Current BIOLOGY (Intermediate Part-I) 1

Chapter Growth and Development

19
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Q.1 Define growth and embdevelopment.

In the course of its life cycle, an organism changes from a fertilized egg into an adult.
Embryonic Development Growth
All the progressive changes which are Growth is the permanent and
undergone before an organism acquires irreversible increase in size that occurs
its adult are collectively called as an organism mature.
embryonic development. It is one of the most obvious changes
that takes place during development.
Q.1 How does growth take place in plants and which tissue is responsible for it?
Growth and Development in Plants
Growth is an irreversible increase in size while development is a programmed series
of stages from a simpler to more complex form.
• In plants growth and development involve cell division, elongation and
differentiation of cells into tissues and then organs.
• As development proceeds, cellular differentiation of structure and function
takes place.
Open Growth Pattern
Throughout life, the plant adds new organs such as branches, leaves and roots,
enlarging from the tips of roots and shoot. Such pattern of growth is called open
growth.
• Rate of Growth: The rate of growth is not uniform throughout the plant body.
At the beginning, the growth is slow, but gradually it becomes rapid, attains a
maximum, then gradually slows down.
• Growth in Lower and Higher Plants: In lower plants, the entire plant body is
capable of growing but in higher plants, growth is limited to certain regions
known as growing points.
Meristems (The Growth Tissues)
In vascular plants, growth in the growing points
takes place through the activity of meristems
which are young tissues or group of cells that
retain the potential to divide.
• These meristems are located at the stem and
root and are of the following types.
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(i) Apical Meristems

The apical meristems are found at the tips of roots and shoot and are primarily
concerned with the extension of plant body.
• These are perpetual (‫ )دائمی‬growth zones found at the apices of roots and stems.
• Significance: They are responsible for increase in the number of cells at the tips
of roots and stem, so they play important role in primary growth
(ii) Intercalary Meristems
These are the parts of apical meristem which get
separated from apex by permanent tissues and are
present at the bases of internodes in many plants.
• These are of temporary nature.
• Significance: They play important role in the
production of leaves and flowers.
(iii) Lateral Meristems
Lateral meristems are cylinders of dividing cells.
They are present in gymnosperms and
angiosperms (dicots).
• Vascular and cork cambium are the examples
of lateral meristem.
• Significance: They play an important role in the
increase in diameter of stem and root
(secondary growth)
• These are determinate i.e., they grow to
certain size and then stop e.g. leaves, flowers
and fruits.
• The other meristems are indeterminate i.e.,
they grow by meristems that continually replenish (‫ )دوبارہ بھرنا‬themselves,
remaining youthful e.g. vegetative root and stem.

Q.3 What are the different types and phases of growth that take place in plants?
Types of Growth
i. Primary Growth: Primary tissue is added by the apical meristem
ii. Secondary Growth: Secondary tissue is added by the intercalary or vascular
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cambium leading to increase in thickness.

Phases of Growth
Growth of multicellular plant is divided into four phases i.e., cell division,
elongation, maturation and differentiation.
i. Cell Division (Phase I)
• During cell division, the number
of cells increase by mitosis.
• It occurs at the tip of root and
shoot where cells are small, have
spherical nuclei lying in the center
of cytoplasm, which is non-
vacuolated.
• As a result of cell division, each
daughter cell proceeds to enlarge.
• Synthesis of cytoplasm and cell
wall material also takes place in
this zone.
ii. Elongation (Phase II)
• A little distance from apex of root and shoot lies the zone of elongation and is
only
• of few millimeters in length.
• During elongation the cell volume increases up to 150-fold (times) due to
uptake of water.
• Plasticity of the cell wall increases and wall pressure is reduced. Synthesis of
new cytoplasm and cell wall material proceeds on.
iii. Maturation (Phase III)
• During maturation, the final size of a given type of a cell is attained.
• The cells which develop into pith, cortex and certain other tissues do not
elongate further along the axis, while other cells like fibers and tracheids
elongate lengthwise more than in other direction.
iv. Differentiation (Phase IV)
• When the cell enlargement ceases, the process of differentiation starts.
• During this growth phase the walls of cells become thicker, the walls of many
kinds of cells and tissues become pitted; thickening appear on the walls of
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xylem vessels, cells of various tissues differ in spatial dimensions and many
new structural features develop.
Q.4 What are the different conditions of growth?
Conditions of Growth
The growth rate is influenced by number of factors both external and internal.
A. Externa! factors
i. Temperature
• Temperature influences (‫ )اثر انداز ہونا‬the rate of growth within a certain
range (0-35°C).
• Normally rate of growth increases with rise of temperature and decreases
with decrease in temperature.
• For maximum growth, the optimum temperature is 25-30°C and it is least
at 5-10°C. But at a very high temperature (35-40°C), the rate of growth
stops and the plant may die.
ii. Light
• Light plays very important role in the growth of plants. By light, we mean
the fractions of light, which is absorbed by plant during photosynthesis.
• Generally, light influences growth in three ways; intensity, quality and
duration.
a) Light Intensity: The increase in intensity of light increases the number
of cell divisions.
b) Quality of Light: The red- light favours elongation of cells and blue light
enhances cell division but retards cell enlargement. Similarly, ultraviolet
rays also retard cell elongation.
c) Light Duration: Duration of light affects the growth of vegetative and
reproductive structures. It also plays a role in inducing or suppressing
flowering. The phenomenon is termed as photoperiodism.
iii. Oxygen
• For successful growth, regular supply of oxygen is necessary.
• Without oxygen, no metabolic activity is possible and no growth takes
place.
• A very high supply of oxygen however, inhibits growth.
iv. Carbon dioxide
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• Carbon dioxide is essential for carrying out normal process of

photosynthesis but a very high concentration of it can retard growth.
v. Water
• By absorbing water, the cells elongate. The plant growth ceases in the
absence of water.
vi. Nutrition
• Nutrients supply energy to growing plants. With the increase in nutrition,
growth increases, whereas decrease in nutrition causes retardation of
growth.
B. INTERNAL FACTORS
i. Hormones
• Plant hormones also inluence growth
• Example: Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) causes elongation of cells.
ii. Vitamins
• Vitamins are orgasmic compounds synthesized (‫ ) بنانا‬within the plant
bodies in the presence of light.
• If the plants are grown in dark, the vitamin deficiencies are induced ( ‫پیدا‬
‫ )کرنا‬and growth of plant body ceases (‫)رک جانا‬.
Q.5 What is differentiation in plants and explain different stages of growth with the help of
a diagram?
Differentiation
Differentiation is the formation of specialized tissues. A seed once has germinated,
its further development depends on the activities of the meristematic tissues.
The shoot and root apical meristems give rise to all cells of the adult plant which
begin to differentiate for the formation of particular plant parts.
Stages of Differentiation
Differentiation can be considered to occur in plant in five stages.
Stage 1: Represents the formation of embryo.
Stage 2: Within the embryo, shoot and root apical meristems are recognized.
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Stage 3: Cambium is recognized which is responsible for secondary growth.

Stage 4: Leaf and shoot primordia develop directly from apical meristematic cells.
• Leaf Primordia: There is production of leaf primordial (these are the cells
committed to become leaves, shoot or roots).
• Root primordia: Root primordia develop from the root cambium, called
pericycle.
Stage 5: Fully differentiated tissues and structure are formed including xylem,
phloem, leaves, shoots and roots.
Q.6 Explain the phenomenon of growth correlations in plants.
Growth Correlations
Growth correlation is reciprocal (‫ )باہمی‬relationship between the growth of plant
and its different organs which grow at different rates and in different directions.
Apical Dominance
The auxin of the terminal bud is responsible for inhibiting the growth of lateral
buds by a phenomenon known as apical dominance which is one of the most
important correlative effects in plants.
• In many plants, only apical bud grows while growth is suppressed in lower
axillary buds.
• It has been experimentally observed that when apical bud is removed, the
growth in the lower buds is inhibited. So active shoot apex controls the
development of lateral buds.
Role of Auxins
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• Apical dominance was caused by auxin

diffusing from the apical bud which inhibited
the growth of lateral shoots is called
inhibitory effect. This was shown by
experiment Thimann and Skoog in 1934.
• The removal of apex releases the lateral
buds from apical dominance. It is called
compensatory effect.
Role of Cytokinins
• Cytokinins also play important role in apical
dominance and in many cases if cytokinins
are applied directly on the inhibited bud, it allows lateral buds to be released
from apical dominance.
• The plants which have dense growth of lateral branches, have very little apical
dominance.
Significance of Apical Dominance/Practical Application of Apical Dominance
i. Apical dominance plays an important role in tap root development.
ii. The application of synthetic auxin inhibits sprouting of lateral buds (eyes) in
potato tubers. Thereby, the storing period can be increased from one to
three years.
Q.7 Define embryology and development. What are the different developmental stages.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN ANIMALS
Embryology
Embryology is the study of growth and differentiation undergone by an organism in
the course of its development from a single fertilized egg into a highly complex and
an independent living being like his parents.
Development
Development is an ordered sequence of irreversible steps, with each step setting up
the necessary conditions for the next step.
Similarities in Developmental Stages
Since all animals are somehow related through the process of evolution, there are
some similarities in their various forms of development.
Q.7 Explain chick development from fertilization to blastula stage.
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• Sperm and Egg Formation

Gamete Formation
• Sperms and Egg fuse to form zygote.
Fertilization
• Zygote divides and Blastomeres are formed.
Cleavage
• Germ layers are formed.
Gastrulation
• Body organs formed. Cells interact and
Organogenesis differentiate.

• Organs increase in size. Aduld Body form is

Growth attained.

Why do we study Chick Development?

The development of chick is taken as a basic scheme of development. It provides basis
for understanding the early differentiation of the organ systems and the fundamental
process of body formation, which is common to all vertebrates.
Fertilization and Incubation
• The chick egg is surrounded by various accessory coverings secreted by the female
reproductive tract.
• Fertilization is internal and normally takes place just as ovum is entering the oviduct.
• The shell is secreted as the egg passes through the shell gland (the uterus).
• When an egg has been laid, the development ceases unless the temperature of egg
is kept nearly up to the body temperature of the mother.
• In incubating eggs artificially, the incubators are usually regulated at temperature
between 36-38°C. At this temperature, the chick completes development and is
hatched on the twenty first day.
Cleavage
Immediately after fertilization, the egg undergoes a series of mitotic divisions, called
cleavage.
Discoidal Cleavage
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In bird’s egg the process of cell division is confined

(‫ )محدود ہونا‬to the small disc of protoplasm lying on the
surface of the yolk at the. animal pole. This type of
cleavage is referred as discoidal cleavage.
The Early Cleavages
• The cleavage furrows start in the clear cytoplasmic
region.
• The first two cleavage planes are vertical while the
third runs horizontally parallel to the surface and
thus cuts underneath the cytoplasm and separates
it from the yolk.
• The successive cleavages become irregular and
number of cells increase.
Morula
• Cleavage results in the formation of a rounded
closely packed mass of blastomeres. This is called morula that consists of a disc
shaped mass of cells, two or more layers in thickness (blastoderm) lying close to the
yolk.
• In the center of the blastoderm, the cells are smaller and completely defined while
those at the periphery, are flattened, and larger.
Blastula
• The morula stage is short-lived and soon changes
into blastula and is characterized by the presence of
a segmentation cavity or blastocoel.
• The discoidal cap of cells above the blastocoele is
called blastoderm.
Blastoderm
A blastoderm is a single layer of embryonic epithelial tissue that makes up
the blastula. It encloses the fluid filled blastocoel.

Zone of Junction
• The marginal area of the blastoderm in which the
cells remain undetached from the yolk and closely
adherent to it is called the zone of junction.
Q.8 Explain the process of gastrulation in chick.
Gastrulation
It is characterized by the movement and rearrangement of cells in the embryo.
During gastrulation, the blastoderm splits into two layers (epiblast & hypoblast).
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i. Epiblast – The Upper Layer

The epiblast is mainly presumptive ectoderm and mesoderm.
ii. Hypoblast – The Lower Layer
The hypoblast is mainly presumptive endoderm because hypoblast cells grow
outward over the surface of the yolk, then downward around it to form the
endodermal lining of a yolk sac.
Two Areas of Blastoderm (area pellucida and area opaca)
i. Area Pellucida: At this stage,
the central cells of blastoderm
can be separated from the
yolk, under these central cells
a pool of fluid develops,
raising them of the yolk and
giving the area a translucent appearance the area pellucida.
ii. Area Opaca: The peripheral part of the blastoderm where the cells lie
unseparated from the yolk is termed as area opaca, the white area that
transmits light.
Q.9 How does notochord develop in chick?
Notochord Formation
Primitive Streak
In the chick embryo the mesodermal cells migrate medially and caudally from
both sides and create a mid-line thickening called primitive streak.
• This mid-line grows rapidly in length as more and more presumptive
mesodermal cells continue to aggregate in the middle.
• These changes result in the change of shape of blastoderm from circular to
pear shaped.
• Primitive Node and Notochordal Cells: The anterior end of the primitive
streak is occupied by an aggregation-the primitive node or notochordal cells
while rest of cells are mesodermal cells. Thus primitive streak represents the
dorsal and both lateral lips of blastopore.
• Primitive Groove: The continuous migration of cells takes place between
epiblast and hypoblast and results in the formation of groove along the
whole length of primitive streak. This is named as primitive groove, marked
on either side by thickened margins, the primitive ridges.
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• Hensen’s Node: At the cephalic end of primitive streak, closely packed cells
form a local thickening known as Hensen’s node. The Hensen’s node
however, mark the site of a somewhat special type of invagination.

• Notochord Formation: Shortly, after the primitive streak has been formed
and the endoderm was well established, cells begin to push in from the
region of Hensen’s node to form the rod like notochord in the midline
beneath the ectoderm.
18 Hours Chick
• In chick embryo of about 18 hours, notochord is one of the few prominent
structural features.
• In sections of embryo incubated from 18-20 hours, it is seen that ectoderm
has spread and become organized into a coherent )‫ (مربوط‬layer of cells
merging peripherally with the yolk.
• Gatrocoel and Primitive Gut: The marginal area where the expanding germ
layers merge with the under lying yolk is known as germ wall and the cavity
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between the yolk and the endoderm which has been called gastrocoele is
now termed as primitive gut.
25-26 Hours Embryo
• Somites: From Hensen’s node, dorsal mesoderm is formed and is organized
into somites. Somites are seen in 25-26 hours embryo, these are compact
cell masses lying immediately
lateral to neural folds.
• Somatic and Splanchic
Mesoderms: The lateral plate
mesoderm is splitted into two
sheet like layers viz somatic
mesoderm and splanchnic
mesoderm, with a space
between them.
• Coelom: The cavity formed
between somatic and
splanchnic mesoderm is
Notochord Formation in
Amphibians
• In amphibians the notochord
cells invaginate to form a
structure called blastopore.
• Primitive streak and blastopore
are analogous structures. The
primitive streak represents
dorsal and both lateral lips of
blastopore.

coelom.
Q.10 How does neurulation occur in chick?
Neurulation
With the formation of neural tube, there is formation of central nervous system
and the cavity enclosed is known as neurocoel. This whole process is named as
neurulation
Following are the major events of neurulation:
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• Neural Plate: On the dorsal surface

of gastrula, over the notochord,
presumptive neural ectoderm is
present in the form of a band. As
gastrula elongates, the band
thickens to form a neural plate.
• 18 Hours Chick: In chicks of 18
hours, neural plate was seen as a
flat, thickened area of ectoderm.
• 21-22 Hours Chick: In embryos of
21-22 hours, a longitudinal folding
has occurred, establishing the
neural groove in the mid dorsal line,
on either side of neural folds.
• 24 Hours Chick & Neurula: In 24
hours embryos, the folding of neural
plate is clearly visible. The embryo is
now termed as neurula.
• Future Brain & Spinal Cord: The
anterior end of the neural groove is
widest and forms the future brain
and rest of portion is future spinal
cord.
• Neural Tube: Meanwhile, the neural
plate sinks and the neural folds
grow toward one another and meet
in the middorsal line, fuse and
convert the neural groove into
neural tube.
• Neuro-Pores: At each end of neural tube, a small opening called anterior and
posterior neuro-pores are also seen, which close later on.
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Q.11 Explain significance of nucleus during development.

Mechanism of Development
A multicellular individual is formed from a single celled zygote which contains
complete information in the form of genome which has come in the form of
chromosomes from the eggs and sperms.
During cleavage, zygote divides into many cells. Each cell has full set of
chromosomes and gets complete instructions from the parents. During
differentiation, however, some genes remain active, while others switch off.
Importance of Nucleus and Cytoplasm in Development
The importance of nucleus and cytoplasm during development is revealed from
the following experiments.
1. Hans Dietrich Experiment (1892)
• Dietrich took sea urchin egg at two-cell stage, shook it apart and separated it
into two cell.
• Later on, it was seen that both half embryos developed into normal larvae.
Dietrich concluded that both these cells contained all the genetic information
of the original zygote.
2. Spemann Experiments (1903)
a. Experiment A
• Spemann took salamander zygote, and with the help of minute ligature of
human hair divided the zygote into two equal halves. The nucleus was
present in one half, but the other half had no nucleus.
• When the developmental process continued, it was seen that cleavage was
completed in the half containing nucleus but the anucleate half was not seen
dividing.
• Eventually, when nucleated side had reached a 16-cell stage, one of the
cleavage nuclei crossed the narrow cytoplasmic bridge to the anucleate side.
Immediately this side started dividing.
b. Experiment B
• In another experiment Spemann separated the two halves of embryo; both
of them contained nuclei.
• Both these halves developed into complete embryos.
• He also observed that from a 16-cell embryo even, if a single cell is
separated, it contains a complete set of genes and form a complete embryo.
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Gray Crescent
Through series of experiments, Spemann also observed that sometimes it may
happen that the nucleated half can develop into abnormal ball of cells. Later
studies revealed that development depends on the position of gray crescent.
Gray crescent is the pigment free area that appears at the time of fertilization.
So in the half lacking gray crescent, no further development can take place.

Spemann Conclusions
On the basis of above experiments, Spemann made two conclusions.
i. All cells contain the same nuclear information.
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ii. In the gray crescent area, cytoplasm contains information essential for
development.
Causes of Cellular Differentiation
All the cells contain same nuclear material but cells undergo differentiation and
become committed to particular determinative molecules in two ways.
i. During cleavage, cytoplasmic segregation of determinative takes place.
ii. Induction or interaction with the neighboring cells takes place.
Q.11 Explain significance of cytoplasm during development.
Role of Cytoplasm in Development
It is known that different cytoplasmic components contain different morpho-
genetic determinants that are responsible for cell differentiation. These
determinants are present in blastomeres. The fertilized egg of an ascidian contains
cytoplasm of five different colours that is segregated into different blastomeres.
Cytoplasm Type Function
i. Clear Cytoplasm It produces larval epidermis.
ii. Yellow Cytoplasm It gives rise to muscle cells.
iii. Gray Vegetal Cytoplasm It gives rise to gut.
iv. Grey Equatorial Cytoplasm It produces notochord and neural tube.

Q.12 Explain the role of nucleus during development.

Role of Nucleus in Development
Most gene controlled substances, which can easily be identified are found in the
cytoplasm, and are probably produced in it.
Through experiments, it has been observed that some substances produced by
nucleus and its immediate neighborhood are active in development.
Acetabularia (Multicellular Alga)
One of such example is the multicellular alga, Acetabularia which consists of
rhizoid, which is attached to the ground, from which arises a long stalk with an
umbrella shaped cap at its top.
Two Species of Acetabularia: On the basis of structure and shape of the cap, two
species of Acetabularia have been identified.
i. Acetabularia mediterranea, which has regular shaped cap.
ii. A. crenulata, which has irregular shaped cap.
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There is only a single nucleus, although they may attain the size of several
centimeters or more.
Experiment
• Haemmerling showed that if the cap is removed, a new one is regenerated.
He cut off the nucleus containing rhizome from an alga of one species (A.
mediterranea) and grafted a similar piece of another species (A. crenulata).
• When the cap was now removed, it was seen that the new regenerated one
had the characters of A. crenulata. So nucleus lying at the base of the alga
and not the stalk to which the regenerate was attached determined the
structure of cap.
• Conclusion: It means that irrespective of the fact to which species the
cytoplasm belong, the genes were able to express according to the type of
nucleus.

Final Conclusions
From all these experiments, it was concluded that both gene and cytoplasm play
important role in development.
• Nucleus contains all gene, which determine the characteristics of the
individual.
• Cytoplasm plays the role of selection of genes.
Q.14 Explain embryonic induction. OR Explain Spemann and Mangold experiment of
embryonic induction.
Definition
The phenomenon of inducing secondary embryonic development through the
dorsal blastopore lip was coined as Primary Induction.
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The capacity of some cells to evoke a specific developmental response in others is

a widespread phenomenon in development.
Discovery
Embryonic Induction was first reported by Hans Spemann and Hilde Mangold in
1924.
Experiment
• Spemann and Mangold conducted an experiment involving salamander
embryos at the gastrula stage.
• They removed a piece of the dorsal blastopore lip from one embryo and
transplanted it into a ventral or lateral position of another salamander
gastrula.
• To their surprise, the transplanted tissue invaginated and developed into a
notochord and somites.

• Moreover, it induced the second embryo to form a neural tube, leading to

the formation of a complete nervous system in the region where the dorsal
blastopore lip was placed.
Dorsal Blastopore Lip as the Primary Organizer
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Further investigations revealed that only cells from the dorsal lip of the blastopore
were capable of inducing the development of a complete embryo.
Primary Organizer
This specific region corresponded to the presumptive area of notochord, somites,
and prechordal plate. Spemann termed this area the Primary Organizer, as it held
the unique ability to induce the development of a secondary embryo in the host.
Q.15 What is gerontology? Explain the process of aging.
Gerontology
The negative physiological changes that take place in our body are together called
as aging. The study of aging is called gerontology.
Aging is an inevitable process and despite all the efforts to inhibit or stop it aging
process goes on.
Signs of Old Age
An adult individual can be identified by the following signs of old age, all of them
need not be present
i. Loss of hair pigment
ii. Development of small pigmented areas in the skin of face and arms
iii. Dryness and wrinkling of skin
iv. Loss of agility
v. Increased weight due to fat poor vision and forgetfulness
vi. General weakness and decreased body immunity.
vii. Degeneration of tissues and organs.
Degeneration of organ and tissue can be seen in different tissues
• Arthritis: The degeneration of cartilage present at joints results in arthritis.
• Arteriosclerosis: Degeneration and disappearance of the elastic tissues in the
tunica media of the blood vessel result in arteriosclerosis, blood clotting in
the coronary arteries.
Process of Aging
The exact process of aging is still
unknown, but the following points
are worth consideration.
Limitations of Cellular Divisions
• The cells of tissues have only a
finite number of mitotic
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divisions, and hence the cells

may have reached their finite
number by the time the tissue or
organ is fully grown.
• For example, in the case of the
nervous system, mental activity
and memory deteriorate, and
there are fewer nerve cells in old age.
Intracellular Changes
Following changes in intracellular substances can take place during aging.
• Collagen acquires increased cross-linkages in its protein molecules,
• Elastic tissues lose their elasticity with the passage of time.
• There is also hardening and loss of resilience in dense connective tissues and
cartilage.
Number of Older Individuals:
The interest in gerontology is increasing because the number of older individuals is
expected to rise.
• People over 75 years Old: In the next half-century, the number of people over
age 75 will rise from the present 8 million to 14.5 million.
• People over 80 years Old: The number of those over age 80 will rise from 5
million to 12 million.
• Human Life Span: The human lifespan is judged to be a maximum of 120-125
years. The present goal of gerontology is not necessarily to increase lifespan but
to increase health span.
Slowing Down Aging
• Spontaneous mutation may result in the loss of cells and degeneration of
tissues.
• The process of aging can be slowed down by better nutrition and improved
living conditions.
• Regular meals, regular exercise, adequate sleep, abstinence from smoking, and
maintaining an ideal weight can prolong life by an average of 11 years.
Q.16 Write a comprehensive note on regeneration.
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REGENRATION
The ability to regain or recover the lost or injured part of the body is called
regeneration.
Animals with Regeneration Abilities
Sponges
• In sponges due to simple organization sponges possess greate power of
regeneration.
• These not only replace the parts lost during injury, but any piece of the body is
capable of growing into a complete sponge.
• The process, is however, very slow and requires months or years for the
complete development.
Lobster
• If lobster loses its pincer claw a new claw regenerates.
Starfish
• If starfish breaks off portions of its arms
into pieces and the central disc completely
devoid of arms is left, the central disc in
almost all cases and also the arms in some
cases are capable of developing into
separate individuals.
Earthworm
• If head of earthworm is removed, a new head regenerates.
Salamanders
• Limb regeneration has been studied mostly
in salamanders of various ages. In these
forms, the limbs are read ily regenerated
throughout life, more rapidly when the
amphibian is young and small.
Amphibians and Lizards
• Besides limb, other parts of the body also
have considerable regeneration capacity
e.g. tail in the larva of amphibians and in
lizards.
• For example, lizard can easily discard its
Current BIOLOGY (Intermediate Part-I) 23

tail but tail can be regenerated by special features of its tail.

Healing of Fracture and Repair
• Healing of fracture and repair of a skin wound are some other examples of
regeneration.
Plants
• In plants, regeneration is the basis of plant propagation. Almost any part or
even a very small fragments of a plant.
• For instance, a piece of stem or leaf or even a single tissue cell may develop”
into a full plant.
• A part of the stem with a few leaves may be taken from many kinds of plants
and when planted in soil form a complete plant.
Process of Regeneration
In the process of regeneration, many of the various cell types which were present
in the missing part of the body are replaced by the differentiation of cells
• Regeneration Process of Flatworms
In flatworms, and planaria the unspecialized cells, neoblasts, which are always
present in the body of adult are mobilized and migrate to the site of
amputation, where they differentiate into specialized cell types.
• Regeneration Process of Salamander/Newts
In salamanders or newts some of the specialized tissue cell types in the stump
of an amputated limb apparently dedifferentiate (become less specialized) and
then proceed to differentiate into the same and probably different types of
cells.