EVOLUTION

UNIVERSE – huge clusters of galaxies . It is almost 20-billion years old.

GALAXIES – contain stars and clouds of gas & dust.
BIG-BANG THEORY - explains the origin of universe .
MILKY WAY – our solar system belongs to the Milky Way galaxy .
ORIGIN OF EARTH - formed about 4.5 billion years back
EARLY ATMOSPHERE - contained water vapour , methane , ammonia , CO2 and H .
ORIGIN OF LIFE – life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth.

THEORIES FOR ORIGIN OF LIFE

1. THEORY OF PANSPERMIA –

According to some early Greek thinkers :- units of life called spores were transferred from outer space to different
planets including Earth.

2. THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS GENERATION –

According to this theory :- the life came out of decaying and rotting matter like straw , mud etc.

CRITICISM -
 This theory was discarded by Lous Pasteur .
 He experimentally demonstrated that life comes from pre-existing life.
 He showed that in pre-sterilised flasks , life did not come from killed yeast , while in another flask open to air ,
new living organisms arose from killed yeast .
Thus theory of spontaneous generation was discarded .

3. THEORY OF OPARIN and HALDANE ( chemical evolution )

Oparin and Haldane proposed that the first form of life would have come from pre-existing non-living organic
molecules ( RNA , proteins , etc.) and that formation of life was preceded by chemical evolution.

Chemical Evolution - formation of diverse organic molecules from inorganic constituents .

The conditions on Earth were - high temperature ,volcanic storms , reducing atmosphere containing ammonia ,
methane , etc.

These were conclusive for the chemical evolution and formation of first form of life .

EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCES FOR CHEMICAL EVOLUTION

Experiment by Miller

 Miller created the conditions of early atmosphere in a laboratory scale.

 He created electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4 , NH3 , H2 and water vapour at 8000C.
 He observed formation of amino acids .
Experiments by other scientists

In similar experiments , other scientists observed - formation of sugars , nitrogen bases , pigments and fats .
Evidence from Meteorite

Analysis of meteorite content also revealed presence of similar compounds (sugars , N-baes , proteins , fats etc )
indicating that similar process ( chemical evolution) are occurring elsewhere in space.

All life forms were originated in water environment only .

BIOGENESIS –
The first form of life arose slowly through evolutionary faces from non-living molecules.

MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION

CHARLES DARWIN
NATURAL SELECTION

According to Charles Darwin , there has been gradual evolution of life forms .

1. any population has built in variation in characteristics .

2. Those characteristics which enable some to survive better in natural conditions ( climate , food , physical
factors, etc ) would outbreed others that are less endowed to survive under such natural conditions.
3. hence, those , who are better fit in an environment leave more progeny than others . They survive longer hence
are selected by nature .
4. Darwin called it ‘natural selection’ and implied it as a mechanism of evolution.

ALFRED WALLACE
He worked in Malay Archipelago and had similar conclusions as that of Darwin around the same time .

EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION

(I) PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCE ( FROM FOSSILS)

1. Fossils are remains of hard parts of life forms found in rocks .

2. Different aged rock sediments contain fossils of different life forms , who probably died during the formation of
the particular sediment .
3. Some of them appear similar to modern organisms. They represent extinct organisms ( e.g – dinosaurs )
4. A study of fossils in different sedimentary layers indicates the geological period in which they existed .
5. The study showed that life forms varied over time and certain life forms are restricted to certain geological time
spans . Hence new forms of life have arisen at different times in the history of Earth.

(II )COMPARATIVE ANATOMY & MORPHOLOGY

It shows similarities and differences among organisms of today and those that existed years ago .

Homologous organs / homology :

The homologous organs have similar anatomical structure but different external appearance due to adaptations to
different needs .
These structures develop along different directions due to various adaptations ( diff needs ) . This is called divergent
evolution .

Homology indicates common ancestors .

Ex-
1. The fore limbs of whales , bats , cheetah and humans .
The fore limbs of these animals have similar anatomical structure. They have humerus , radius ,ulna , carpals , meta
carpals and phalanges .
2. Thorn and tendrils of Bougainvilla and Cucurbita . They are developed from axillary bud .

Analogous Organs / Analogy

Analogous organs are anatomically different but similar in appearance and perform similar functions .
Analogous structures are a result of convergent evolution .

Evolution of anatomically different structures adapted for same function . The structures are similar in appearance.

Ex- (i) eyes of Octopus and mammals

(ii) flippers of Penguins and Dolphins
(iii) Sweet potato ( root) and potato ( stem ) store food

III ) BIOCHEMICAL SIMILARITIES

Similarities in proteins and genes performing a given function among diverse organisms , indicate common ancestry.

IV ) ARTIFICIAL SELECTION by human beings

(a) Man has selected plants and animals for horticultures, agriculture , sport and securities .
(b) This intensive breeding programme has created breeds that differ from other breeds but still are of the same
group .
(c) When man could create new breeds ,nature could have done the same over million of years.

V ) EMBRYOLOGICAL EVIDENCE –

ERNST HECKEL observed that certain features during embryonic stage are common to all vertebrates that are
absent in adult .
Ex – the embryos of all vertebrates including human develop a row of vestigial gill slit just behind the head . but it
is a functional organ only in fish and not found in any other adult vertebrates .

KARL ERNST von BAER - disapproved HECKEL’s proposal . He performed a careful study and noticed that
embryos never pass through the adult stages of other animals.
 EVIDENCES OF NATURAL SELECTION

(I) INDUSTRIAL MELANISM in Moth

One evidence of natural selection was observed in England before and after industrialization (1850) in two varieties
of moths .

Before Indutrialisation ( 1850)

There were more white winged moths on trees than the dark winged or melanised moths .

After Industrialisation ( 1920)

In the same area , there are more dark winged moths than white winged moths.

Explanation

(i) Before indusrialisation , the tree trunks were covered with white coloured lichen , in which white winged
moth survived and dark coloured moth were picked out by predators ..
(ii) During post industrialization , the tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke and soots . Under this
condition the white winged moth did not survive due to predators but the dark winged or melanised moths
survived in the similar environment.

(II) EVOLUTION BY ANTHROPOGENIC ACTION

Excess use of herbicides, pesticides etc. has resulted in selection of resistant varieties , in a much lesser time scale.

Antibiotic resistance microbes

Many antibiotics or drug resistant microbes have also appeared against the wide application of antibiotics or drugs in a
time scale of months or years .

The above examples proved that evolution is not yet direct process in the sense of determination . it is a stochastic
process based on chance events in nature and chance mutation in organism.

ADAPTIVE RADIATION
The process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a point and literally radiating to
other areas of geography ( habitats) is called adaptive radiation.

Examples

(i) Darwin finches

There are many varieties of finches in Galapagos Islands, all evolved from the same island .
From the original seed eating features , many other forms with altered beaks arose , enabling them to become
insectivorous and vegetarian finches .
(ii) Australian Marsupials

A number of marsupials , each different from the other evolved from an ancestral stock , but all within the Australian
Island continent.

Adaptive Radiation Convergent Evolution

When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in an isolated geographical area
( representing different habitats) , lead to convergent evolution.

RATE OF NATURAL SELECTION

The rate of appearance of new forms is linked to the life cycle or the life span . for microbes like bacteria , the rate is
very fast like few hours to few days .
For same thing to happen in larger animals may take millions of years.

KEY CONCEPTS OF DARWINIAN THEORY OF EVOLUTION

1. Branching descent
2. Natural selection
EXAMPLE –
(a) colony of bacteria (say A) growing on a given medium has built in variation in terms of ability to utilise a
feed component.
(b) A change in the medium composition would bring out only that part of the population (say B) that can
survive under the new conditions.
(c) In due course of time this variant population outgrows the others and appears as new species.
LAMARCK’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION

According to Lamarck, evolution had occurred due to use and disuse of organs .
Ex- evolution of long neck of giraffe

Giraffes, in an attempt to forage leaves on tall trees , had to adapt by elongation of their necks . they passed on this
acquired character of elongated neck to succeeding generation . over the years , giraffes acquired long necks.

Thomas Malthus
His work on populations influenced Darwin.

OBSERVATIONS ON WHICH NATURAL SELECTION IS BASED

1. Natural resources are limited
2. Populations are stable in size , except for seasonal fluctuation.
3. Members of a population vary in characteristics , even though they look superficially similar
4. Most of the variations are inherited

INFERENCES –
1. As the population sizes remain stable , there must be competition for limited resources .
2. Those with variations to make resource utilization better ( i.e, adapted to habitat better ) reproduce and leave
more progeny .
3. As the variations are heritable , the progeny , will inherit the better adaptability characteristics .
4. Hence, for a period of time , over many generations , survivors will leave more progeny and there will be a
change in population characteristics , and thus new forms appear .
 COMPARISION
de vries theory Darwinian theory

1. evolution is due to mutation 1. evolution is due to natural selection

2. mutations are large differences 2. hertibale minor variations get accumulated
Arising suddenly in apopulation in population
3. mutations are random and directionless 3. variations are small and directional
4. Speciation is by saltation ( single step 4. speciation is gradual and takes million of years
Large mutation )

HARDY – WEINBERG PRINCIPLE

The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that “ allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from
generation to generation” .
The gene pool remains constant . ( total genes and their alleles in a population is known as gene pool.)
This is called genetic equilibrium . Sum total of of all the allelic frequencies is 1 .

EXAMPLE –
In a diploid - the frequency of allele A is p and that of allele a is q .
In the population - (i) the frequency of AA individuals is = p2
(ii)the frequency of aa individuals = q2
(iii)the frequency of Aa individuals = 2pq
Hence , p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

Role of Hardy-Weinberg Principle in Study of Evolution

Deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium ( disturbances in genetic equilibrium ) i.e, change of frequency of
alleles in a population indicates the occurrence of evolution .

When frequency measured , differs from the expected values , the difference ( direction) indicates the extent of
evolutionary change .

FACTORS AFFECTING HARDY-WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM

1. gene migration or gene flow

2. genetic drift
3. mutation
4. genetic recombination
5. natural selection

Gene flow :
1. If gene migration happens multiple times , it is known as gene flow.
2. Due to this , new genes or alleles are added to the new population and these are lost from the old population
3. This changes the gene frequencies in the new population

Gene migration – Migration of a section of population to another place and population leads to gene migration.
Genetic Drift :
If the change in gene frequency occurs by chance , it is alled genetic drift.

Founder effect :
Some times , the change in allele frequency is so different in the new sample of population that they become a different
species .
The original drifted population become founders , and the effect is called founder effect.

SPECIATION
(i) Pre-existing advantageous mutations, when selected by nature , result in formation of new phenotypes.
(ii) Over few generations , this results in speciation.
Role of Natural Selection :
Natural selection is a process in which heritable variations enabling better survival help the organisms to reproduce and
leave greater number of progeny .

TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION

( operation of Natural Selection )

Stabilization Directional Disruptive

(i) more individuals acquire (i) more individuals acquire value (i) more individuals acquire
mean character value other than the mean character peripheral charcter value at both ends
(ii) The peak gets higher & narrower (ii) The peak shifts to one direction (ii) two peaks are formed.

Fig : 7.8

BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION

 About 2000 million years ago , the first cellular life forms appeared .
 500 million years ago , invertebrates were formed and active .
 Jawless fishes evolved probably 350 million years ago .
 First organisms that invaded land - plants
 Lobefins / Coelacanth - evolved into the first amphibians .
 Advantages of reptiles - they lay thick shelled eggs which do not dry off in the sun , unlike those of
amphibians.
 Ichthyosarus - giant aquatic reptiles .
 Tyrannosarus rex – biggest land dinosaurs .
 Dinosaurs disappeared from earth – 65 mya .
 The first mammals were like shrews.
 Due to the continental drift , pouched mammals of Australia survived because of lack of competition from any
other mammal.
 Due to continental drift , when South America joined North America , mammals resembling horse ,
hippocampus , bear , rabbit , etc were overridden by North American fauna .
 Aquatic Mammals - whale , dolphins , seals , sea cows .
 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN

15 mya :-
Dryopithecus Ramapithecus
More ape-like more man-like.

They were hairy and walked like gorillas and chimpanzee.

3-4 mya
(i) Man-like primates ( Eastern Africa )
(ii) Not taller than four feet .
(iii) Walked upright

2 mya
Australopithecines ( in East African grasslands )
(i) hunted with stone weapons .
(ii) essentially fruit eaters.

Homohabilis
(i) first human like being ( i.e, hominid )
(ii) brain capacity - 650-800 cc
(iii) probably did not eat meat
1.5 mya
Homoerectus (Fossils discovered in Java in 1891)

(i) large brain around 900cc

(ii) probably ate meat

1,00,000 – 40,000 years back

Neanderthal man ( near East & Central Asia )
(i) brain capacity – 1400 cc
(ii) used hides to protect their bodies
(iii) buried their dead.

Ice Age ( 75,000 – 10,000 years ago )

Modern Homo sapiens

18.000 years ago

Pre-historic cave art developed

10,000 years back

 (i) agriculture came around
(ii) human settlement started

** skull of baby chimpanzee is more like adult human skull , that of adult chimpanzee .

ANCESTRAL LINE OF PLANTS

ANGIOSPERMS CONIFERS CYCADS

Mono cotyledons Conifers Cycads

Dicotyledons Psilophyton Seed ferns

Seed ferns Rhynia – type plants Progymnosperms

Progymnosperms Tracheophyte ancestors Psilophyton

Psilophyton Chlorophyte ancestors Rhynia-type plants

Rhynia – type plants Tracheophyte ancestors

Tracheophyte ancestors Chlorophyte ancestors

Chlorophyte ancestors

BRYOPHYTES SPHENOPSIDS ( HORSE TAILS ) FERNS

Bryophytes Sphenopsids ( horse tails) Fern

Chlorophyte ancestors Psilophyton

Psilophyton

Rhynia – type plants Rhynia-type plants

Tracheophyte ancestors Tracheophyte ancestors

 Chlorophyte ancestors Chlorophyte ancestors

ANCESTRAL LINE OF ANIMALS

MAMMALS BIRDS

Mammals Birds

Therapsids (extinct) Thecodonts (extinct )

Pelycosarus (extinct )
Sauropsids ( not a stage )

Synapsids ( not a stage )

Early reptiles

Early reptiles ( extinct )