COMMON LITERARY DEVICES

1. Pathetic Fallacy: The phrase pathetic fallacy is a literary term for the attribution of human emotion and conduct to things found in nature that are not
human. It is a kind of personification that occurs in poetic descriptions, when, for example, clouds seem sullen, when leaves dance, or when rocks seem
indifferent.
EG: Maud by Alfred Lord Tennyson
There has fallen a splendid tear
From the passion-flower at the gate.
She is coming, my dove, my dear;
She is coming, my life, my fate.
The red rose cries, "She is near, she is near;"
And the white rose weeps, "She is late;"
The larkspur listens, "I hear, I hear;"td

And the lily whispers, "I wait." (Part 1, XXII, 10)

2. polysyndeton: the repetition of a conjunction before every element in a list, whereas the conjunction typically would appear only before the last element, as
in "Lions and tigers and bears, oh my!"—emphasizing the danger and number of animals more than the prosaic wording with only the second "and".
3. "Round and round the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran" is an example of alliteration, where the consonant r is used repeatedly. "Sister Suzy‘s sewing
socks for soldiers" is a particular form of alliteration called sibilance, repeating an s sound. Both are commonly used in poetry.
4. "She would run up the stairs and then a new set of curtains" is a variety of zeugma called a syllepsis. Run up can refer either to a quick ascent or to
manufacture. The effect is enhanced by the momentary suggestion, through a pun, that she might be climbing the curtains. The ellipsis or omission of the
second use of the verb makes the reader think harder about what is being said.
5. "Painful pride" is an oxymoron, where two contradictory ideas are placed in the same sentence.
6. "I had butterflies in my stomach" is a metaphor, referring to a nervous feeling as if there were flying insects in one's stomach.
7. To say "it was like having some butterflies in my stomach" would be a simile, because it uses the word like which is missing in the metaphor.
8. To say "It was like having a butterfly farm in my stomach", "It felt like a butterfly farm in my stomach", or "I was so nervous that I had a butterfly farm in
my stomach" could be a hyperbole, because it is exaggerated.
9. "That filthy place was really dirty" is an example of tautology, as there are the two words ('filthy' and 'dirty') having almost the same meaning and are
repeated so as to make the text more emphatic.
10. Anadiplosis: repetition of a word at the end of a clause and then at the beginning of its succeeding clause.
11. Anaphora: the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses.
12. Anastrophe: changing the object, subject and verb order in a clause.
13. Anti-climax: an abrupt descent (either deliberate or unintended) on the part of a speaker or writer from the dignity of idea which he appeared to be aiming at.
Example: "People, pets, batteries, ... all are dead."
14. Ant
15. 'vbnm,jm,ssdfghjkl;
16. 'himeria: transformation of a word of a certain word class to another word class.
17. Antimetabole: a sentence consisting of the repetition of words in successive clauses, but in reverse order.
18. Antithesis: juxtaposition of opposing or contrasting ideas.
19. Aphorismus: statement that calls into question the definition of a word.
20. Aposiopesis: breaking off or pausing speech for dramatic or emotional effect.
21. Assonance: repetition of vowel sounds: "Smooth move!" or "Please leave!" or "That's the fact Jack!"
22. Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions between related clauses.
23. Chiasmus: two or more clauses are related to each other through a reversal of structures in order to make a larger point.
24. Climax: arrangement of words in an ascending order.
25. Consonance: repetition of consonant sounds, most commonly within a short passage of verse.
26. Correlative verse: matching items in two sequences.
27. Diacope: repetition of a word or phrase with one or two intervening words.
28. Ellipsis: omission of words.
29. Elision: omission of one or more letters in speech, making it colloquial.
30. Enallage: wording ignoring grammatical rules or conventions.
31. Epanalepsis: ending sentences with their beginning.
32. Epiphrase
33. Epistrophe (also known as antistrophe): repetition of the same word or group of words at the end of successive clauses. The counterpart of anaphora.
34. Epizeuxis: repetition of a single word, with no other words in between.
35. Hendiadys: use of two nouns to express an idea when it normally would consist of an adjective and a noun.
36. Hendiatris: use of three nouns to express one idea.
37. Homeoteleuton: words with the same ending.
38. Hypallage: a transferred epithet from a conventional choice of wording.[8]
39. Hyperbaton: two ordinary associated words are detached.[9][10] The term may also be used more generally for all different figures of speech which transpose natural
word order in sentences.[10]
40. Hyperbole: an exaggeration of a statement.
41. Hypozeuxis: every clause having its own independent subject and predicate.
42. Hysteron proteron: the inversion of the usual temporal or causal order between two elements.
43. Isocolon: use of parallel structures of the same length in successive clauses.
44. Internal rhyme: using two or more rhyming words in the same sentence.
45. Kenning: using a compound word neologism to form a metonym.
46. Litotes: an understatement achieved by negating the opposite statement, such as "not too bad" for "very good", or "she is not a beauty queen" for "she is ugly",
yielding an ironical effect.
47. Merism: referring to a whole by enumerating some of its parts.
48. Onomatopoeia: word that imitates a real sound (e.g. tick-tock or boom).
49. Paradiastole: repetition of the disjunctive pair "neither" and "nor".
50. Parallelism: the use of similar structures in two or more clauses.
51. Paraprosdokian: an utterance in which the same word is used with two different meanings, creating a pun.
52. Paroemion: alliteration in which every word in a sentence or phrase begins with the same letter.
53. Pleonasm: the use of more words than are needed to express meaning.
54. Polyptoton: repetition of words derived from the same root.
55. Polysyndeton: close repetition of conjunctions.
56. Pun: when a word or phrase is used in two (or more) different senses.
57. Sibilance: repetition of letter 's', it is a form of consonance.
58. Spoonerism: switching place of syllables within two words in a sentence yielding amusement.
59. Syncope: omission of parts of a word or phrase.
60. Symploce: simultaneous use of anaphora and epistrophe: the repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning and the end of successive clauses.
61. Synchysis: words that are intentionally scattered to create perplexment.
62. Synecdoche: referring to a part by its whole or vice versa.
63. Synonymia: use of two or more synonyms in the same clause or sentence.
64. Tautology: redundancy due to superfluous qualification; saying the same thing twice.
65. Tmesis: insertions of content within a compound word.
66. Zeugma: the using of one verb for two or more actions.
Tropes
Tropes are words or phrases whose contextual meaning differs from the manner or sense in which they are ordinarily used.

67. Accismus: expressing the want of something by denying it.[11]

68. Adynaton: an extreme form of hyperbole (exaggeration). It the opposite of understatement.
69. Allegory: a metaphoric narrative in which the literal elements indirectly reveal a parallel story of symbolic or abstract significance.[12][13][14]
70. Allusion: covert reference to another work of literature or art.
71. Anacoenosis: posing a question to an audience, often with the implication that it shares a common interest with the speaker.
72. Analogy: a comparison between two things, typically for the purpose of explanation or clarification.
73. Anapodoton: leaving a common known saying unfinished.
74. Antanaclasis: a form of pun in which a word is repeated in two different senses.[15]
75. Anthimeria: a substitution of one part of speech for another, such as noun for a verb and vice versa.[16]
76. Anthropomorphism: ascribing human characteristics to something that is not human, such as an animal or a god (see zoomorphism).
77. Antiphrasis: a name or a phrase used ironically.
78. Antistasis: repetition of a word in a different sense.
79. Antonomasia: substitution of a proper name for a phrase or vice versa.
80. Aphorism: briefly phrased, easily memorable statement of a truth or opinion, an adage.
81. Aporia: faked or sincere puzzled questioning.
82. Apophasis: (Invoking) an idea by denying its (invocation), also known as occupatio or paralipsis.
83. Apostrophe: when an actor or speaker addresses an absent third party, often a personified abstraction or inanimate object.
84. Archaism: use of an obsolete, archaic word (a word used in olden language, e.g. Shakespeare's language).
85. Bathos: pompous speech with a ludicrously mundane worded anti-climax.
86. Burlesque metaphor: an amusing, overstated or grotesquse comparison or example.
87. Catachresis: blatant misuse of words or phrases.
88. Cliché: overused phrase or theme.
89. Dysphemism: substitution of a harsher, more offensive, or more disagreeable term for another. Opposite of euphemism.
90. Ekphrasis: lively describing something you see, often a painting.
91. Epanorthosis: immediate and emphatic self-correction, often following a slip of the tongue.
92. Epicrisis: mentioning a saying and then commenting on it.
93. Epiplexis: rhetorical question displaying disapproval or debunks.
94. Epitrope: initially pretending to agree with an opposing debater or invite one to do something.
95. Euphemism: substitution of a less offensive or more agreeable term for another.
96. Exclamation: a loud calling or crying out.
97. Hyperbaton: words that naturally belong together separated from each other for emphasis or effect.
98. Hyperbole: use of exaggerated terms for emphasis.
99. Hypocatastasis: an implication or declaration of resemblance that does not directly name both terms.
100. Hypophora: answering one's own rhetorical question at length.
101. Hysteron proteron: reversal of anticipated order of events; a form of hyperbaton.
102. Illeism: the act of referring to oneself in the third person instead of first person.
103. Innuendo: having a hidden meaning in a sentence that makes sense whether it is detected or not.
104. Irony: use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning.[17]
105. Litotes: emphasizing the magnitude of a statement by denying its opposite.
106. Malapropism: using a word through confusion with a word that sounds similar.
107. Meiosis: use of understatement, usually to diminish the importance of something.
108. Merism: referring to a whole by enumerating some of its parts.
109. Metalepsis: figurative speech is used in a new context.
110. Metaphor: an implied comparison between two things, attributing the properties of one thing to another that it does not literally possess.[18]
111. Metonymy: a thing or concept is called not by its own name but rather by the name of something associated in meaning with that thing or concept.
112. Neologism: the use of a word or term that has recently been created, or has been in use for a short time. Opposite of archaism.
113. Nosism: the practice of using the pronoun we to refer to oneself when expressing a personal opinion.
114. Non sequitur: statement that bears no relationship to the context preceding.
115. Onomatopoeia: words that sound like their meaning.
116. Oxymoron: using two terms together, that normally contradict each other.
117. Par'hyponoian: replacing in a phrase or text a second part, that would have been logically expected.
118. Parable: extended metaphor told as an anecdote to illustrate or teach a moral lesson.
119. Paradiastole: extenuating a vice in order to flatter or soothe.
120. Paradox: use of apparently contradictory ideas to point out some underlying truth.
121. Paraprosdokian: phrase in which the latter part causes a rethinking or reframing of the beginning.
122. Parody: humouristic imitation.
123. Paronomasia: pun in which similar-sounding words but words having a different meaning are used.
124. Pathetic fallacy: ascribing human conduct and feelings to nature.
125. Personification: representing a thing, abstraction, or inanimate object as a person.
126. Pleonasm: the use of more words than is necessary for clear expression.
127. Procatalepsis: refuting anticipated objections as part of the main argument.
128. Proslepsis: extreme form of paralipsis in which the speaker provides great detail while feigning to pass over a topic.
129. Proverb: succinct or pithy, often metaphorical, expression of wisdom commonly believed to be true.
130. Pun: play on words that will have two meanings.
131. Rhetorical question: asking a question as a way of asserting something. Asking a question which already has the answer hidden in it. Or asking a question not
for the sake of getting an answer but for asserting something (or as in a poem for creating a poetic effect).
132. Satire: humoristic criticism of society.
133. Sesquipedalianism: use of long and obscure words.
134. Simile: comparison between two things using like or as.
135. Snowclone: alteration of cliché or phrasal template.
136. Syllepsis: the use of a word in its figurative and literal sense at the same time or a single word used in relation to two other parts of a sentence although the
word grammatically or logically applies to only one.
137. Synecdoche: form of metonymy, referring to a part by its whole, or a whole by its part.
138. Synesthesia: description of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another.
139. Tautology: superfluous repetition of the same sense in different words Example: The children gathered in a round circle
140. Truism: a self-evident statement.
141. Tricolon diminuens: combination of three elements, each decreasing in size.
142. Tricolon crescens: combination of three elements, each increasing in size.
143. Zeugma: use of a single verb to describe two or more actions.
144. Zoomorphism: applying animal characteristics to humans or gods.
145. Synecdoche occurs when a part of something is used to refer to the whole.[2] Many examples of synecdoche are idioms, common to the language.
Example: Workers can be referred to as 'pairs of hands', and a vehicle as one's 'wheels'.
146. Metonymy is similar to synecdoche, but instead of a part representing the whole, a related object or part of a related object is used to represent the
whole. Often it is used to represent the whole of an abstract idea.
Example: The phrase "The king's guns were aimed at the enemy," using 'guns' to represent infantry.
Example: The word 'crown' may be used metonymically to refer to the king or queen, and at times to the law of the land.
147. Charactonym; This is when the name of a character has a symbolic meaning. For example, in Dickens' Great Expectations, Miss Havisham has a sham or
lives a life full of pretense. In Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter, Rev. Dimmesdale metaphorically fades away (dims) as the novel progresses, while Chillingworth
has a cold (chilled) heart.

148. A symbol may be an object, a person, a situation, an action, a word, or an idea that has literal meaning in the story as well as an alternative identity that
represents something else.[4] It is used as an expressive way to depict an idea. The symbol generally conveys an emotional response far beyond what the word,
idea, or image itself dictates.
Example: A heart standing for love. (One might say "It broke my heart" rather than "I was really upset")
Example: A sunrise portraying new hope. ("All their fears melted in the face of the newly risen sun.")
149. An allegory is a story that has a second meaning, usually by endowing characters, objects or events with symbolic significance. The entire story functions
symbolically; often a pattern relates each literal item to a corresponding abstract idea or principle. Although the surface story may have its interest, the author's
major interest is in the ulterior meaning.[5]

150. Motif: When a word, phrase, image, or idea is repeated throughout a work or several works of literature.

Formal structure[edit
Formal structure refers to the forms of a text. In the first place, a text is either a novel, a drama, a poem, or some other "form" of literature. However,
this term can also refer to the length of lines, stanzas, or cantos in poems, as well as sentences, paragraphs, or chapters in prose. Furthermore, such
visible structures as dialogue versus narration are also considered part of formal structure.
Storyline and plot[edit]
The storyline is the chronological account of events that follow each other in the narrative. The plot includes the storyline, and is more; it includes how
elements in the story interact to create complexity, intrigue, and surprise. The plot is often created by having separate threads of storyline interact at
critical times and in unpredictable ways, creating unexpected twists and turns in the overall storyline.
Plot structure[edit]
Plot structure refers to the configuration of a plot in terms of its exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution/denouement. For
example, Dickens' novel Great Expectations is noted for having only a single page of exposition before the rising action begins, while The Lord of the
Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien has an unusually lengthy falling action. The plot can also be structured by the use of devices such as flashbacks, framing, and
epistolary elements.
Flashback[edit]
A flashback (which is one of the most easily recognized utilization of plot structure) is a scene in writing which occurs outside of the current timeline,
before the events that are occurring in the story. It is used to explain plot elements, give background and context to a scene, or explain characteristics of
characters or events.
For instance, one chapter may be at present in a character's life, and then the next chapter might be the character's life years ago. The second chapter
gives meaning to the first, as it explains other events the character experienced and thus puts present events in context. In Khaled Hosseini's The Kite
Runner, the first short chapter occurs in the narrative's real-time; most of the remainder of the book is a flashback.
Frame story[edit]
When there is a lengthy flashback comprising more than half of the text, a frame story is the portion outside the flashback. For example, Mary
Shelley's Frankenstein uses the adventures of a sea captain as a frame story for the famous tale of the scientist and his creation. Occasionally, an author
will have an unfinished frame, such as in Henry James's "The Turn of the Screw". The lack of a finishing frame in this story has the effect of leaving the
reader disoriented, adding to the disturbing mood of the story.
Foreshadowing[edit]
Main article: Foreshadowing
This is when the author drops clues about what is to come in a story, which builds tension and the reader's suspense throughout the book.
Example: The boy kissed his mother and warmly embraced her, oblivious to the fact that this was the last time he would ever see her.
Allusion[edit]
Main article: Allusion
Allusion is a reference to something from history or literature.[8]

NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES

Name Definition Example

Setting The setting is both the time and The novel Ulysses by James Joyce is set
geographic location within a narrative in Dublin, Ireland, the action taking place on a single day,
or within a work of fiction. A literary 16 June 1904. The action of the novel takes place from
element, the setting initiates the main one side of Dublin Bay to the other, opening
backdrop and mood of a story, often in Sandycove to the South of the city and closing
referred to as the story world. on Howth Head to the North. While the novel parallels the
story of the character Odysseus (Latin: Ulysses from
Homer's epic poem Odyssey), whose role is carried
by Leopold Bloom, much of the setting is described
realistically, with great attention to detail. The locations
within Dublin also represent locations in the Odyssey.
Bloom's home is at 7 Eccles Street, and at the same
time, Ithaca, the home of Odysseus. The Post
office, Westland Row and Sweny's pharmacy on Lombard
Street represent the Dublin location for Episode 5, Lotus
Eaters; the National Library of Ireland parallels Episode 9,
Scylla and Charybdis and so on.

Plots

Name Definition Example

Backstory Story that precedes events in the story Though The Lord of the Rings trilogy takes place
being told—past events or in a relatively short period towards the end of the
3021-year Third Age, the narration gives
Name Definition Example

background that add meaning to glimpses of the mythological and historical

current circumstances events which took place earlier in the Third age
leading up to the action in the novel, and in the
First and Second Age.

Cliffhanger The narrative ends unresolved, to Almost every episode of TV shows

draw the audience back to a future like Dexter and Breaking Bad[2] ends with one
episode for the resolution. of the characters in a predicament (about to be
caught by thugs, about to be exposed by the
authorities, or a family member or a friend finds
out the main character's dirty secret)

Flashback (or Alteration of time sequences, taking The story of "The Three Apples" in the Arabian
analepsis) characters back to the beginning of Nights tales begins with the discovery of a young
the tale, for instance woman's dead body. After the murderer later
reveals himself, he narrates his reasons for the
murder as a flashback of events leading up to the
discovery of her dead body at the beginning of
the story.

Flashforward (or A scene that temporarily jumps the Occurs in A Christmas Carol when Mr. Scrooge
prolepsis) narrative forward in time. A visits the ghost of the future. It is also frequent in
flash-forward often represents events the later seasons of the television series Lost.
expected, projected, or imagined to
occur in the future. They may also
reveal significant parts of the story
that have not yet occurred, but soon
will in greater detail.

Foreshadowing Implicit yet intentional efforts of an A narration might begin with a male character
author to suggest events that have yet who has to break up a schoolyard fight among
to take place in the process of some boys who are vying for the attention of a
girl, which was introduced to foreshadow the
Name Definition Example

narration. See also repetitive events leading to a dinner time squabble between
designation and Chekhov's gun the character and his twin brother over a woman,
whom both are courting at the same time.

Frame story, or A main story that hatches a linking Early examples include Panchatantra, Kalila
a story within a series of shorter stories. and Dimna, Arabian Nights, and The
story Decameron. More modern examples are Brian
Jacques's 1999 The Legend of Luke, Ramsay
Wood's 2011 Kalila and Dimna update,
subtitled Fables of Conflict and
Intrigue and Sophia de Mello Breyner
Andresen's 1964 The Knight of Denmark (O
cavaleiro da Dinamarca).

Framing device A single action, scene, event, setting, In Arabian Nights, Scheherazade, the newly wed
or any element of significance at the wife to the King, is the framing device. As a
beginning and end of a work. The use character, she is telling the "1,001 stories" to the
of framing devices allows frame King, in order to delay her execution night by
stories to exist. night. However, as a framing device her purpose
for existing is to tell the same 1,001 stories to the
reader.

In medias res Beginning the story in the middle of a This is used in epic poems, for example, where it
sequence of events. A specific form is a mandatory form to be adopted. Luís de
of narrative hook. Camões' The Lusiads or the Iliad and
the Odyssey of Homer are prime examples. The
latter work begins with the return of Odysseus to
his home of Ithaka and then in flashbacks tells of
his ten years of wandering following the Trojan
War. The Lusiads starts in the middle of the sea
voyage to India and contextualizes the beginning
of said journey as well as Portugal's history
Name Definition Example

when the master of the ship tells an African king

about it.

Narrative hook Story opening that "hooks" readers' Any non-fiction book is often introduced with an
attention so they will keep reading interesting factoid.

Ochi A sudden interruption of the wordplay A Rakugo is a Japanese verbal entertainment

flow indicating the end of a rakugo or usually lasting 30 minutes which ends with a
a kobanashi. surprise punch line, a narrative stunt known as
ochi (fall) or sage (lowering). Twelve kinds of
ochi are codified and recognized. The
earlier kobanashi was a short comical vignette
ending with an ochi.

Plot twist Unexpected change ("twist") in the An early example is the Arabian Nights tale
direction or expected outcome of the "The Three Apples". A locked chest found by a
plot. See also twist ending. fisherman contains a dead body, and two
different men claim to be the murderer, which
turns out to be the investigator's own slave.

Poetic justice Virtue ultimately rewarded, or vice Wile E. Coyote coming up with a contraption to
punished, by an ironic twist of fate catch the Road Runner, only to be foiled and
related to the character's own conduct caught by his own devices. Each sin's
punishment in Dante's Inferno is a symbolic
instance of poetic justice.

Red herring Diverting attention away from an item For example, in mystery fiction, an innocent
of significance. party may be purposefully cast as highly
suspicious through emphasis or descriptive
techniques to divert attention from the true guilty
party.
Name Definition Example

Self-fulfilling Prediction that, by being made, makes Early examples include the legend of Oedipus,
prophecy itself come true. and the story of Krishna in the Mahabharata.
There is also an example of this in Harry
Potter when Lord Voldemort heard a prophecy
(made by Sybill Trelawney to Dumbledore) that
a boy born at the end of July, whose parents had
defied Voldemort thrice and survived, would be
made marked as his equal. Because of this
prophecy, Lord Voldemort sought out Harry
Potter (believing him to be the boy spoken of)
and tried to kill him. His parents died protecting
him, and when Voldemort tried to cast a killing
curse on Harry, it rebounded and took away most
of his strength, and gave Harry Potter a unique
ability and connection with the Dark Lord thus
marking him as his equal.

Story within a A story told within another story. See In Stephen King's The Wind Through the
story (Hypodiege also frame story. Keyhole, of the Dark Tower series, the
sis) protagonist tells a story from his past to his
companions, and in this story he tells another
relatively unrelated story.

Ticking time Threat of impending disaster—often In the post-apocalyptic novel On the Beach, the
bomb scenario used in thrillers where salvation and main characters face
escape are essential elements increasing radioactivity drifting across the
equator toward Australia. Learning that
the worst is predicted to come sooner rather than
later heightens the urgency and sense of
immediacy felt by the characters and by the
reader.
Name Definition Example

Unreliable The narrator of the story is not An example is The Murder of Roger Ackroyd.
narrator sincere, or introduces a bias in their The novel includes an unexpected plot twist at
narration and possibly misleads the the end of the novel. In the last chapter,
reader, hiding or minimizing events, Sheppard describes how he was an unreliable
characters, or motivations. narrator.

Perspective

Name Definition Example

Audience A character who expresses the questions Dr. Watson in the Sherlock Holmes stories.
surrogate and confusion of the audience, with Scott Evil, played by Seth Green, son of Dr.
whom the audience can identify. Evil in the Austin Powers films.
Frequently used in detective fiction and The companion role in Doctor Who, usually
science fiction, where the character asks a contemporary human, giving the alien
a central character how they Doctor someone to explain situations to, for
accomplished certain deeds, for the the benefit of the audience. Dr. Jennifer
purpose of inciting that character to Melfi in The Sopranos.
explain (for the curious audience) his or
her methods, or a character asking a
relatively educated person to explain
what amounts to the backstory.

Author surrogate Characters which are based on authors, Socrates in the writings of Plato. Plato never
usually to support their personal views. speaks in his own voice in his dialogues. In
Sometimes an intentionally or the Second Letter, it says, "no writing of
unintentionally idealized version of Plato exists or ever will exist, but those now
them. A variation is the Mary Sue or said to be his are those of a Socrates become
Gary Stu, which primarily serves as an beautiful and new".
idealized self-insertion.
Name Definition Example

Breaking An author or character addresses the The characters in Sesame Street often break
the fourth wall audience directly (also known as direct the fourth wall when they address their
address). This may acknowledge to the viewers as part of the ongoing storyline,
reader or audience that what is being which is possible because of the high level of
presented is fiction, or may seek to suspension of belief afforded by its
extend the world of the story to provide audience—children. The English political
the illusion that they are included in it. drama show House of Cards and its later
American version, also use this technique
frequently to let the viewers know what the
main character Frank Underwood is thinking
and planning. Ferris Bueller in Ferris
Bueller's Day Off frequently addresses the
audience.

Defamiliarization Taking an everyday object and In Swift's Gulliver's Travels, when Gulliver
presenting it in a way that is weirdly visits the land of the giants and sees a giant
unfamiliar so that we see the object in a woman's skin, he sees it as anything but
new way. Coined by the early smooth and beautiful when viewed up
20th-century Russian literary critic close.[3] Another common method of
Viktor Shklovsky in "Art as Technique." defamiliarization is to "make strange" a story
(fabula) by creating a deformed plot
(syuzhet). Tristram Shandy is defamiliarized
by Laurence Sterne's unfamiliar
plotting,[4] which causes the reader to pay
attention to the story and see it in an unjaded
way.

First-person A text presented from the point of view Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry
narration of a character, especially the protagonist, Finn uses the title character as the narrator,
as if the character is telling the story while Sherlock Holmes is primarily told from
themselves. (Breaking the fourth wall is Watson's perspective. The film, The Wolf of
Wall Street, uses this technique where the
protagonist narrates the film's events
Name Definition Example

an option, but not a necessity, of this throughout, providing clarity that could not
format.) be gained from the picture and dialogue
alone.

Magical realism Describing events in a real-world setting Particularly popular with Latin
but with magical trappings, often American authors like Gabriel García
incorporating local customs and Márquez and Jorge Luis Borges. Elsewhere,
invented beliefs. Different from urban Salman Rushdie's work provides good
fantasy in that the magic itself is not the examples.
focus of the story.

Multiperspectivity A narrative that is told from The films of Robert

the viewpoints of multiple characters Altman. 2666 by Roberto Bolano features
that incorporate various perspectives, European literary critics, a Chilean
emotions, and views from witnesses or philosophy professor, an African-American
actors to varying particular events or journalist, detectives investigating Santa
circumstances that might not be felt by Teresa murders and an obscure German
other characters in the story. writer named Benno Von Archimboldi. Pale
Fire by Vladimir Nabokov features literature
professor John Shade, Charles Kinbote, a
neighbor and colleague of Shade's and
Charles the Beloved, king of Zembla.
Kinbote is the ultimate unreliable
commentator.

Second-person A text written in the style of a direct Bright Lights, Big City by Jay McInerney.
narration address, in the second-person.

Stream of The author uses narrative and stylistic An example is Ulysses. At one point Leopold
consciousness devices to create the sense of an Bloom saunters through Dublin musing on
unedited interior monologue, "Pineapple rock, lemon platt, butter scotch.
characterized by leaps in syntax and A sugar-sticky girl shovelling scoopful of
punctuation that trace a character's
Name Definition Example

fragmentary thoughts and sensory creams for a Christian brother. Some school
feelings. The outcome is a highly lucid treat. Bad for their tummies."
perspective with a plot. Not to be
confused with free writing.

Third-person A text written as if by an impersonal A Song of Ice and Fire is written in multiple
narration narrator who is not affected by the limited third-person narrators that change
events in the story. Can be omniscient or with each chapter. The Master and
limited, the latter usually being tied to a Margarita uses an omniscient narrator.
specific character, a group of characters,
or a location.

Style[edit]
See also: Figure of speech

Name Definition Example

Allegory The expression, by means of symbolic C. S. Lewis's The Lion, the Witch, and the
fictional figures and actions, of truths or Wardrobe is a religious allegory with Aslan as
generalizations about human conduct or Christ and Edmund as Judas.[6]
experience[5]

Alliteration Repeating the same letter or consonant In the film V for Vendetta the main character
sound at the beginning of adjacent or performs a couple of soliloquies with a heavy
closely connected words. use of alliteration, e.g., "Voilà! In view, a
humble vaudevillian veteran, cast vicariously as
both victim and villain by the vicissitudes of
Fate. This visage, no mere veneer of vanity, is a
vestige of the vox populi, now vacant, vanished,
as the once vital voice of the verisimilitude now
venerates what they once vilified. However, this
valorous visitation of a bygone vexation stands
vivified, and has vowed to vanquish these venal
Name Definition Example

and virulent vermin vanguarding vice and

vouchsafing the violently vicious and voracious
violation of volition. The only verdict is
vengeance; a vendetta held as a votive, not in
vain, for the value and veracity of such shall one
day vindicate the vigilant and the virtuous.
Verily, this vichyssoise of verbiage veers most
verbose vis-à-vis an introduction, and so it is
my very good honor to meet you and you may
call me V."

Amplification Amplification refers to a literary E.g., Original sentence: The thesis paper was
(rhetoric) practice wherein the writer embellishes difficult. After amplification: The thesis paper
the sentence by adding more was difficult: it required extensive research,
information to it in order to increase its data collection, sample surveys, interviews and
worth and understanding. a lot of fieldwork.

Anagram Rearranging the letters of a word or a E.g., An anagram for "debit card" is "bad
phrase to form a new phrase or word. credit". As you can see, both phrases use the
same letters. By mixing the letters a bit of
humor is created.

Asyndeton When sentences do not use conjunctions An example is when John F. Kennedy said on
(e.g., and, or, nor) to separate clauses, January 20, 1961 "...that we shall pay any price,
but run clauses into one another, usually bear any burden, meet any hardship, support
marking the separation of clauses with any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival
punctuation. and the success of liberty."

Bathos An abrupt transition in style from the The ballerina rose gracefully en pointe and
exalted to the commonplace, producing extended one slender leg behind her, like a dog
a ludicrous effect. While often at a fire hydrant.[9][10]
unintended, bathos may be used
Name Definition Example

deliberately to produce a humorous

effect.[7][8]

Caesura A break, especially a sense pause, E.g., in "Know then thyself. ‖ Presume not God
usually near the middle of a verse, and to scan" (from An Essay on Man by Alexander
marked in scansion by a double vertical Pope)
line. This technique frequently occurs
within a poetic line grammatically
connected to the end of the previous line
by enjambment.

Distancing Deliberately preventing the audience Popularized by 20th century playwright Bertolt
effect from identifying with characters in Brecht.
order to let them be coolly
scrutinized.[11]

Dramatic Representing an object or character with This technique appears at least as far back as
visualization abundant descriptive detail, or the Arabian Nights.[12]
mimetically rendering gestures and
dialogue to make a scene more visual or
imaginatively present to an audience.

Euphuism An artificial, highly elaborate way of "Is it not far better to abhor sins by the
writing or speaking. Named remembrance of others' faults, than by
from Euphues (1579) the prose romance repentance of thine own follies?"
by John Lyly. (from Euphues, 1, lecture by the wise
Neapolitan)

Hyperbole Exaggeration used to evoke strong Sally could no longer hide her secret. Her
feelings or create an impression which pregnant belly was bigger than the planet on
is not meant to be taken literally. which she stood.
Name Definition Example

Hyperbole can be used for serious,

ironic, or comic effects.[13]

Imagery Forming mental images of a scene using When the boots came off his feet with a leathery
descriptive words, especially making squeak, a smell of ferment and fish market
use of the human senses. The same immediately filled the small tent. The skin of
as sensory detail. his toes were red and raw and sensitive. The
malodorous air was so toxic he thought he could
almost taste his toes.

Leitwortstil Purposefully repeating words that This dates back at least to the Arabian Nights.[14]
usually express a motif
or theme important to the story.

Metonymy Word or phrase in a figure of speech in Metonomy: The boxer threw in the towel.
which a noun is referenced by Synecdoche: She gave her hand in marriage.
something closely associated with it,
rather than explicitly by the noun itself.
This is not to be confused
with synecdoche, in which a part of the
whole stands for the thing itself.

Overstatement Exaggerating something, often for Sally's pregnant belly most likely weighed as
emphasis (also known as hyperbole) much as the scooter she used to ride before she
got pregnant.

Onomatopoeia Words that imitate/spell a sound or "Boom goes the dynamite." "Bang!" "Bark."
noise. (comic books)
Word that sounds the same as, or similar
to what the word means.
Name Definition Example

Oxymoron A term made of two words that "terrible beauty"

deliberately or coincidentally imply
each other's opposite.

Paradox A phrase that describes an idea "It was the best of times, it was the worst of
composed of concepts that conflict. times." (A Tale of Two Cities)

Parody Ridicule by overstated imitation, usually MAD Magazine

humorous.

Pastiche Using forms and styles from another Such as the many stories featuring Sherlock
author, generally as an affectionate Holmes not written by Arthur Conan Doyle, or
tribute. much of the Cthulhu Mythos.

Pathos Emotional appeal, one of the In Romeo and Juliet, the two main characters
three modes of persuasion in rhetoric each commit suicide at the sight of the
that the author uses to inspire pity or supposedly dead lover, however the audience
sorrow towards a character—typically knows these actions to be rash and unnecessary.
does not counterbalance the target Therefore, Shakespeare makes for the emotional
character's suffering with a positive appeal for the unnecessary tragedy behind the
outcome, as in Tragedy. young characters' rash interpretations about love
and life.

Polyptoton Words derived from the same root in a "Not as a call to battle, though embattled we
sentence. are." John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address,
January 20, 1961.

Polysyndeton Polysyndeton is the use of several An example of this is in the first chapter
conjunctions in close succession, this of Great Expectations by Charles Dickens: "A
provides a sense of exaggeration man who had been soaked in water, and
designed to wear down the audience. smothered in mud, and lamed by stones, and cut
by flints, and stung by nettles, and torn by
briars; who limped, and shivered, and glared
Name Definition Example

and growled; and whose teeth chattered in his

head as he seized me by the chin"

Satire The use of humor, irony or exaggeration An example is Network. One of the earliest
to criticize. examples is Gulliver's Travels, written
by Jonathan Swift. The television
program South Park is another.

Sensory detail Sight, sound, taste, touch, smell. The The boot was tough and sinewy between his
same as imagery. hard-biting teeth. There was no flavor to speak
of except for the blandness of all the dirt that
the boot had soaked up over the years. The only
thing the boot reminded him of was the smell of
a wet-dog.

Understatement A diminishing or softening of a theme The broken ends of the long bone were sticking
or effect. through the bleeding skin, but it wasn't
something that always killed a man.

Title drop Line of dialogue used to announce the In The Breakfast Club, the final line
name of the piece. is "Sincerely yours, The Breakfast Club".

Theme[edit]

Name Definition Example

Irony This discrepancy between expectation and reality occurs in three A person hears a prophecy
forms: situational irony, where a situation features a discrepancy about himself. His endeavor
between what is expected and what is actualized; dramatic irony, to stop the prophecy from
where a character is unaware of pivotal information already coming true makes it come
revealed to the audience (the discrepancy here lies in the two true.
levels of awareness between the character and the audience); and
verbal irony, where one states one thing while meaning another.
Name Definition Example

The difference between verbal irony and sarcasm is exquisitely

subtle and often contested. The concept of irony is too often
misunderstood in popular usage. Unfortunate circumstances and
coincidences do not constitute irony (nor do they qualify as
being tragic). See the Usage controversy section under irony,
and the term tragedy.

Metaphor Evoking imagination by means of using figurative language. Her tears were a river
flowing down her cheeks.

Thematic Distributing recurrent thematic concepts and Each of the chapters

patterning moralistic motifs among various incidents and frames of a story. of Ulysses by James Joyce.
In a skillfully crafted tale, thematic patterning may emphasize
the unifying argument or salient idea that disparate events and
frames have in common.

Character[edit]

Name Type Notes

Anthropomorphism Form of personification that applies The Adventures of Pinocchio by Carlo

human-like characteristics to animals. Collodi or the Cheshire Cat of Alice's
Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis
Carroll

Hamartia The character flaw of an initially rich and Oedipus kills his own father because
powerful hero that leads to his tragic downfall. he doesn't understand his true
This is also referred to as the tragic flaw. parentage.

Pathetic fallacy Reflecting a character's (usually the For example, the storm in William
protagonist) mood in the atmosphere or Shakespeare's King Lear, which
inanimate objects. Related to mirrors Lear's mental deterioration.
anthropomorphism and projection
Name Type Notes

Personification Using comparative metaphors and similes to Taken from Act I, Scene II of Romeo
give characteristics to abstract concepts and Juliet: "When well-appareled
April on the heel / Of limping winter
treads."[15]

Register[edit]
Diction[edit]
Diction is the choice of specific words to communicate not only meaning, but emotion as well. Authors writing their texts consider not only a word's
denotation but also its connotation. For example, a person may be described as stubborn or tenacious, both of which have the same basic meaning but
are opposite in terms of their emotional background (the first is an insult, while the second is a compliment). Similarly, a bargain-seeker may be
described as either thrifty (compliment) or stingy (insult). An author's diction is extremely important in discovering the narrator's tone, or attitude.
Syntax[edit]
Main article: Syntax
Sentences can be long or short, written in the active voice or passive voice, composed as simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. They may
also include such techniques as inversion or such structures as appositive phrases, verbal phrases (gerund, participle, and infinitive), and subordinate
clauses (noun, adjective, and adverb). These tools can be highly effective in achieving an author's purpose.
Example: The ghetto was ruled by neither German nor Jew; it was ruled by delusion. (from Night, by Elie Wiesel)
In this sentence, Wiesel uses two parallel independent clauses written in the passive voice. The first clause establishes suspense about who rules the
ghetto, and then the first few words of the second clause set up the reader with the expectation of an answer, which is metaphorically revealed only in
the final word of the sentence.
Voice[edit]
In grammar, there are two voices: active and passive. These terms can be applied to whole sentences or verbs. Verbs also have tense, aspect and mode.
There are three tenses: past, present, and future. There are two main aspects: perfect and progressive. Some grammarians refer to aspects as tenses, but
this is not strictly correct, as the perfect and progressive aspects convey information other than time. There are many modes (also called moods). Some
important ones are: declarative, affirmative, negative, emphatic, conditional, imperative, interrogative and subjunctive.
Tone[edit]
Tone expresses the writer's or speaker's attitude toward the subject, the reader, or herself or himself.[1

Irony[edit]
Main article: Irony
Verbal irony[edit]
This is the simplest form of irony, in which the speaker says the opposite of what he or she intends. There are several forms,
including euphemism, understatement, sarcasm, and some forms of humor.[9]
Situational irony[edit]
This is when the author creates a surprise that is the perfect opposite of what one would expect, often creating either humor or an eerie feeling. For
example, in Steinbeck's novel The Pearl, one would think that Kino and Juana would have become happy and successful after discovering the "Pearl of
the World", with all its value. However, their lives changed dramatically for the worse after discovering it.
Similarly, in Shakespeare's Hamlet, the title character almost kills King Claudius at one point but resists because Claudius is praying and therefore may
go to heaven. As Hamlet wants Claudius to go to hell, he waits. A few moments later, after Hamlet leaves the stage, Claudius reveals that he doesn't
mean his prayers ("words without thoughts never to heaven go"), so Hamlet should have killed him after all.
The way to remember the name is that it's for an ironic situation.
Dramatic irony[edit]
Dramatic Irony is when the reader knows something important about the story that one or more characters in the story do not know. For example,
in William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, the drama of Act V comes from the fact that the audience knows Juliet is alive, but Romeo thinks she's
dead. If the audience had thought, like Romeo, that she was dead, the scene would not have had anywhere near the same power.
Likewise, in Edgar Allan Poe's "The Tell-Tale Heart", the energy at the end of the story comes from the fact that we know the narrator killed the old
man, while the guests are oblivious. If we were as oblivious as the guests, there would be virtually no point in the story.
The way to remember the name is that dramatic irony adds to the drama of the story.