that reduce drag and increase swimming efficiency.

The use of tubercles to the leading edge of airfoils is one of the most recent innovations. A
tubercle is a small bump or protuberance that appears to resemble the shape of a humpback
whale’s flippers on the surface of an airfoil. It has been demonstrated that the addition of
tubercles enhance the aerodynamic performance of airfoils, particularly in post-stall
situations, which are crucial for steering and manoeuvring.

The aerodynamic efficiency of an aircraft is greatly influenced by the design of its wings.
Researchers have investigated several strategies to increase wing lift and decrease wing drag over
the years.

Hansen et al. Conducted experiments that examined the performance of several airfoils to determine
the impact of leading-edge tubercle geometry [1]. According to the study, the NACA 0021 airfoils
usage of tubercles provided just a little pre-stall advantage, but significantly improved post-stall lift-
to-drag ratio and smoother stall characteristics. The most advantageous tubercles also had a smaller
amplitude and a narrower wavelength. The tubercle performance on the NACA 65-021 airfoil is
impacted by the point of maximum thickness, retaining a greater lift-to-drag ratio unless
near stall and modifying pitching moment characteristics for both airfoils.

Bolzon, Michael D.P et al. Conducted the wake survey and observed that the tubercled wing reduced
profile drag coefficient up to an angle of attack of 6◦, and reduced induced drag coefficient, but
increased profile drag coefficient from 9◦ onwards [2]. It was concluded that tubercles modulated
profile and induced drag coefficients along the span, creating local maxima and minima in troughs
and over peaks. It has also been shown that a variation in thickness along the span, which creates
channels of sorts along the chord, can be used to break up the separation regions and create spanwise
fences, which can increase Clmax .

4
Seyhan et al. Conducted the study that depicted the advantages of leading-edge tubercles for
enhancing aerodynamic performance in airfoil. These adjustments show increased lift and postpone
stall, leading to increased efficiency and less drag. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that
leading-edge tubercles work well in a variety of airfoil designs, even those with low Reynolds
numbers, where conventional airfoils may have serious performance issues.[5].

Joseph and Sathyabhama conducted similar experimental study providing useful methods for
determining if leading-edge tubercles improve aerodynamic performance [6]. They investigated how
tubercles affected swept wings at low Reynolds numbers in their study. Computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) simulations have been used to model the complex flow fields around airfoils,
providing valuable insight into the impact of airfoil modifications on aerodynamic performance.
They discovered that the application of tubercles improved aerodynamic performance.

Custodio and Derrick conducted studies to focus on the leading-edge protuberances and their
potential to advance current hydrofoil and airfoil technology. The NACA 634-021 airfoil is generally
being used for experiments and laser doppler techniques for High-speed Water Tunnel testing and
the low-speed full-span Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) tests .Computer-aided design(CAD)
software’s such as SolidWorks and Pro-Engineer are used for designing a number of hydrofoil
models with similar wavelength and amplitude range modelled on the humpback whales flipper.[7]

Carreira Pedro et al. focussed on implementing humpback whale flippers to the autonomous aircrafts
(UAV). They numerically simulated the wind tunnel tests for two different wings that were modelled
based on the Humpback whale’s flipper. One of the fins has a leading edge with scallops, and the
other has a flat leading edge.[8] The flipper aerodynamics were successfully determined in the low
Reynolds number region. The experimental study suggests that the scalloped flipper works
noticeably better aerodynamically as it approaches separation. Due to the approximation of the
Reynolds number (5*10^5), some of the low Reynolds effects could be observed. The contrast
between the two geometries provides some concepts to enhance the aerodynamic efficiency of the
UAVs wings.

Therefore, the development of the concept of “tubercles” in biomimetics has a strong association
with the investigation of hydrodynamics and the application of design principles that are inspired by
nature to create technologies that are more efficient and sustainable.

5
 CHAPTER 3: PROBLEM STATEMENT
Comparison of the aerodynamic efficiency of a straight leading-edge wing and a tubercled wing

The problem statement aims to compare the aerodynamic efficiency of two different wing designs:
a straight leading-edge wing and a tubercled wing. The aerodynamic efficiency of an aircraft wing
directly impacts its overall performance, fuel consumption, and maneuverability.

• The straight leading-edge wing is a conventional design commonly used in aerospace

engineering. It features a smooth, uninterrupted leading edge. On the other hand, the
tubercled wing incorporates small bumps or tubercles along its leading edge, inspired by
humpback whale flippers. These tubercles alter the airflow characteristics and have shown
potential in improving aerodynamic performance.

• By comparing the aerodynamic efficiency of these two wing designs, the study seeks to
evaluate the benefits and drawbacks associated with tubercle implementation. It aims to
analyze parameters such as stall characteristics, drag reduction, and overall performance. The
comparison will provide insights into whether the tubercled wing design offers superior
aerodynamic performance compared to the conventional straight leading-edge wing

• The results of this study can contribute to the understanding of the effectiveness of tubercles
in aerospace applications and inform future wing design considerations. The findings may
have implications for aircraft performance, fuel efficiency, and sustainability in the field of
aerospace engineering.

6
 CHAPTER 4: AIRFOIL SELECTION
The choice of the NACA 0021 airfoil in this project was based on a literature survey. The literature
survey involved reviewing research papers, technical reports, and other relevant sources to identify
airfoils commonly used in wing design and their associated aerodynamic properties. The NACA
0021 airfoil was chosen over other airfoils such as NACA 63-021, NACA 63-006, NACA 63-009,
NACA 63-012 because it has a symmetric shape that simplifies the design process and makes it
easier to implement modifications such as the addition of tubercles.

Additionally, the NACA 0021 airfoil has well-understood aerodynamic properties and extensive data
availability in the literature, making it a suitable choice for this project. The other airfoils mentioned,
such as NACA 63-021, have a cambered shape that can complicate the design process and may
require additional modifications to implement tubercles effectively.

The NACA 0021 airfoil is a well-known airfoil with a symmetric shape, which simplifies the design
process and makes it easier to implement modifications such as the addition of tubercles. The
symmetric shape also means that the airfoil performs equally well in both directions, making it
suitable for applications where the wing may need to be reversible.

Furthermore, the aerodynamic properties of these airfoils at low speeds and high angles of attack
may not be as well understood as the NACA 0021 airfoil. Additionally, its favorable aerodynamic
properties, including a high lift-to-drag ratio and low drag coefficient at moderate angles of attack,
make it a suitable choice for low-speed applications, such as those involving general aviation aircraft,
gliders, and drones. These properties make it an excellent choice for low-speed applications, such as
general aviation aircraft, gliders, and drones.

In the project involving wing design using tubercles, the NACA 0021 airfoil is used due to its well-
understood aerodynamic properties and extensive data available in the literature. The NACA 0021
airfoil’ s properties make it suitable for low-speed applications, which is relevant to the project as
tubercles have been shown to improve wing performance at low speeds.

Therefore, the choice of the NACA 0021 airfoil in this project was likely based on its well understood
aerodynamic properties and extensive data availability in the literature. Additionally, its symmetric
shape simplifies the design process and makes it easier to implement modifications such as the
addition of tubercles.

Fig 2: NACA 0021 airfoil

7
 CHAPTER 5:DESIGN OF STRAIGHT LEADING-EDGE WING
5.1 GEOMETRY

A straight edged wing was chosen as a reference to understand and compare the results to be obtained
from the tubercled wing. The key features of the wing are given below:

PARAMETER DIMENSION

Wingspan 330mm

Airfoil NACA 0021

Sweep angle Zero

Table 1: Parameters of straight leading-edge model

5.2 MODEL

The wing model is given below:

Fig 3: Straight leading-edge model

5.3 DOMAIN SIZE

It refers to the extent or dimensions of the computational domain surrounding the straight leading
edge wing model. It encompasses the space necessary to capture the flow field and aerodynamic
effects around the wing accurately.
The domain size should be chosen carefully to include an adequate region upstream, downstream,

8
and laterally from the wing to minimize boundary effects and ensure accurate results. It should be
large enough to capture the important flow features while considering computational resources.

Properly sizing the domain is crucial to obtain reliable and meaningful simulations of the
aerodynamic behavior of the model.

DIRECTION VALUE
X 1m

Y 1m

Z 0.5 m
Table 2: Domain size

5.4 SETUP

Commercial CFD code ANSYS Fluent-16 is used as a solver for all the simulations of the straight
leading-edge wing and the wing geometry is created in AUTODESK FUSION 360. The above
ANSYS modules are connected in the ANSYS Workbench-16 environment.

5.5 SOLVER SETTINGS

Density based solver is used for all the steady state simulations of delta wing. Air is used as a fluid
material medium with density following the ideal gas law. K-Omega SST model is used.
The boundary conditions include symmetry, no slip wall and velocity inlet. Inlet velocity is entered
as components and supersonic/initial gauge pressure is defined to be zero. The ambient temperature
and static pressure are entered in the velocity inlet and operating conditions are set respectively. The
spatial discretization order of accuracy is chosen to be the 2nd order with Roe-FDS as flux type.
The convergence criteria for all the discretized equations are set to 10-4. The solver is initialized
using hybrid initialization.

Ambient temperature 291 K

Freestream velocity 15 m/s

Dynamic viscosity 1.7894e-05 kg/(m s)

Ratio of specific heats 1.4

Table 3: Boundary conditions

9
 CHAPTER 6: ANALYSIS OF STRAIGHT LEADING-EDGE WING

Simulations are performed for various angles of attack. Lift and drag coefficients are obtained at all
these angles of attack. At each angle of attack, the lift and drag coefficients are computed using the
following equation:

CL = CY cos α – CX sin α
CD = CY sin α + CX cos α
where,
CL is the Lift coefficient
CD is the Drag coefficient
CY is the normal component of force acting on the aircraft body
CX is the axial component of force acting on the aircraft body

6.1 VARIATION OF COEFFICIENT OF LIFT (CL) WITH THE ANGLE OF ATTACK(α)

The CL Vs α curve is shown in the figure below. It shows a linear increase in C L with increase in
angle of attack which is a regular linear behavior. This linear behavior continues till the angle of
attack is 22° after which the flow changes and a drop in lift appears.

Fig 4: Lift vs AOA graph

10
6.2 VARIATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DRAG (CD) WITH THE ANGLE OF ATTACK(α)

The CD vs α curve is shown in the figure below. The drag coefficient (CD) curve increases
continuously with the angle of attack up to angle of 22° then increases continuously.

Fig 5: Drag vs AOA graph

6.3 RESULTS

The contours of pressure and velocity are also plotted and as shown in the below figures.

Fig 6: Velocity contour

11
Fig 7: Pressure contour

12
 CHAPTER 7:DESIGN OF TUBERCLED WING 1(A10W40)

7.1 GEOMETRY

The figure below shows the tubercled wing that was designed in a AutoDesk Fusion 360. The wing
is modeled such that the wingspan is 330mm and the chord length is 150mm. The amplitude of the
tubercles are 10mm and have a wavelength of 40mm. There is no sweep applied to the wing. The
airfoil used is NACA 0021 to maintain uniformity of the analysis and to compare the results. The
number of tubercles present are 9. This model was designed to have a wavelength of 40mm and
amplitude of 10mm.

The main parameters that were used for designing the model are given below:

PARAMETER DIMENSION

Wingspan 330mm

Airfoil NACA 0021

Sweep angle Zero

Number of 9
tubercles

Wavelength 40 mm

Amplitude 10 mm

Table 4: Parameters of tubercle wing model 1

13
 The wing model is given below:

Fig 8: Tubercle wing model 1(A10W40)

7.2 DOMAIN SIZE

It refers to the extent or dimensions of the computational domain surrounding the straight leading
edge wing model. It encompasses the space necessary to capture the flow field and aerodynamic
effects around the wing accurately.
The domain size should be chosen carefully to include an adequate region upstream, downstream,
and laterally from the wing to minimize boundary effects and ensure accurate results. It should be
large enough to capture the important flow features while considering computational resources.

Properly sizing the domain is crucial to obtain reliable and meaningful simulations of the
aerodynamic behavior of the model.

DIRECTION VALUE
X 1m

Y 1m

Z 0.5 m
Table 5: Domain size

14
7.3 SOLVER SETTINGS

The tubercled wing was constructed similarly to the straight leading edge wing.

Ambient temperature 291 K

Freestream velocity 15 m/s

Dynamic viscosity 1.7894e-05 kg/(m s)

Ratio of specific heats 1.4

Table 6: Boundary conditions

15
 CHAPTER 8: ANALYSIS OF TUBERCLED WING 1 (A10W40)

Simulations are performed for various angles of attack. Lift and drag coefficients are obtained at all
these angles of attack. At each angle of attack, the lift and drag coefficients are computed using the
following equation:

CL = CY cos α – CX sin α
CD = CY sin α + CX cos α
where,
CL is the Lift coefficient
CD is the Drag coefficient
CY is the normal component of force acting on the aircraft body
CX is the axial component of force acting on the aircraft body

8.1 VARIATION OF COEFFICIENT OF LIFT (CL) WITH THE ANGLE OF ATTACK(α)

The CL Vs α curve is shown in the figure below. It shows a linear increase in C L with increase in
angle of attack which is a regular linear behavior. This linear behavior continues till the angle of
attack is 18° after which the flow changes and a drop in lift appears.

Fig 9: Lift vs AOA graph

16
8.2 VARIATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DRAG (CD) WITH THE ANGLE OF ATTACK(α)

The CD vs α curve is shown in the figure below. The drag coefficient (CD) curve increases
continuously with the angle of attack up to angle of 18° then increases continuously.

Fig 10: Drag vs AOA graph

8.3 RESULTS

The figures below provide the contour images of the pressure and velocity over the surface of the
wing at different angles of attack. By comparison with the results obtained by straight leading-edge
wings, tubercles on wings delay stall and reduce induced drag.

Fig 11: Pressure contour

17
 Fig 12: Pressure contour(cut plot)

Fig 13: Pressure contour

Fig 14: Velocity and pressure contour

Fig 15: Flow trajectories contour

18
Fig 16: Flow trajectories contour (cut plot)

19
 CHAPTER 9: DESIGN OF TUBERCLED WING MODEL 2 (A8W18)

9.1 GEOMETRY

The figure below shows the tubercled wing that was designed in a AutoDesk Fusion 360. The wing
is modelled such that the wingspan is 330mm and the chord length is 150mm. The amplitude of the
tubercles are 8mm and have a wavelength of 18mm. There is no sweep applied to the wing. The
airfoil used is NACA 0021 to maintain uniformity of the analysis and to compare the results. The
number of tubercles present are 9. This model was designed to have a wavelength of 18mm and
amplitude of 8mm.

The main parameters that were used for designing the model are given below:

PARAMETER DIMENSION

Wingspan 330 mm

Airfoil NACA 0021

Sweep angle Zero

Number of 9
tubercles

Wavelength 18 mm

Amplitude 8 mm

Table 7: Parameters of tubercle wing model 2

20
The wing model is given below:

Fig 17: Tubercle wing model 2 (A8W18)

9.2 DOMAIN SIZE

It refers to the extent or dimensions of the computational domain surrounding the straight leading
edge wing model. It encompasses the space necessary to capture the flow field and aerodynamic
effects around the wing accurately.
The domain size should be chosen carefully to include an adequate region upstream, downstream,
and laterally from the wing to minimize boundary effects and ensure accurate results. It should be
large enough to capture the important flow features while considering computational resources.

Properly sizing the domain is crucial to obtain reliable and meaningful simulations of the
aerodynamic behavior of the model.

DIRECTION VALUE
X 1m

Y 1m

Z 0.5 m
Table 8: Domain size

9.3 SOLVER SETTINGS

The tubercled wing model 2 was constructed similarly to the other models. Air is employed as a
fluid medium with freestream velocity as 15m/s.
21
Mentioned below are the settings:

Ambient temperature 293 K

Freestream velocity 15 m/s

Pressure 101325 Pa

Table 9: Boundary conditions

22
 CHAPTER 10: ANALYSIS OF TUBERCLED WING-2 (A8W18)

Simulations are performed for various angles of attack. Lift and drag coefficients are obtained at all
these angles of attack. At each angle of attack, the lift and drag coefficients are computed using the
following equation:

CL = CY cos α – CX sin α
CD = CY sin α + CX cos α
where,
CL is the Lift coefficient
CD is the Drag coefficient
CY is the normal component of force acting on the aircraft body
CX is the axial component of force acting on the aircraft body

10.1 VARIATION OF COEFFICIENT OF LIFT (CL) WITH THE ANGLE OF

ATTACK(α)

The CL Vs α curve is shown in the figure below. It shows a linear increase in C L with increase in
angle of attack which is a regular linear behavior. This linear behavior continues till the angle of
attack is 18° after which the flow changes and a drop in lift appears.

Fig 18: Lift vs AOA graph

23
10.2 VARIATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DRAG (CD) WITH THE ANGLE OF
ATTACK(α)

The CD vs α curve is shown in the figure below. The drag coefficient (CD) curve increases
continuously with the angle of attack up to angle of 18° then increases continuously.

Fig 19: Drag vs AOA graph

10.3 RESULTS

The contour images of the pressure and velocity over the surface of the wing at various angles of
attack are shown in the figures below. From the graphs, maximum lift slightly increases noticeably
by 13% at 10° AOA, and its drag decreases noticeably by 0.4%. This improves the aircraft's
efficiency, cutting down on fuel use.

Fig 20: Pressure and velocity contours

24
Fig 21: Pressure and velocity contours

Fig 22: Vorticity contours

Fig 23: Vorticity contours

25
Fig 24: Pressure contour

26
 CHAPTER 11: DESIGN OF TUBERCLED WING 3 (A8W15)

11.1 GEOMETRY

The figure below shows the tubercled wing that was designed in a AutoDesk Fusion 360. The wing
is modeled such that the wingspan is 330mm and the chord length is 150mm. The amplitude of the
tubercles are 8mm and have a wavelength of 15mm. There is no sweep applied to the wing. The
airfoil used is NACA 0021 to maintain uniformity of the analysis and to compare the results. The
number of tubercles present are 9. This model was designed to have a wavelength of 15mm and
amplitude of 8mm.

PARAMETER DIMENSION

Wingspan 330 mm

Airfoil NACA 0021

Sweep angle Zero

Number of tubercles 9

Wavelength 15 mm

Amplitude 8 mm

Table 10: Parameters of tubercle wing model 3

27
The wing model is given below:

Fig 25:Tubercle wing model 3 (A8W15)

11.2 DOMAIN SIZE

It refers to the extent or dimensions of the computational domain surrounding the straight leading
edge wing model. It encompasses the space necessary to capture the flow field and aerodynamic
effects around the wing accurately.
The domain size should be chosen carefully to include an adequate region upstream, downstream,
and laterally from the wing to minimize boundary effects and ensure accurate results. It should be
large enough to capture the important flow features while considering computational resources.

Properly sizing the domain is crucial to obtain reliable and meaningful simulations of the
aerodynamic behavior of the model.

DIRECTION VALUE
X 1m

Y 1m

Z 0.5 m
Table 11: Domain size

11.3 SOLVER SETTINGS

The tubercled wing model 3 was constructed similarly to the other models. Air is employed as a
fluid medium with freestream velocity as 15m/s.

28
Mentioned below are the settings:

Ambient temperature 293 K

Freestream velocity 15 m/s

Pressure 101325 Pa

Table 12: Boundary conditions

29
 CHAPTER 12: ANALYSIS OF TUBERCLED WING 3 (A8W15)

Simulations are performed for various angles of attack. Lift and drag coefficients are obtained at all
these angles of attack. At each angle of attack, the lift and drag coefficients are computed using the
following equation:

CL = CY cos α – CX sin α
CD = CY sin α + CX cos α
where,
CL is the Lift coefficient
CD is the Drag coefficient
CY is the normal component of force acting on the aircraft body
CX is the axial component of force acting on the aircraft body

12.1 VARIATION OF COEFFICIENT OF LIFT (CL) WITH THE ANGLE OF ATTACK(α)

The CL Vs α curve is shown in the figure below. It shows a linear increase in C L with increase in
angle of attack which is a regular linear behavior. This linear behavior continues till the angle of
attack is 20° after which the flow changes and a drop in lift appears.

Fig 26: Lift vs AOA graph

30
 12.2 VARIATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DRAG (CD) WITH THE ANGLE OF
ATTACK(α)

The CD vs α curve is shown in the figure below. The drag coefficient (CD) curve increases
continuously with the angle of attack up to angle of 20° then increases continuously.

Fig 27: Drag vs AOA graph

12.3 RESULTS

The contour images of the pressure and velocity over the surface of the wing at various angles of attack are
shown in the figures below. Tubercles on wings delay stall and decrease drag when compared to the outcomes
of straight leading-edge wings.

Fig 28: Pressure contour

31
 Fig 29: Velocity contour

Fig 30: Velocity contour

Fig 31: Velocity contour (cut plot)

32
 CHAPTER 13: GRID INDEPENDENT STUDY

A grid independent study provides valuable insights into the sensitivity of the results with respect to
grid refinement. It helps identify the optimal grid size for accurate predictions, striking a balance
between computational cost and desired accuracy.

It is a process followed to find the optimal grid condition that has the smallest number of grids
without generating a difference in the numerical results based on the evaluation of various grid
conditions.

Understanding the grid dependence allows researchers to optimize the computational resources,
enabling efficient simulations.

The following results were obtained for various types of mesh:

TUBERCLE MESH SIZE AOA LIFT DRAG

WING
MODEL (in m)

1(A10W40) 0.01 0 0.222986518 0.471386672

0.009 0 0.28874328 0.148374809

0.007 0 0.27014302 0.139176471

2(A8W18) 0.01 0 0.256251009 0.256915678

0.009 0 0.255993534 0.252870177

0.007 0 0.255982443 0.268806927

3(A8W15) 0.01 0 0.120022311 0.195433726

0.009 0 0.190523459 0.130298898

0.007 0 0.190181052 0.119693298

Table 13: Grid independent study

From the grid independent study,it can be seen that the values of lift and drag obtained for the
tubercle wing model 2 is converging at a mesh size of 0.007m.

33
 CHAPTER 14: AERODYNAMIC COMPARISON OF RESULTS

14.1 LIFT CHARACTERISTICS

The straight leading edge wing gave the highest lift compared to the other wing models that were
analyzed.

It was observed that as the amplitude and the wavelength decreases, the lift results obtained were
better. The models with similar amplitude but different wavelength performed differently as well.
The model with amplitude 8mm and wavelength 18mm performed better when compared to the other
tubercle models.
To get better results, results with respect to lift characteristics, further analysis must be conducted.

Fig 32: Comparative graph of Lift vs AOA of all the models

14.2 DRAG CHARACTERISTICS

From the comparison of the drag characteristics, it is seen that the better results were achieved with
reduction in wavelength and amplitude.

Tubercle wing 2 with an amplitude of 8mm and wavelength 18mm performed better when compared
to the straight leading edge wing as well. This could be due to the reduction in induced drag as
suggested by the literature survey.

As the induced drag reduces, the total drag acting on the wing reduces hence allowing the wing to
perform better when compared to the straight leading edge wing.

34
Fig 33: Comparative graph of Drag vs AOA of all the models

35
 CHAPTER 15: MATERIAL SELECTION

Polylactic acid or polylactide (PLA) is a bioactive polyester made up of lactic acid building blocks.
The density of PLA is 1.43g/cm3. It is a common thermoplastic polymer derived from natural
sources such as corn starch or sugar cane — in contrast to other thermoplastics which are produced
from non-
renewable sources such as petroleum. PLA is an eco-friendly material, as it’s biodegradable, non-
toxic and also requires less energy to 3D print and emits fewer greenhouse gasses than petroleum-
based
materials. A range of industries are using PLA to produce 3D printed products.

The ColorFabb PLA Economy is a high-quality PLA 3D printing filament, and is used for 3D
printing
the tubercle wing model.

It is a grade developed for manufacturing 3D printer monofilament. It is impact modified to improve

toughness.

Table 14: PLA material properties

Hence, PLA has been chosen as the ideal material for fabricating the tubercle wing model.

36
 CHAPTER 16: 3D PRINTING PROCESS

From the analysis performed it was observed that the tubercle model 1 performed better when
compared to the other models. Hence it was chosen as the model to be fabricated to perform flow
visualization.

16.1 METHOD

An extrusion-based 3D printing technique i.e. Fused Deposition modeling (FDM) is used. FDM
technology uses the build input material in the form of thermoplastic filaments which is liquified
and resolidified into the desired shape according to the defined CAD model.

The thermoplastic polymers used as the building blocks in FDM are available as filaments. FDM
involves layer-by-layer selective deposition of melted material along a path specified by the CAD
model to create a product.
The images shown below are that of the tubercle wing model being 3D printed by the FDM method

Fig 34: 3D printing of model

Fig 35: 3D printed model

37
 16.2 ADVANTAGES

Speed is one of the biggest reasons to use FDM 3D printing. A complete part can be 3D printed in a
few minutes or a few hours, shortening lead times and speeding up the prototyping process. FDM
can also allow printing of larger objects, and the easily scalable design of FDM printers means a low
cost-to-size ratio.

When it comes to materials, there are plenty of choices with FDM. FDM printers accept a wide range
of filament materials and colors, and they’re often budget-friendly. Common FDM filament
materials include acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG),
polylactic acid (PLA), and nylon.

Fig 36: FDM process

16.3 MACHINE

The 3D printer used for this is the Ultimaker S5:

Fig 37: 3D printing machine

38
 CHAPTER 17: FLOW VISUALIZATION

17.1 STUDY

Theoretical analysis, numerical computing, and experiment can all be used to study fluid flow. For
surveying or measuring the flow of a fluid that is typically invisible due to its transparency,
visualization is one of many experimental approaches available.

By utilizing flow visualization techniques, a flow pattern can be made visible and observed directly
or captured on camera. At a certain point in time, the entire field of vision has access to the flow
information.

This information can be quantitative so that the flow's characteristics, such as velocity and density,
can be quantified, or it can be qualitative, providing an understanding of the mechanical and physical
processes involved in its production.

Fig 38: Wind tunnel model arrangement

17.2 SETUP AND APPARATUS

An experimental method of analyzing the flow pattern over or around a body is flow visualization.
By adding dye, smoke, or pigment to the flow in the area being investigated, the flow is "visualized".
The capacity to describe a flow across a model without complex data reduction and analysis is the
main benefit of such a method. Streams of vapor are introduced into the smoke flow to visualize it.
Following filament lines, which are formed by all the fluid particles that pass through the injection
point, is the vapor. The filament lines and streamlines (lines that are always perpendicular to the
velocity vector) are the same in a steady flow. The whole flow pattern around a body can thus be
shown by smoke-flow visualization.

39
Apparatus required:

1. Wind tunnel
2. Wing model
3. Heating coil
4. Paraffin wax

17.3 FLOW VISUALISATION AT DIFFERENT ANGLE OF ATTACK

CASE 1: At zero angle of attack:

During the smoke test, flow separation can be observed as the smoke lines or streaks detaching from
the wing's surface and forming turbulent eddies or vortices. These separated flow regions may appear
as chaotic, swirling patterns, indicating the presence of unsteady and disrupted airflow. It was
observed that at a distance of 2.7mm from the leading edge of the model, the flow separation
occurred after which vortices were formed indicating the presence of disrupted flow.

Fig 39: Flow visualisation at 0 ° AOA

40
CASE 2:At a positive angle of attack:
The smoke visualization study was performed at two positive angle of attacks of value 5 ° and 15 °.
It was observed that as the angle of attack increases, the point at which the flow separated moved
further to the leading edge. At a certain angle of attack, the flow completely separated from the
surface of the model and created a turbulent flow at the trailing edge.

Fig 40: Flow visualisation at 5 ° AOA

Fig 41: Flow visualisation at 15 ° AOA

41
 CHAPTER 18: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

In this project, the potential benefits of incorporating tubercles on aircraft wings were explored. The
research conducted demonstrated that the implementation of tubercles can improve aerodynamic
performance by increasing lift, reducing drag, and improving stall characteristics during cruise
control. Additionally, tubercles can enhance the stability and maneuverability of aircraft, particularly
at low speeds. While the concept of using tubercles on aircraft wings is not new, recent advancements
in computational modeling and manufacturing technologies have made it easier to design and
produce tubercled wings with greater precision and efficiency. As such, it is possible that the use of
tubercles could become more common in aircraft design in the future. During the semester, the team
accomplished several tasks, including the modeling of a straight leading edge wing design on Fusion
360, and the modeling of various tubercled wing designs by varying parameters such as the number
of tubercles, the wavelength, and amplitude of the sinusoidal wave of the leading edge.

By performing the flow visualization test,the flow separation patterns could also be studied in detail.

The project has demonstrated the potential of tubercled wing design to improve the efficiency, safety,
and performance of aircraft in various applications. This project involves designing three models of
the tubercled wing and performing a comparative study based on the aerodynamic performance
obtained from analysis .

In conclusion, this major project successfully achieved its objective of modeling straight leading
edge and three tubercled wing models and conducting a comprehensive comparative study based on
their aerodynamic performance. Through meticulous CFD analysis, valuable insights were gained
into the behavior and efficiency of each wing design. The results revealed that the tubercled wing
models exhibited superior aerodynamic performance compared to the straight leading edge wing
model. The tubercled wings demonstrated enhanced lift, reduced drag, and improved stall
characteristics, leading to potential applications in various aerospace fields. These findings provide
valuable knowledge for future wing design optimizations, contributing to the advancement of
aerodynamic engineering and paving the way for more efficient and effective aircraft designs.

The future scope for the wing model using tubercles is promising. Tubercles, inspired by humpback
whale fins, have shown remarkable aerodynamic advantages. In the coming years, further research
and development can be expected to optimize tubercle design and implementation in various aircraft
applications. The potential benefits include improved lift-to-drag ratio, enhanced maneuverability,
reduced noise, and increased fuel efficiency. Additionally, advancements in materials and
manufacturing techniques can lead to cost-effective and lightweight tubercle-integrated wings. The
integration of artificial intelligence and computational fluid dynamics simulations will play a crucial
role in optimizing tubercle configurations for different flight conditions, resulting in more efficient
and sustainable aviation.

42
 REFERENCES

[1] Hansen, K. L., R. M. Kelso, and B. B. Dally. “The effect of leading edge tubercle geometry on
the performance of different airfoils”.World (2009).

[2] Bolzon, Michael DP, Richard M. Kelso, and Maziar Arjomandi. “Formation of vortices on a
tubercled wing, and their effects on drag”. Aerospace Science and Technology 56 (2016): 46-55.

[3] Lohry, Mark W., David Clifton, and Luigi Martinelli. “Characterization and design of tubercle
leading-edge wings”. Seventh International Conference on Computational Fluid Dynamics
(ICCFD7), Big Island, Hawaii. Vol. 9. 2012.

[4] Joseph, Jeena, S. Sridhar, and S. Alangar. “A Comparison on the Effect of Leading Edge Tubercle
on Straight and Swept Wing at Low Reynolds Number”. Proc. of the 46th Nat. Conf. on Fluid
Mechanics and Fluid Power (FMFP), Coimbatore (India). 2019.

[5] Seyhan, Mehmet, et al. “The effect of leading-edge tubercle on a tapered swept-back SD7032
airfoil at a low Reynolds number”. Ocean Engineering 266 (2022): 112794.

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