6. Discuss the following Particle Size Measurement Techniques in reference to its procedure: a.

Electronic
Particle Counter b. Laser Diffraction Analyzer c. X-Ray or Photo-sedimentometer d. Sub-micron particle
sizing

a. Electronic Particle Counter

• Procedure: The electronic particle counter uses the Coulter principle, where particles pass
through a small aperture while suspended in an electrolyte. As each particle displaces the
electrolyte, it causes a change in electrical resistance, which is measured as a pulse. The size of
the pulse corresponds to the particle size, and the number of pulses indicates the particle count.

• Applications: Used in industries like pharmaceuticals and water treatment for counting and
sizing particles in liquid suspensions or emulsions.

b. Laser Diffraction Analyzer

• Procedure: In laser diffraction, a laser beam passes through a sample of dispersed particles (in
liquid or air). The particles scatter the light, and the scattering pattern is recorded by detectors.
Based on the angle and intensity of the scattered light, the particle size distribution is calculated
using the Mie or Fraunhofer scattering theory.

• Applications: Commonly used in the food, cement, and cosmetics industries for measuring a
wide range of particle sizes with high accuracy.

c. X-Ray or Photo-sedimentometer

• Procedure: This technique measures the rate at which particles settle in a fluid using X-ray or
photoelectric sensors. The sedimentation velocity is directly related to particle size according to
Stokes' law. Particles are dispersed in a liquid, and their sedimentation is tracked by changes in
light or X-ray transmission over time.

• Applications: Used in industries like ceramics, mining, and paints to measure fine particle sizes in
suspensions.

d. Sub-micron Particle Sizing

• Procedure: Sub-micron particles are measured using dynamic light scattering (DLS). A laser beam
is directed at particles suspended in a liquid, and the fluctuations in scattered light intensity due
to Brownian motion are analyzed. The data is used to calculate particle size based on diffusion
coefficients.

• Applications: Widely applied in nanotechnology, pharmaceuticals, and biotechnology for

characterizing nanoparticles, liposomes, and colloids.
7. Compare and contrast the following types of diameters of particle systems and discuss in what way
these diameters is used or applied. Discussion should be in the perspective of Particle Technology or
Particle Systems: a. Feret’s Diameter b. Martin’s Diameter c. Shear Diameter

In particle technology and particle systems, various diameters are used to describe irregularly
shaped particles to approximate their size and understand their behavior in a system. These diameters
are particularly important for characterizing particles in terms of flow, packing, mixing, and separation
processes.

1. Feret’s Diameter

Definition:

Feret’s diameter (or caliper diameter) is the distance between two parallel tangents to the particle's
silhouette at a specified orientation. Essentially, it measures the length of the particle in a specific
direction.

Key Features:

• Orientation-dependent: The measured value changes based on the angle at which the tangents
are applied.

• Multiple Values: Multiple Feret diameters can be measured for a single particle by varying the
orientation (e.g., minimum Feret diameter, maximum Feret diameter, or an average over several
angles).

• Applications: Commonly used in image analysis of particles to represent their size.

Applications in Particle Systems:

• Particle Shape Analysis: Helps identify the elongation and aspect ratio of irregular particles.

• Particle Size Distribution: Frequently used in optical or microscopic imaging techniques to

determine the size distribution of particles in bulk samples.

2. Martin’s Diameter

Definition:

Martin’s diameter is the length of the line that divides a particle into two equal projected areas. It is
essentially a median diameter measured across the particle's image.

Key Features:

• Median-based: Represents a size dimension dividing the particle into two equal parts by area.

• Orientation-dependent: Similar to Feret’s diameter, it varies depending on the chosen

orientation.
 • Applications: Particularly useful in statistical analyses of particle shapes.

Applications in Particle Systems:

• Settling and Hydrodynamic Studies: Martin’s diameter is often used in characterizing particles in
fluid systems, as it approximates the cross-sectional area relevant for drag force calculations.

• Size Analysis: Provides a consistent metric for non-spherical particles where other definitions of
diameter may be less representative.

3. Shear Diameter

Definition:

Shear diameter is the diameter of a particle as determined under shear conditions, often approximated
by the particle size that contributes to the rheological behavior in a sheared suspension or packed
system.

Key Features:

• Derived from Shear Behavior: Unlike Feret’s and Martin’s diameters, which are geometrically
defined, shear diameter is determined experimentally and relates to how particles interact
under shear forces.

• Effective Diameter: Represents the effective size of particles as they influence system behavior
under flow or compression.

Applications in Particle Systems:

• Rheology of Suspensions: Shear diameter plays a critical role in understanding how particles
contribute to viscosity, yield stress, and shear thinning in suspensions.

• Packing and Flow Properties: It is important in granular systems for modeling packing density,
flowability, and stress transmission.

• Industrial Processing: Used in processes like sedimentation, filtration, and fluidization where
particle interaction under shear is significant.
8. Discuss how the Pipette Method and the Sedimentation Balance Method works in the study of
sedimentation.

The Pipette Method and the Sedimentation Balance Method are techniques used to study
sedimentation by analyzing the settling behavior of particles in a fluid. In the Pipette Method, a
suspension of particles is allowed to settle under gravity, and samples are withdrawn at specific depths
and times using a pipette. The withdrawn samples are analyzed to determine the concentration of
particles still suspended, allowing the calculation of particle size distribution based on Stokes' Law. In
contrast, the Sedimentation Balance Method measures the sedimentation rate by continuously
monitoring the weight of sediment depositing on a balance pan submerged in the settling fluid. The
increase in mass over time reflects the sedimentation process, enabling a real-time understanding of
settling rates and particle size distribution. Both methods rely on the principles of gravitational settling
and Stokes' Law but differ in their approach to data collection and analysis.