SMA 2101: CALCULUS I

⃝Francis
c O. Ochieng
[email protected]

Department of Pure and Applied Mathematics

Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology

Course content
• Functions: definition, domain, range, codomain, composition (or composite), inverse.

• Limits, continuity and differentiability of a function.

• Differentiation by first principle and by rule for xn (integral and fractional n).

• Other techniques of differentiation, i.e., sums, products, quotients, chain rule; their applications
to algebraic, trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential, and inverse trigonometric functions all of
a single variable.

• Implicit and parametric differentiation.

• Applications of differentiation to: rates of change, small changes, stationary points, equations of
tangents and normal lines, kinematics, and economics and financial models (cost, revenue and
profit).

• Introduction to integration and its applications to area and volume.

References
[1] Calculus: Early Transcendentals (8th Edition) by James Stewart

[2] Calculus with Analytic Geometry by Roland E. Larson, Robert P. Hostetler and Bruce H. Edwards;
5th edition

[3] Calculus and Analytical Geometry (9th edition) by George B. Thomas and Ross L. Finney

[4] Advanced Engineering Mathematics (10th ed.) by Erwin Kreyszig

[5] Calculus by Larson Hostellem

Lecture 1

1 Functions
To understand the word function, we consider the following scenario and definitions. For example,
the growth of a sidling is an instance of a functional relation, since the growth may be affected by
variations in temperature, moisture, sunlight, etc. If all these factors remain constant, then the growth
is a function of time.

Definition 1.1 (Variables). A variable is an object, event, time period, or any other type of category
you are trying to measure.

1
 ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Consider the formula used for calculating the volume of a sphere of radius r.
4
V = πr3 (1)
3
Then,

i) V and r vary with different spheres. Hence, they are called variables.
4
ii) π and are constants, irrespective of the size of the sphere.
3
There are two types of variables, i.e., independent and dependent variables.

Definition 1.2 (Independent and dependent variables). Independent variable refers to the input value
while dependent variable refers to the output value.

For example from formula (1), the volume, V , depends on the value of the radius, r, of the sphere.
In this case, r is called the independent variable while V is called the dependent variable since it is
affected by the variation of r. Similarly, for the function y = ax2 + bx + c, a, b and c are constants, x
is the independent variable and y is the dependent variable.

Definition 1.3 (Function). A function is a rule that assigns/associates each element in the
independent set, say X, to a unique element in the dependent set, say Y .

Examples of functions are

i) Linear functions e.g., y = x + 5

ii) Quadratic functions e.g., y = x2 − 2x + 5

iii) Cubic functions e.g., y = x3 − 1

iv) Quartic functions e.g., y = 2x4 + x3 − 1

v) Trigonometric functions e.g., y = sin(2x + 5)

vi) Logarithmic functions (log to base 10) e.g., y = log(3x + 1)

vii) Natural logarithmic functions (log to base e ≈ 2.71828) e.g., y = ln(5x + 1)

viii) Inverse of trigonometric functions e.g., y = tan−1 (2x + 1)

ix) Exponential functions e.g., y = e2x+1

x) Absolute value functions e.g., y = |x|. This function is defined as

{
−x, if x < 0
y = |x| =
x, if x ≥ 0

→ Note: in the above examples the variable y depends on the variable x. Thus, we say that the
dependent variable y is a function of the independent variable x. Using function notation, we write
y = f (x), where f is a function. The function f (x) is read as f of x, meaning that f depends on x.

2
1.1 Domain, Range and Codomain ⃝Francis
c Oketch

1.1 Domain, Range and Codomain

Definition 1.4 (Domain). A domain consists of all the elements in the independent set (i.e., the set
of inputs), X, for which the function is defined.
Definition 1.5 (Range). A range refers to a set of all the images of the elements in the domain.
Definition 1.6 (Codomain). A codomain consists of all the elements in the dependent set (i.e., the
set of outputs), Y .
For example, consider the diagram below

Example(s):
1. Find the domain and range of the following functions.
(a) f (x) = (x − 4)2 + 5

Solution
 Since f (x) is defined (or is a real number) for any real number x, the domain of f is
the interval (−∞, ∞).
√
 Let y = (x − 4)2 + 5. Making x the subject, we have x = 4 ± y − 5. This function is
defined if y − 5 ≥ 0 or y ≥ 5. Therefore, the range is the interval [5, ∞).
(b) f (x) = 2x2 − 5x + 1

Solution
 Since f (x) is defined (or is a real number) for any real number x, the domain of f is
the interval (−∞, ∞).
 Let y = 2x2 − 5x + 1 or 2x√ 2 − 5x + (1 − y) = 0. Making x the subject (use quadratic

5 ± 25 − 8(1 − y)
formula), we have x = . This function is defined if 25 − 8(1 − y) ≥ 0
4 [ )
17
or y ≥ − . Therefore, the range is the interval − 178 ,∞ .
8
4
(c) f (x) = 2
x − 5x + 6
Solution
→ Note: 4/0 = ∞ (infinity), vvvv large value, undefined, indeterminate.
 The function f (x) is defined when the denominator is nonzero, i.e., if x2 − 5x + 6 ̸= 0.
Solving yields x ̸= 2 and x ̸= 3. Therefore, the domain of f includes all the real numbers
of x except x = 2 and x = 3, i.e., the set (−∞, ∞)\{2, 3} or (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, 3) ∪ (3, ∞).
4 ( )
 Let y = 2 or x2 − 5x + 6 − y4 = 0. Making x the subject (use quadratic
x − 5x + 6
formula), we have √ ( )
5± 25 − 4 6 − 4
y
x=
2
( )
This function is defined if 25 − 4 6 − 4
y ≥ 0 or y ≥ −16. Therefore, the range is the
interval [−16, ∞).

3
1.2 Evaluation of functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

√
(d) f (x) = x−1

Solution
 Since f (x) is defined (or is a real number) if x − 1 ≥ 0 or x ≥ 1, the domain of f is the
interval [1, ∞).
√
 Let y = x − 1. Making x the subject, we have x = y 2 + 1. This function is defined
for any real number y. Therefore, the range is the interval [0, ∞).
(e) f (x) = 2|x − 3| + 4

Solution
 Since f (x) is defined for all real numbers, the domain of f is the interval (−∞, ∞).
 Since for all |x − 3| ≥ 0, the function f (x) = 2|x − 3| + 4 ≥ 4. Therefore, the range is
all the values of y for which y ≥ 4 or the interval [4, ∞).

Exercise:

1. Find the domain and range of the following functions.

(a) f (x) = 6 − x2 . [ans: domain (−∞, ∞), range (−∞, 6]]

6 + 3x
(b) f (x) = . [ans: domain (−∞, 0.5) ∪ (0.5, ∞), range (−∞, 1.5) ∪ (1.5, ∞)]
1 − 2x
x+5
(c) f (x) = . [ans: domain (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞), range (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)]
x−2
√
(d) f (x) = 4 − 2x + 5. [ans: domain (−∞, 2], range (−∞, ∞)]
1
(e) f (x) = √ − 3. [ans: domain (−1, ∞), range (−3, ∞)]
x+1
√
x2 − 16 [ ]
(f) f (x) = .[ans: domain (−∞, −4) ∪ [4, 6) ∪ (6, ∞), range − √2 , √2 \{−1, 1}]
x2 − 2x − 24 3 3
√
x+2
(g) f (x) = . [ans: domain [−2, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)]
x−2
(h) f (x) = 2x + 3. [ans: domain (−∞, ∞), range (3, ∞)]

1.2 Evaluation of functions

This involves replacing x in the function by the suggested value and retaining the rule of the function.

Example(s):
f (x + h) − f (x)
1. Given f (x) = 2x + 1. Find: (i) f (0), (ii) f (1), (iii) f (x + 2), and (iv) for h ̸= 0.
h

Solution

i) f (0) = 2(0) + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1
ii) f (1) = 2(1) + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3
iii) f (x + 2) = 2(x + 2) + 1 = 2x + 4 + 1 = 2x + 5
f (x + h) − f (x) [2(x + h) + 1] − [2x + 1] 2x + 2h + 1 − 2x − 1 2h
iv) = = = = 2.
h h h h
f (x + h) − f (x)
2. Given f (x) = 3x2 − 2x + 4. Find: (i) f (0), (ii) f (−1), (iii) f (x + 2), and (iv)
h
for h ̸= 0.

Solution

4
1.2 Evaluation of functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

i) f (0) = 3(0)2 − 2(0) + 4 = 0 + 0 + 4 = 4

ii) f (−1) = 3(−1)2 − 2(−1) + 4 = 3 + 2 + 4 = 9
iii) f (x + 2) = 3(x + 2)2 − 2(x + 2) + 4 = 3(x2 + 4x + 4) − 2x − 4 + 4 = 3x2 + 10x + 12
iv)
[ ] [ ]
f (x + h) − f (x) 3(x + h)2 − 2(x + h) + 4 − 3x2 − 2x + 4
=
h ( 2 h ) ( )
3x + 6hx + 3h2 − 2x − 2h + 4 − 3x2 − 2x + 4 6hx + 3h2 − 2h
= =
h h
= 6x + 3h − 2

3. Given f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3. Find: (i) f (1), (ii) f (2), (iii) f (a), and (iv) f (a + h).

Solution

i) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 ⇒ f (1) = 12 − 4(1) + 3 = 0

ii) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 ⇒ f (2) = 22 − 4(2) + 3 = −1
iii) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 ⇒ f (a) = a2 − 4a + 3
iv) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 ⇒ f (a + h) = (a + h)2 − 4(a + h) + 3

4. Given ϕ(θ) = 2 sin θ. Find: (i) ϕ( π2 ), (ii) ϕ(0), and (iii) ϕ( π3 ).

Solution
(π)
i) ϕ(θ) = 2 sin θ ⇒ ϕ( π2 ) = 2 sin 2 =2
ii) ϕ(θ) = 2 sin θ ⇒ ϕ(0) = 2 sin (0) = 0
√
(π) 3 √
iii) ϕ(θ) = 2 sin θ ⇒ ϕ( π3 ) = 2 sin 3 =2× = 3
2

Exercise:
f (x + h) − f (x)
(a) Given f (x) = x3 + 2x + 1, find: (i) f (0), (ii) f (−a), (iii) f (x + 2), and (iv) for
h
h ̸= 0.
1 g(x + h) − g(x)
(b) Given g(x) = √ , find: (i) f (0), (ii) f (1), (iii) f (x + 2), and (iv) for h ̸= 0.
x+1 h
6 − 2x p(x + h) − p(x)
(c) Given p(x) = , find: (i) f (0), (ii) f (−1), (iii) f (2 − x), and (iv) for h ̸= 0.
1 + 3x h
(d) If f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 1, find (i) f (1), (ii) f (0), (iii) f (2), (iv) f (a), and f (x + h).

(e) If f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 5), find (i) f (1), (ii) f (0), (iii) f (2), (iv) f (a + 1), and f ( a1 ).

(f) If f (θ) = cos θ, find (i) f ( π2 ), (ii) f (0), (iii) f ( π3 ), (iv) f ( π6 ), and (v) f (π).

f (3.001) − f (3)
(g) If f (x) = x2 , find (i) f (3), (ii) f (3.1), (iii) f (3.01), (iv) f (3.001), and .
0.001
(h) If ϕ(x) = 2x , find (i) ϕ(0), (ii) ϕ(1), and (iii) ϕ(0.5).

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1.3 Composite functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

1.3 Composite functions

The composition of functions is a function of another function. Consider the function f with domain
A and range B, and the function g with domain D and range E. If B is a subset of D, then the
composite function (gof )(x) is the function with domain A and range E such that

(gof )(x) = g(f (x))

Example(s):

1. Given f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 5x − 3, find (f og)(x) and (gof )(x).

Solution
(f og)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (5x − 3) = 2(5x − 3) + 1 = 10x − 5
(gof )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(2x + 1) = 5(2x + 1) − 3 = 10x + 2
x+1 x+1
2. Given f (x) = and g(x) = , find (f og)(x).
5x − 2 2x
Solution
( )
x+1
+1
g+1 2x ) x + 1 + 2x 3x + 1
(f og)(x) = f (g(x)) = = ( = =
5g − 2 x+1 5x + 5 − 4x x+5
5 −2
2x

→ Note: in general, (f og)(x) ̸= (gof )(x).

Exercise:
√
1. Given f (x) = x2 − 1, g(x) = x − 1 and h(x) = x. Find:

(a) (f og)(x)
(b) (hog)(x)
(c) (gog)(x)
(d) (gohof )(x)

2. Consider the functions f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = 1/x. Evaluate

(a) (f og)(4)
(b) (gof )(−1/2)
√
3. (a) If f (x) = x and g(x) = 4x + 2, find the domain of (f og)(x).[ans: x ≥ −0.5 or [−0.5, ∞)]
1 √
(b) If f (x) = and g(x) = x − 1, find the domain of (gof )(x).[ans: x > −1 or (−1, ∞)]
x+1
4. The price of a washing machine is x dollars. The function f (x) = x − 100 gives the price of the
washing machine after a $100 rebate. The function g(x) = 0.95x gives the price of the washing
machine after a 5% discount.

i) Find and interpret (f og)(x). [ans: (f og)(x) = 0.95x − 100 gives the price of the washing
machine after a 5% discount and a further $100 rebate]
ii) Find and interpret (gof )(x). [ans: (gof )(x) = 0.95(x − 100) gives the price of the washing
machine after a $100 rebate and a further 5% discount]

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1.4 Inverse functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

1.4 Inverse functions

To find the inverse function of the given function f (x), follow these steps

 Replace f (x) with y and make x the subject.

 In the resulting equation, replace x with f −1 (x) and then y with x.

Example(s):
2x + 3
1. Find the inverse function of f (x) = .
x−1

Solution
2x + 3 y+3
Let y = . Making x the subject yields x = . Set x = f −1 (x) and then y = x to get
x−1 y−2
x+3
f −1 (x) =
x−2

→ Note:

 the domain of f must be equal to the range of f −1 , and the range of f must be equal to the
domain of f −1 .

 a function need not have an inverse function, but when it does, the inverse function is unique.

Exercise:

1. Find the inverse function of the following functions.

√
(a) f (x) = x − 1 [ans: f −1 (x) = x2 + 1]
5−x 5 − 2x
(b) f (x) = [ans: f −1 (x) = ]
3x + 2 3x + 1

Lecture 2

2 Limits of functions
Definition 2.1 (Basic limit definition). Let f (x) be a function and let a and L be real numbers. If
f (x) approaches L as x approaches a from either RHS or LHS of a (but is not equal to a), then we
say that f (x) has limit L as x approaches a, and is mathematically written as:

. = L.
lim f (x)
x→a

Diagrammatically, we have

→ Note: lim f (x) is the value that f (x)

x→a
approaches as x approaches a, and a does
not have to be in the domain of f .

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2.1 Properties of limits ⃝Francis
c Oketch

2.1 Properties of limits

Theorem 2.1. Suppose lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2 . Then,
x→a x→a
[ ] [ ]
1. [Addition/subtraction rule] lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x) = L1 ± L2
x→a x→a x→a
[ ]
2. [Scalar multiple] lim [λf (x)] = λ lim f (x) = λL1 , where λ is a constant.
x→a x→a
[ ] [ ]
3. [Product rule] lim [f (x) · g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x) = L1 · L2
x→a x→a x→a
[ ] lim f (x)
f (x) L1
4. [Quotient rule] lim = x→a = , provided g(a) ̸= 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x) L2
x→a
[ ]n
5. [Power rule] lim [f (x)]n = lim f (x) = Ln1 , where n is a real number.
x→a x→a

→ Note: if f (x) = c (where c is a constant), then lim [f (x)] = lim [c] = c

x→a x→a

2.2 Techniques of evaluating limits of functions

 Direct substitution (DS)
The required limit is obtained by just plugging in the value of input, say x, into the given
function, say f (x).

Example(s):

(a) Evaluate lim 3x3 − x2 + 2x + 5.

x→2
Solution

lim (3x3 − x2 + 2x + 5) = 3 lim x3 − lim x2 + 2 lim x + lim 5)

x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2
= 3(2 ) − (2 ) + 2(2) + 5
3 2

= 29
x2 − 1
(b) Evaluate lim .
x→1 x + 1
Solution
x2 − 1 D.S 12 − 1 0
lim = = =0
x→1 x + 1 1+1 2
 Factorization
If on direct substitution we get the indeterminate form 0/0, then it means that there is a
common factor in both the numerator and denominator. In this case, we perform factorization
first so as to simplify the given function.

→ Note: if the polynomial in the numerator is of degree greater than the degree of the polynomial
in the denominator, we first need to perform long division.

Example(s):
x2 + x − 6
(a) Evaluate lim
x→2 x−2
Solution
x2 + x − 6 (x − 2)(x + 3)
lim = lim
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2
D.S
= lim (x + 3) = 2 + 3
x→2
= 5

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2.2 Techniques of evaluating limits of functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

x2 + 3x + 2
(b) Evaluate lim
x→−2 2x2 − 8
Solution
x2 + 3x + 2 (x + 2)(x + 1)
lim = lim
x→−2 2x2 − 8 x→−2 2(x + 2)(x − 2)
x + 1 D.S −2 + 1 −1
= lim = =
x→−2 2(x − 2) 2(−2 − 2) −8
1
=
8

x3 − 1
(c) Evaluate lim .
x→1 x2 − 1
Solution
( )
x3 − 1 x−1
lim 2 = lim x + 2 (long division)
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x −1
[ ]
x−1
= lim x + (factorization)
x→1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
( )
1 D.S 1 1
= lim x + = 1+ =1+
x→1 x+1 1+1 2
3
=
2
 Limits at infinity
In this case, we first divide the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x in the
denominator.

Example(s):
5x3 − 1
(a) Evaluate lim .
x→∞ 4x3 − 2x − 7

Solution
1 1
5x3 − 1 5− 5− 5−0
lim = lim x3 D.S
= ∞ =
x→∞ 4x3 − 2x − 7 x→∞ 2 7 2 7 4−0−0
4− − 4− −
x2 x3 ∞ ∞
5
=
4
 Rationalization
Suppose there exists a surd in either the numerator or denominator or both. Then, we first need
to multiply both the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the factor containing the
surd (in either the numerator or denominator) and then simplify the resulting function. After
rationalization, we perform a direct substitution.
→ Note: in case the surds appear in both the numerator and denominator, then we rationalize
the denominator.

Example(s):
√
(a) Evaluate lim x2 − 4x − x.
x→∞

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2.2 Techniques of evaluating limits of functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Solution
(√ )
√ (√ ) x2 − 4x + x
lim x2 − 4x − x = lim x2 − 4x − x √
x→∞ x→∞ x2 − 4x + x
x2 − 4x − x2 −4x
= lim √ = lim √
x→∞ x − 4x + x
2 x→∞ x − 4x + x
2
1
−4x · −4
lim (√ x lim √
= ) 1 = x→∞
x→∞
x2 − 4x + x · 4
1− +1
x x
D.S −4 −4 −4
= √ =√ =
4 1−0+1 1+1
1− +1
∞
= −2
√
x−3
(b) Evaluate lim .
x→9 x − 9

Solution
√ √ √
x−3 ( x − 3)( x + 3)
lim = lim √
x→9 x − 9 x→9 (x − 9)( x + 3)
(x − 9) 1
= lim √ = lim √
x→9 (x − 9)( x + 3) x→9 x+3
D.S 1 1
= √ =
9+3 3+3
1
=
6

Exercise:
√ √
(a) lim x2 − 2 − x2 + x.
x→∞

Solution
(√
√
)
√
√ √ √ x2 − 2 + x2 + x
lim x2 − 2 − x2 + x = lim x2 − 2 − x2 + x · √ √
x→∞ x→∞ x2 − 2 + x2 + x
(x2 − 2) − (x2 + x) −2 − x
= lim √ √ = lim √ √
x→∞ x −2+ x +x
2 2 x→∞ x − 2 + x2 + x
2
2 2
− −1 − −1
= lim √ x √
D.S
= √ ∞ √
x→∞ 2 1 2 1
1− 2 + 1+ 1− + 1+
x x ∞ ∞
1
= −
2
( )
x3 − 1
(b) Evaluate lim . [ans: 3]
x→1 x−1
( √ )
1− x
(c) Evaluate lim . [ans: 1/2]
x→1 1−x
5x2 − 3x + 2
(d) Evaluate lim . [ans: 1/2]
x→∞ 10x2 − x + 100
√ √
1+x− 1−x
(e) Evaluate lim . [ans: 1]
x→0 x

10
2.2 Techniques of evaluating limits of functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

→ Note: A function which grows arbitrarily large as x goes to positive or negative infinity is said to
have an infinite limit. Infinity is not a real number, so if a function has infinite limit, we
say that the limit does not exist.

Lecture 3
Theorem 2.2 (Squeeze law (sandwich theorem)). Suppose that f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) holds for all
x around a, except possibly at x = a. If lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L, then lim g(x) = L.
x→a x→a x→a

Example(s):
( )
1
1. Find lim x sin 2
.
x→0 x +x

Solution
We know that sin θ is sandwiched between −1 and 1 i.e., −1 ≤ sin(θ) ≤ 1. Therefore,
( )
1
As −1 ≤ sin ≤1
x + x2
( )
1
⇒ −x ≤ x sin ≤x
x + x2
( )
1
⇒ − lim (x) ≤ lim x sin ≤ lim (x)
x→0 x→0 x + x2 x→0
( )
1
⇒ 0 ≤ lim x sin ≤0
x→0 x + x2
( )
1
⇒ lim x sin =0
x→0 x + x2

Exercise:
sin h (1 − cos h)
1. [Assignment 1 ] Prove that lim = 1 and lim = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h

Proof. Consider the following unit circle. Let the length of line OA be a units, AB is b units,
CD be c units and angle AOB be h.

Here, OB = OC = 1 unit. Now, cos h = a,

sin h = b and tan h = c. From the figure, the
area of triangle OAB is less than that of the
sector OCB which is also less than that of
1 h 1
triangle OCD i.e., ab ≤ · π(1)2 ≤ (1)c.
2 2π 2
Thus,
1 1 1
cos h sin h ≤ h ≤ tan h
2 2 2

sin h
Multiply through by 2 and using the identity tan h = , we have
cos h
sin h
cos h sin h ≤ h ≤
cos h
Taking reciprocals, we have
1 1 cos h
≥ ≥
cos h sin h h sin h

11
2.3 One-Sided Limit ⃝Francis
c Oketch

1 sin h
Multiplying though by sin h yields ≥ ≥ cos h, which can be rewritten as
cos h h
sin h 1
cos h ≤ ≤
h cos h
sin h 1 sin h
Taking limit as h → 0, we have lim cos h ≤ lim ≤ lim . That is, 1 ≤ lim ≤ 1.
h→0 h→0 h h→0 cos h h→0 h
Hence, by the squeeze law we get
sin. h
lim =1
h→0 h
Also,
[ ] [ ]
(1 − cos h) (1 − cos h) (1 + cos h) 1 − cos2 h 1
lim = lim · = lim ·
h→0 h h→0 h (1 + cos h) h→0 h 1 + cos h
[ ] [ ]
sin2 h 1 sin h sin h
= lim · = lim ·
h→0 h 1 + cos h h→0 h 1 + cos h
[ ][ ] [ ]
sin h sin h sin h D.S 0
= lim lim = (1) lim =
h→0 h h→0 (1 + cos h) h→0 (1 + cos h) (1 + 1)
= 0

Therefore,
(1 − cos
. h) = 0
lim
h→0 h

2.3 One-Sided Limit

Definition 2.2 (Left-Hand Limit). If a function f (x) approaches the number L as x approaches the
real number a from the LHS of a, then we say that L is the left-hand limit of f at x = a and is written
as:
lim f (x)
. = L.
− x→a

Definition 2.3 (Right-Hand Limit). If a function f (x) approaches the number L as x approaches the
real number a from the RHS of a, then we say that L is the right-hand limit of f at x = a and is
written as:
lim f (x)
. = L.
+ x→a

→ Note: the limit of f (x) as x approaches a exists if both left-hand limit and right-hand limit exist
and are equal at x = a. In that case, we have

lim f (x) = lim f.(x) = lim f (x) = L

x→a− x→a+ x→a

Example(s):


 x
3 if x < 1
(a) Consider the function defined by f (x) = 1 if x = 1 Evaluate lim f (x).

 2−x x→1
if x > 1.

Solution

(i) LHL: lim f (x) = lim (x3 ) = 13 = 1

x→1− x→1−
(ii) RHL: lim f (x) = lim (2 − x) = 2 − 1 = 1
x→1+ x→1+
(iii) Since the result (i) = (ii), we get lim f (x) = 1
x→1

12
2.3 One-Sided Limit ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Exercise:


 x − 2x
2 if x < 1
(a) Consider the function defined by f (x) = 2 if x = 1 . Evaluate lim f (x) and

 3x − 4 x→1−
if x > 1.
lim f (x).
x→1+
{
2 − 3x if x ≤ 1
(b) Consider the function defined by f (x) = . Does lim f (x) exist?
2x3 if x > 1 x→1
{
x if x ̸= 0
(c) Find the value of lim f (x) where f (x) =
x→0 1 if x = 0.

 Meaning of absolute value functions

To separate (or split) the function contained in the absolute value function, do the following:

i) First identify the reference point by equating the interior term to zero.

ii) Investigate the signs of the interior expression to the left and the right of the reference point.

For example,

 If f (x) = |x − 3|. The reference point is x − 3 = 0 ⇒ x = 3. Thus,

{
−(x − 3) if x < 3
f (x) =
+(x − 3) if x ≥ 3

 If f (x) = 5 + |x + 5|. The reference point is x + 5 = 0 ⇒ x = −5. Thus,

{
5 − (x + 5) if x < −5
f (x) =
5 + (x + 5) if x ≥ −5

 1

 if x < 0

2 + x
1
 If f (x) = . The reference point is x = 0. Thus, f (x) = .
2 − |x| 

  1
 if x ≥ 0
2−x

Example(s):
|5x|
(a) Evaluate lim .
x→0 x

Solution
The reference point is 5x = 0 ⇒ x = 0. Thus, we have
{ −(5x)
|5x| x if x < 0
f (x) = = +(5x)
x x if x > 0

Now,
−5x
(i) LHL: lim f (x) = lim = −5
x→0− x→0− x
5x
(ii) RHL: lim f (x) = lim =5
x→0+ x→0+ x
|5x|
(iii) Since (i) ̸= (ii), therefore, lim does not exist. The above problem possesses a one-sided
x→0 x
limits.

13
2.4 L’Hôpital’s rule ⃝Francis
c Oketch

( )
|x − 7|
(b) Evaluate lim .
x→7 (x − 7)

Solution
The reference point is x − 7 = 0 ⇒ x = 7. Thus, we have
{ −(x−7)
|x − 7| x−7 = −1 if x < 7
f (x) = =
x−7 +(x−7)
x−7 = +1 if x > 7

Now,
(i) LHL: lim f (x) = lim (−1) = −1
x→7− x→0−
(ii) RHL: lim f (x) = lim (+1) = 1
x→7+ x→0+
(iii) Since (i) ̸= (ii), therefore, lim f (x) does not exist. The above problem possesses a one-sided
x→7
limits.

Exercise:
( )
x+6
(a) Evaluate lim .
x→6 |x + 6|
( )
x2 − x − 6
(b) Evaluate lim .
x→3− |x − 3|
( )
x2 + 2x − 3
(c) Evaluate lim 2− .
x→1 |x − 1|
( )
|x2 − 7x|
(d) Evaluate lim . [ans: = 6/5]
x→3 x2 + 1

2.4 L’Hôpital’s rule

f (x) 0 f (x) ±∞
If on direct substitution we get indeterminate form −i.e., either lim = or lim = .
x→a g(x) 0 x→a g(x) ±∞
Then,
f (x) . f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

provided the limit exists. Repeat finding derivatives until you get a meaningful result.

→ Note: if on direct substitution we get forms other than 0/0 or ±∞/ ± ∞ (i.e., 0±∞ , 1±∞ , ±∞±∞ ),
then we first transform the problem either by introducing the natural logarithm (ln) or by writing
1
them in the simplest form e.g cosec x = .
sin x
Example(s):
x2 + x
(a) Find lim .
x→∞ e2x + 1

Solution
x2 + x ∞
On direct substitution, we have lim = (indeterminate). So,
x→∞ e2x + 1 ∞
x2 + x L′ H 2x + 1 D.S ∞
lim = lim = (indeterminate)
x→∞ e2x + 1 x→∞ 2e2x ∞
L′ H 2 D.S 2
= lim =
x→∞ 4e2x ∞
= 0

14
2.4 L’Hôpital’s rule ⃝Francis
c Oketch

x − sin x
(b) Evaluate lim
x→0 x3

Solution
x − sin x 0 − sin 0 0
On direct substitution, we have lim 3
= 3
= (indeterminate). So,
x→0 x 0 0
x − sin x L′ H 1 − cos x D.S 0
lim = = (indeterminate)
x→0 x3 3x2 0
L′ H sin x D.S 0
= lim = (indeterminate)
x→0 6x 0
L′ H cos x
= lim
x→0 6
D.S 1
=
6
( )x/2
(c) Evaluate lim 2x
x→0+

Solution
On direct substitution, we have lim (2x)x/2 = 00 (indeterminate). So,
x→0+

Let y = (2x)x/2
x 1 ln(2x)
⇒ ln(y) = ln(2x) =
2 2 1/x
1 ln(2x) D.S ∞
⇒ lim ln(y) = lim = (indeterminate)
x→0+ 2 x→0+ 1/x ∞
2
L′ H 1 2x 1 D.S
= lim −1 = lim (−x) = 0
2 x→0+ x2
2 x→0+
[ ]
∴ ln lim y = 0 ⇒ lim y = e0 = 1
x→0+ x→0+
( )x
1
(d) Evaluate lim 1+ .
x→∞ x

Solution
( )x
1
On direct substitution, we have lim 1+ = 1∞ (indeterminate). So,
x→∞ x
( )x
1
Let y = 1+
x
( )
1
( )
ln 1 +
1 x
⇒ ln(y) = x ln 1 + =
x 1/x
( )
1
ln 1 +
x D.S 0
⇒ lim ln(y) = lim = (indeterminate)
x→∞ x→∞ 1/x 0
1 −1
( )
1 · x2
L′ H 1+ x 1 D.S
= lim = lim = 1
x→∞ −1 x→∞ 1 + 1
x
x2
[ ]
∴ ln lim y = 1 ⇒ lim y = e1 = e
x→∞ x→∞

Exercise:

15
 ⃝Francis
c Oketch

1. Evaluate
2 sin x − sin 2x
(a) lim
x→0 2ex − 2 − x2
7x − 28
(b) lim
x→∞ x3
x2 − x − 2
(c) lim
x→1 x2 − 1
2. Evaluate
1
(a) lim x x−1 . [ans: = e1 ]
x→1
(b) lim xsin x . [ans: = 1]
x→0
(c) lim xx . [ans: = 1]
x→0

3. Evaluate
sin 7x
(a) lim . [ans: = 7/4]
x→0 4x
cot x
(b) lim .
x→0 ln x2
+
( )
cos y
(c) limπ . [ans: = 1]
2 −y
π
y→ 2

1 − cos θ
(d) lim . [ans: = 0]
θ→0 θ
sin2 θ
(e) lim . [ans: = 1]
θ→0 θ 2

4. In each case, evaluate the limit.

(a) lim xa ln x, where a > 0.

x→0+
( ( ))2x
2
(b) lim 1 + sin
x→∞ x
( )
2 2
(c) lim −
x→0 + x sin x
(d) lim cos xcot x
x→0+
√
(e) lim x2 + 1 − x
x→∞

5. Amy knows the following values for f (x) and g(x): f (−6) = 1, g(−6) = 1, f ′ (−6) = 6 and
g ′ (−6) = −5. Assume all functions are continuous, find the following.
ln(g(x)) 5
(a) lim . [ans: = − ]
x→−6 [f (x)]2 − 1 12
[g(x) − 1]2 25
(b) lim . [ans: = ]
x→−6 [f (x) − 1]2 36
g(x)[f (x) − 1] 6
(c) lim . [ans: = − ]
x→−6 f (x)[g(x) − 1] 5

3 Continuity of a function
A function f (x) is said to be continuous at a point x = a if the following three conditions are satisfied:

i) f (a) is defined, i.e., f (x) must be finite at x = a.

ii) lim f (x) exists (i.e., LHL=RHL at x = a)

x→a

16
 ⃝Francis
c Oketch

iii) lim f (x) = f (a), i.e., (ii)=(i)

x→a

→ Note: if at least one of these conditions is not satisfied, then f (x) is discontinuous at x = a. In
this case, we say that the point a is a discontinuity of f (i.e., f (x) has some gaps or jumps at x = a).

Example(s):
 2

 x −1
 if x < −1
(a) Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) = x+1 at x = −1



x2 −3 if x ≥ −1

Solution
We need to test the three conditions for continuity:
(i) f (−1) = (−1)2 − 3 = −2 (defined).
(ii) lim f (x):
x→−1
( )
x2 − 1 (x  − 1)
+1)(x

LHL: lim f (x) = lim = lim  = lim (x − 1) = −2
x→−1− x→−1− x+1 x→−1− (x
 +1) x→−1−

RHL: lim f (x) = lim (x2 − 3) = 1 − 3 = −2

x→−1+ x→−1+

Since LHL=RHL=-2, therefore, lim f (x) = −2

x→−1
(iii) So, as lim f (x) = f (−1) therefore, f (x) is continuous on (−4, 4).
x→−1

2x4 − 6x3 + x2 + 3
(b) Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) = at x = 1.
x−1

Solution
2x4 − 6x3 + x2 + 3
Clearly, the function f (x) = is discontinuous at x = 1. However, the point
x−1
of discontinuity can be removed by first simplifying the given function. Thus, by long division
we have
2x3 − 4x2 − 3x − 3
)
x−1 2x4 − 6x3 + x2 +3
− 2x4 + 2x3
− 4x3 + x2
4x3 − 4x2
− 3x2
3x2 − 3x
− 3x + 3
3x − 3
0
Hence, the function can be rewritten in the simplest form f (x) = 2x3 − 4x2 − 3x − 3, which is
now continuous at x = 1 [student to verify this]. Therefore, the original function is said to have
a removable point of discontinuity.
(c) Find the value of the constants in the give problems if f (x) is continuous everywhere in the real
number line
{
4+c if x < 1
i) Given f (x) = . Find c [ans: c = 2]
4x + 2 if x ≥ 1


−15x
 if x < −1
ii) Given f (x) = ax + b if − 1 ≤ x < 2 . Find a and b [ans: a = 3, b = 18]


12x if x > 2

17
 ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Solution
In these questions, we make use of the second condition of continuity in particular, i.e.,
LHL=RHL at any point x = a.

i) The reference point is x = 1. Thus,

LHL: lim f (x) = lim (4 + c) = 4 + c

x→1− x→1−
RHL: lim f (x) = lim (4x + 2) = 4 + 2 = 6
x→1+ x→1+

Since f (x) is continuous at x = 1, we have 4 + c = 6. Therefore, c = 2.

ii)  Case 1: Taking the reference point as x = −1. Thus,

LHL: lim f (x) = lim (15) = 15

x→−1− x→−1−
RHL: lim f (x) = lim (ax + b) = −a + b
x→−1+ x→−1+

Since f (x) is continuous at x = −1, we have −a + b = 15 (∗).

 Case 2: Taking the reference point as x = 2. Thus,

LHL: lim f (x) = lim (ax + b) = 2a + b

x→2− x→2−
RHL: lim f (x) = lim (12x) = 24
x→2+ x→2+

Since f (x) is continuous at x = 2, we have 2a + b = 24 (∗∗). Solving equations (∗) and

(∗∗) simultaneously, we obtain a = 3 and b = 18.

Exercise:
 3

 x + 27
 if x ̸= −3
(a) Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) = x+3 .



27 if x = −3
(b) Find the value of A and B so that the following function is continuous for all x.
 ( )

 1 − cos x

 A if x < 0

 sin2 x




f (x) = 2x2 − x + B if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1







 x2 + 2x − 3

 if x > 1
2x −1

Solution
(( (
A(1 − cos(x)) A( −(
(1( cos(x)) A
lim f (x) = lim = lim ( ( ( =
x→0− x→0− 2
sin (x) x→0− ( −(
(1( cos(x))(1 + cos(x)) 2
lim f (x) = lim (2x − x + B) = B
2
x→0+ x→0+

A
Since f (x) to be continuous at x = 0, we have = B − − − (∗).
2

Also,

lim f (x) = lim (2x2 − x + B) = 1 + B

x→1− x→1−
x2 + 2x − 3 (x  + 3)
−1)(x
 4
lim f (x) = lim = lim  = =2
x→1+ x→1+ x2 − 1 x→1 
+ (x− 1)(x + 1) 2

18
 ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Since f (x) to be continuous at x = 1, we have 1 + B = 2 − − − (∗∗).

Solving equations (∗) and (∗∗), we get A = 2, B = 1.

(c) Find a and b so that the following functions are continuous ∀x ∈ R:

i) 

 2, if x < 1




f (x) = ax + b, if 1 ≤ x < 2






6, if x ≥ 2
[ans: a = 4, b = −2]
ii) 

 −2x, if x < 1




f (x) = b − ax2 , if 1 ≤ x < 4






−16x, if x ≥ 4
[ans: a =, b =]

(d) Find the values of a and b so that the following function is continuous everywhere on the real
number line and hence compute f (2).


 x + 2, if x < 2




f (x) = ax2 − bx + 3, if 2 ≤ x < 3






2x − a + b, if x ≥ 3

[ans: a =, b =, f (2) =]

Lecture 4

4 Derivative of functions
df
Definition 4.1 (First principle). The derivative of a function f (x) denoted by f ′ (x) or is the rate
dx
of change of f with respect to x, and is given by
[ ]
′
f (x) = lim . + h) − f (x) ,
f (x
h→0 h

for all x for which this limit exists.

The process of finding the derivative f ′ (x) is called differentiation of f (x). The above relation is
called first principle of differentiation or differentiation by the definition or differentiation of first kind.
Geometrically, consider the curve y = f (x) and let ∆x = h.

19
 ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Here, ∆y = f (x + h) − f (x). So, gradient of the secant

∆y f (x + h) − f (x)
line through points A and B is = .
∆x h
Taking limit as h → 0 yields

dy f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim = f ′ (x)
dx h→0 h
Therefore,
dy . ′
= f (x)
dx

Example(s):

(a) Use first principle of differentiation to find the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 .

Solution
Given f (x) = x2 , we have f (x + h) = (x + h)2 . By the first principle of differentiation, we have

f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)2 − x2
f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
x + 2hx + h − x
2 2 2 2hx + h2 D.S
= lim = lim = lim (2x + h) = (2x + 0)
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
= 2x

1
(b) Use first principle of differentiation to find the derivative of the following functions: (i) f (x) =
√ x
and (ii) f (x) = x.

Solution
1 1
i) Given f (x) = , we have f (x + h) = . By the first principle of differentiation, we
x x+h
have
( )
x+h − x
1 1
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
x − (x + h) −h −1 D.S −1
= lim = lim = lim =
h→0 hx(x + h) h→0 hx(x + h) h→0 x(x + h) x(x + 0)
1
= − 2
x
√ √
ii) Given f (x) = x, we have f (x + h) = x + h. By the first principle of differentiation, we
have
√ √
′ f (x + h) − f (x) x+h− x
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
√ √ √ √
( x + h − x)( x + h + x) x+h−x
= lim √ √ = lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x) h→0 h( x + h + x)
h 1 D.S 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √ = √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x) h→0 x+h+ x x+0+ x
1
= √
2 x

Exercise:

(a) Use first principle of differentiation to find the derivative of the following functions.

20
4.1 Basic differentiation rules ⃝Francis
c Oketch

i) f (x) = −x3 + 3x2 + 4 [ans: f ′ (x) = −3x2 + 6x]

3x 3
ii) f (x) = [ans: f ′ (x) = ]
1 − 5x (1 − 5x)2
−7 + 5x −29
iii) f (x) = [ans: f ′ (x) = ]
−3 − 2x (−3 − 2x)2
√ 3
iv) f (x) = 6x + 2 − 5 [ans: f ′ (x) = √ ]
6x + 2
1 −1
v) f (x) = √ [ans: f ′ (x) = √ √ ]
x+2 2 x( x + 2)2

4.1 Basic differentiation rules

 The derivative of a constant
dc
If f (x) = c (a constant) for all x, then f ′ (x) = 0 for all x. That is, = f ′.(x) = 0 .
dx

Proof. Given f (x) = c ⇒ f (x + h) = c. Thus, from the first principle, we have

f (x + h) − f (x) c−c 0
f ′ (x) = lim = lim = lim = 0
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

 The power rule

′
If f (x) = xn for n ∈ R, then f (x) =. nx
n−1
. That is, bring down the power and reduce the
power by one.

n(n − 1) n−2 2
Proof. Given f (x) = xn ⇒ f (x + h) = (x + h)n = xn + nxn−1 h + x h + · · · + hn .
2!
Thus, from the first principle, we have
( )
n(n − 1) n−2 2
xn + nxn−1 h + x h + · · · + hn − xn
f (x + h) − f (x) 2!
f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
( )
n(n − 1) n−2 2
nx n−1 h+ x h + ··· + h n
2!
= lim
h→0 h
( )
n(n − 1)
= lim nx n−1
+ x n−2
h + ··· + h n−1
h→0 2!
( )
D.S n(n − 1) n−2
= nxn−1 + x (0) + · · · + (0)n−1 = nxn−1
2!

For example,

i) If f (x) = 6x5 , then f ′ (x) = 30x4 .

ii) If f (x) = x10 , then f ′ (x) = 10x9 .

 The derivative of a linear combination

If f (x) and g(x) are differentiable functions of x and a and b are constants, then

d
[af (x) + bg(x)]. = af ′ (x) + bg ′ (x)
dx

21
4.1 Basic differentiation rules ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Proof. Let y(x) = af (x) + bg(x). Thus, from the first principle, we have
dy y(x + h) − y(x) [af (x + h) + bg(x + h)] − [af (x) + bg(x)]
= lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
a[f (x + h) − f (x)] + b[g(x + h) − g(x)]
= lim
h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
= a lim + b lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= af ′ (x) + bg ′ (x)

For example,
dy
i) If y = 24x + 8x5 , then = 24 + 40x4 .
dx
dy
ii) If y = 7x3 − 9x2 + 4x + 2, then = 21x2 − 18x + 4.
dx
 The product rule
If u(x) and v(x) are differentiable functions of x, then the product u(x)v(x) is also a differentiable
function of x, and
d
[u(x)v(x)] = u′ (x)v(x)
. + u(x)v′ (x)
dx

Proof. Let y(x) = u(x)v(x). Thus, from the first principle, we have
dy y(x + h) − y(x) u(x + h)v(x + h) − u(x)v(x)
= lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
u(x + h)v(x + h) − u(x)v(x + h) + u(x)v(x + h) − u(x)v(x)
= lim
h→0 h
[u(x + h) − u(x)] v(x + h) + u(x) [v(x + h) − v(x)]
= lim
h→0 h
[u(x + h) − u(x)] v(x + h) u(x) [v(x + h) − v(x)]
= lim + lim
h→0 h h→0 h
[ ][ ]
u(x + h) − u(x) v(x + h) − v(x)
= lim lim v(x + h) + u(x) lim
h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
′ ′
= u (x)v(x) + u(x)v (x)

→ Note: the product rule says that the derivative of the product of two functions is formed by
multiplying the derivative of each function by the other function and then adding the results.
In general, suppose y = u1 (x)u2 (x) · · · un (x), then

dy
= u′1 (x)u2 (x) · · · un (x) + u1 (x)u′2 (x)
. · · · un (x) + · · · + u1 (x)u2 (x) · · · u′ (x)
n
dx

Example(s):
(a) Find the derivative of f (x) = (1 − 5x2 )(6x2 − 4x + 1).

Solution
Let f (x) = uv, where u = 1 − 5x2 and v = 6x2 − 4x + 1. Differentiating yields u′ = −10x
and v′ = 12x − 4. Therefore,
f ′ (x) = u′ v + uv′ = (−10x)(6x2 − 4x + 1) + (1 − 5x2 )(12x − 4)
= −60x3 + 40x2 − 10x + 12x − 4 − 60x3 + 20x2
= −120x3 + 60x2 + 2x − 4

22
4.1 Basic differentiation rules ⃝Francis
c Oketch

(b) Find the derivative of y = (x − 2)(x2 + 6)(x4 + 1).

Solution
Let y = uvw, where u = x − 2, v = x2 + 6 and w = x4 + 1. Differentiating yields
u′ = 1, v′ = 2x and w′ = 4x3 . Therefore,
dy
= u′ vw + uv′ w + uvw′
dx
= (1)(x2 + 6)(x4 + 1) + (x − 2)(2x)(x4 + 1) + (x − 2)(x2 + 6)(4x3 )
( ) ( ) ( )
= x6 + x2 + 6x4 + 6 + 2x x5 + x − 2x4 + 2 + 4x3 x3 + 6x − 2x2 − 12
= x6 + x2 + 6x4 + 6 + 2x6 + 2x2 − 4x5 + 4x + 4x6 + 24x4 − 8x5 − 48x3
= 7x6 − 12x5 + 30x4 − 48x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 6

 The quotient rule

u(x)
If u(x) and v(x) are differentiable functions of x, then the quotient (where v(x) ̸= 0) is also
v(x)
a differentiable function of x, and
[ ]
d u(x) u′ (x)v(x)
. − u(x)v′ (x)
=
dx v(x) [v(x)]2

u(x)
Proof. Let y(x) = . Thus, from the first principle, we have
v(x)
u(x + h) u(x)
−
dy y(x + h) − y(x) v(x + h) v(x) u(x + h)v(x) − u(x)v(x + h)
= lim = lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h h→0 hv(x)v(x + h)
u(x + h)v(x) − u(x)v(x) + u(x)v(x) − u(x)v(x + h)
= lim
h→0 hv(x)v(x + h)
[u(x + h) − u(x)] v(x) − u(x) [v(x + h) − v(x)]
= lim
h→0 hv(x)v(x + h)
[u(x + h) − u(x)] [v(x + h) − v(x)]
lim v(x) − u(x) lim
= h→0 h h→0 h
lim v(x)v(x + h)
h→0
u′ (x)v(x) − u(x)v′ (x)
=
[v(x)]2

Example(s):
2x2 + 1
(a) Differentiate y = .
x2 − 1
Solution
u
Let y = , where u = 2x2 + 1 and v = x2 − 1. Differentiating yields u′ = 4x and v ′ = 2x.
v
Therefore,
dy vu′ − uv ′ (x2 − 1)(4x) − (2x2 + 1)(2x) 4x3 − 4x − 4x3 − 2x −6x
= = = = 2
dx v 2 (x − 1)
2 2 (x − 1)
2 2 (x − 1)2

x3
(b) Differentiate y = .
x−1
Solution

23
4.1 Basic differentiation rules ⃝Francis
c Oketch

u
Let y = , where u = x3 and v = x − 1. Differentiating yields u′ = 3x2 and v ′ = 1.
v
Therefore,

dy vu′ − uv ′ (x − 1)(3x2 ) − (x3 )(1) 3x3 − 3x2 − x3 2x3 − 3x2

= = = =
dx v2 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)2

 The chain rule

Suppose that y is a differentiable function of u and u is a differentiable function of x (i.e.,
y = y(u) and u = u(x)), then y is a (differentiable) function of x by extension (i.e., y = y(u(x)))
and
dy dy du
= . ·
dx du dx

→ Note: chain rule is used when we want to differentiate a function of another function.

Example(s):

(a) Differentiate with respect to x the function y = (3x + 4)4 .

Solution
dy du
Let y = u4 , where u = 3x + 4. Differentiating yields = 4u3 and = 3. Therefore,
du dx
chain rule yields
dy dy du
= · = (4u3 )(3) = 12u3 = 12(3x + 4)3
dx du dx
(b) Differentiate with respect to x the function y = (x2 + 3x)7 .

Solution
dy du
Let y = u7 , where u = x2 +3x. Differentiating yields = 7u6 and = 2x+3. Therefore,
du dx
chain rule yields
dy dy du
= · = (7u6 )(2x + 3) = 7(x2 + 3x)6 (2x + 3)
dx du dx
dy
(c) Find if y = (1 − 3x2 )5 .
dx
Solution
dy du
Let y = u5 , where u = 1 − 3x2 . Differentiating yields = 5u4 and = −6x. Therefore,
du dx
chain rule yields
dy dy du
= · = (5u4 )(−6x) = −30x(u4 ) = −30x(1 − 3x2 )4
dx du dx
( )2
dy 1 + 2x
(d) Find if y = .
dx 1+x
Solution
1 + 2x dy
Let y = u2 , where u =. Differentiating yields = 2u and
1+x du
du (1 + x)(2) − (1 + 2x)(1) 1
= = . Therefore, chain rule yields
dx (1 + x)2 (1 + x)2
[ ] [ ][ ]
dy dy du 1 1 + 2x 1 2(1 + 2x)
= · = (2u) =2 =
dx du dx (1 + x)2 1+x (1 + x)2 (1 + x)3

24
4.2 Derivative of trigonometric functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

√ √ √
(e) Differentiate with respect to x the function y = 1+ 1+ 1 + x.

Solution
√ √ √ dy
Let u = 1 + x, v = 1 + u, and w = 1 + v. Then, y = w. Differentiating yields = 1,
dw
du 1 dv 1 dw 1
= 1 , = 1 , and = 1 . Therefore, chain rule yields
dx 2(1 + x) 2 du 2(1 + u) 2 dv 2(1 + v) 2
[ ][ ][ ]
dy dy dw dv du 1 1 1
= · · · = (1) 1 1 1
dx dw dv du dx 2(1 + v) 2 2(1 + u) 2 2(1 + x) 2
1 1
= 1 1 1 = (√ ) (√ ) (√ )
8(1 + v) 2 (1 + u) 2 (1 + x) 2 8 1+v 1+u 1+x
1
= (√ √ ) (√ )
√ √ (√ )
8 1+ 1+ 1+x 1+ 1+x 1+x

→ Note: (Direct chain rule)

Consider the function y = [f (x)]n . Then, direct chain rule yields

dy . n−1 · f ′ (x)
= n [f (x)]
dx

dy
For example, if y = (1 − 3x2 )5 then DCR yields = 5(1 − 3x2 )4 (0 − 6x) = −30x(1 − 3x2 )4 .
dx

Exercise:

(a) Use chain rule to differentiate the following functions

i) y = (3x2 + 5)3
ii) y = (3x3 + 5x)2
1
iii) y = (7x2 − 4) 3
iv) y = (6x2 − 4x)−2
v) y = (3x2 − 5)− 3
2

vi) y = (1 + x4 − 2x3 )4 (1 − 4x2 )3

√
dy 1+x dy 1
(b) Find when y = . [ans: = 3 ]
dx 1−x dx 1
(1 + x) 2 (1 − x) 2
√ √ √
(c) Differentiate with respect to x the function y = x+ x+ x.

Lecture 4

4.2 Derivative of trigonometric functions

 Derivative of sin x and cos x

d d
[sin x] = cos x and. [cos x] = − sin x
dx dx

Proof. i) Sine

25
4.2 Derivative of trigonometric functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Let f (x) = sin x. Thus, from the first principle of differentiation and using the trigonometric
identity sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A, we have
f (x + h) − f (x) sin(x + h) − sin x
f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
sin x cos h + sin h cos x − sin x − sin x(1 − cos h) + sin h cos x
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
[ ] [ ]
(1 − cos h) sin h
= − sin x lim + cos x lim = (− sin x)(0) + (cos x)(1)
h→0 h h→0 h
= cos x

ii) Cosine

Similarly, let f (x) = cos x. Thus, from the first principle of differentiation and using the
trigonometric identity cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B, we have
f (x + h) − f (x) cos(x + h) − cos x
f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
cos x cos h − sin x sin h − cos x − cos x(1 − cos h) − sin x sin h
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
[ ] [ ]
(1 − cos h) sin h
= − cos x lim − sin x lim = (− cos x)(0) − (sin x)(1)
h→0 h h→0 h
= − sin x

Example(s):

(a) Differentiate the following functions wrt x: (i) y = sin(3x + 2), (ii) y = cos3 x, (iii) y =
sin x
sin(x2 ), (iv) y = x sin(x), (v) y = , and (vi) y = cos2 (3x).
x
Solution
i) Given that y = sin(3x + 2). Let y = sin(u), where u = 3x + 2. Differentiating yields
dy du
= cos u and = 3. Therefore, chain rule yields
du dx
dy dy du
= · = (cos u)(3) = 3 cos(3x + 2)
dx du dx
dy
ii) Given that y = cos3 x. Let y = u3 , where u = cos x. Differentiating yields = 3u2
du
du
and = − sin x. Therefore, chain rule yields
dx
dy dy du
= · = (3u2 )(− sin x) = −3 sin x cos2 x
dx du dx
dy
iii) Given that y = sin(x2 ). Let y = sin(u), where u = x2 . Differentiating yields = cos u
du
du
and = 2x. Therefore, chain rule yields
dx
dy dy du
= · = (cos u)(2x) = 2x cos(x2 )
dx du dx
iv) Given that y = x sin(x). Let y = uv, where u = x and v = sin(x). Differentiating
yields u′ = 1 and v ′ = cos x. Therefore, product rule yields
dy
= uv ′ + vu′ = (x)(cos x) + (sin x)(1) = x cos x + sin x
dx

26
4.2 Derivative of trigonometric functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

sin x u
v) Given that y = . Let y = , where u = sin x and v = x. Differentiating yields
x v
u′ = cos x and v ′ = 1. Therefore, quotient rule yields

dy vu′ − uv ′ (x)(cos x) − (sin x)(1) x cos x − sin x

= 2
= 2
=
dx v x x2
vi) Given that y = cos2 (3x). Let y = u2 , where u = cos(3x). Differentiating yields
dy du
= 2u and = −3 sin(3x). Therefore, chain rule yields
du dx
dy dy du
= · = (2u)[−3 sin(3x)] = −6 cos(3x) sin(3x)
dx du dx
√ dy 1√
(b) If y = 1 + sin x, show that = 1 − sin x.
dx 2
Solution
dy 1 1 du
= u− 2 and
1
Let y = u 2 , where u = 1 + sin x. Differentiating yields = cos x.
du 2 dx
Therefore, chain rule yields
( )
dy dy du 1 −1 cos x cos x
= · = u 2 (cos x) = √ = √
dx du dx 2 2 u 2 1 + sin x
√ √ √
1 cos x 1 − sin x 1 cos x 1 − sin x 1 cos x 1 − sin x
= √ √ = √ = √
2 ( 1 + sin x)( 1 − sin x) 2 1 − sin2 x 2 cos2 x
1√
= 1 − sin x
2
dy
(c) Find if y = sin(cos x).
dx
Solution
dy du
Let y = sin u, where u = cos x. Differentiating yields = cos u and = − sin x.
du dx
Therefore, chain rule yields
dy dy du
= · = (cos u)(− sin x) = − cos(cos x) sin x
dx du dx
In general,

d d
[sin (f (x))] = f ′ (x) cos (f (x)) and. [cos (f (x))] = −f ′ (x) sin (f (x))
dx dx

Exercise:
dy √
(a) Find if y = sin( x).
dx
√
1 + sin x dy 1
(b) If y = , show that = .
1 − sin x dx 1 − sin x
(c) If m is a positive integer, find the differential coefficients with respect to x of (i) sinm x and
(ii) sin(xm ).
(d) Differentiate the following functions with respect to x: (i) y = sin 3x, (ii) y = cos(x2 ),
√ cos 2x
(iii) y = sin 2x, (iv) y = 4 sin2 ( x2 ), (v) y = sin x cos 2x, (vi) y = , and (vii)
sin 3x
y = 2 cos x + 2x sin x − x2 cos x.

 Derivative of tan x, cot x, sec x and cosec x

27
4.2 Derivative of trigonometric functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

I Tangent

sin x
Let y = tan x = . Differentiating using quotient rule yields
cos x
dy (cos x)(cos x) − (sin x)(− sin x) cos2 x + sin2 x 1
= 2
= 2
= = sec2 x
dx cos x cos x cos2 x

d
Therefore, [tan x]. = sec2 x .
dx
II Cotangent
cos x
Let y = cot x = . Differentiating using quotient rule yields
sin x
[ ]
dy (sin x)(− sin x) − (cos x)(cos x) − sin2 x + cos2 x −1
= 2 = 2 = = −cosec2 x
dx sin x sin x sin2 x

d
Therefore, [cot x] =. −cosec2 x .
dx
III Secant

1
Let y = sec x = . Differentiating using quotient rule yields
cos x
dy (cos x)(0) − (1)(− sin x) sin x 1 sin x
= 2
= 2
= · = sec x tan x
dx cos x cos x cos x cos x

d
Therefore, [sec x] =. sec x tan x .
dx
IV Cosecant

1
Let y = cosec x = . Differentiating using quotient rule yields
sin x
dy (sin x)(0) − (1)(cos x) − cos x −1 cos x
= 2 = 2 = · = −cosec x cot x
dx sin x sin x sin x sin x

d
Therefore, [cosec x] = .−cosec x cot x .
dx

In summary, we have

f (x) f ′ (x)
sin x cos x
cos x − sin x
tan x sec2 x
cosec x −cosec x cot x
sec x sec x tan x
cot x −cosec2 x

Example(s):

(a) Differentiate the following functions with respect to x: (i) y = tan 2x, (ii) y = cot 3x, (iii)
x
y = 3 sec 2x, (iv) y = sec x tan x, (v) y = x2 cot x, and (vi) y = .
tan x
Solution

28
4.2 Derivative of trigonometric functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

dy
i) Given that y = tan 2x. Let y = tan u, where u = 2x. Differentiating yields = sec2 u
du
du
and = 2. Therefore, chain rule yields
dx
dy dy du
= · = (sec2 u)(2) = 2 sec2 (2x)
dx du dx
dy
ii) Given that y = cot 3x. Let y = cot u, where u = 3x. Differentiating yields =
du
du
−cosec2 u and = 3. Therefore, chain rule yields
dx
dy dy du
= · = (−cosec2 u)(3) = −3cosec2 (3x)
dx du dx
dy
iii) Given that y = 3 sec 2x. Let y = 3 sec u, where u = 2x. Differentiating yields =
du
du
3 sec u tan u and = 2. Therefore, chain rule yields
dx
dy dy du
= · = (3 sec u tan u)(2) = 6 sec(2x) tan(2x)
dx du dx
iv) Given that y = sec x tan x. Let y = uv, where u = sec x and v = tan x. Differentiating
yields u′ = sec x tan x and v ′ = sec2 x. Therefore, product rule yields
dy
= uv ′ + vu′ = (sec x)(sec2 x) + (tan x)(sec x tan x) = sec3 x + sec x tan2 x
dx
v) Given that y = x2 cot x. Let y = uv, where u = x2 and v = cot x. Differentiating
yields u′ = 2x and v ′ = −cosec2 x. Therefore, product rule yields
dy
= uv ′ + vu′ = (x2 )(−cosec2 x) + (cot x)(2x) = 2x cot x − x2 cosec2 x
dx
x u
vi) Given that y = . Let y = , where u = x and v = tan x. Differentiating yields
tan x v
u′ = 1 and v ′ = sec2 x. Therefore, quotient rule yields

dy vu′ − uv ′ (tan x)(1) − (x)(sec2 x) tan x − x sec2 x

= = =
dx v2 tan2 x tan2 x
In general,

d d
[tan (f (x))] = f ′ (x) sec2 (f (x)) and. [cot (f (x))] = −f ′ (x)cosec2 (f (x))
dx dx

d d
[sec (f (x))] = f ′ (x) sec (f (x)) tan (f (x)) and . [cosec (f (x))] = −f ′ (x)cosec (f (x)) cot (f (x))
dx dx

Exercise:

(a) Differentiate the following

( ) functions with respect to x: (i) y = sec2 2x, (ii) y = 3 sec x tan x,
sec x
(iii) y = −cosec2 21 x , and (iv) y = .
x
dy
(b) If y = (tan x + sec x)m , where m is a positive integer. Show that = my sec x.
dx

Lecture 5

29
4.3 Derivative of exponential functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

4.3 Derivative of exponential functions

An exponential function of x is defined as y = ex − −(∗) or y = exp(x). The number e ≈ 2.7183 is
called Euler’s constant. Consider an exponential function of the form (∗). Then,

d x.
[e ] = ex
dx

Proof. Given y(x) = ex ⇒ y(x + h) = ex+h = ex eh . Thus, by the first principle of differentiation,
we have [ ] [ ] [ ]
′ y(x + h) − y(x) ex eh − ex eh − 1
y (x) = lim = lim = ex lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
From the table, we have
h 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 -0.01 -0.001 [ ]
eh − 1
e −1
h Hence, lim =1
1.0005 1.05 h→0 h
h
Therefore, y ′ (x) = ex (1) = ex .
dy
In general, suppose y = ef (x) . Let y = eu , where u = f (x). Differentiating yields = eu and
du
du dy dy du
= f ′ (x). By chain rule, we have = · = eu · f ′ (x) = f ′ (x)ef (x) . Therefore,
dx dx du dx
d [ f (x) ] . ′
e = f (x)ef (x)
dx

Example(s):
dy
given (i) y = e−6x and (ii) y = ex
2
(a) Find
dx

Solution
du dy
i) Given y = e−6x . Let u = −6x ⇒ y = eu . Differentiating we get = −6 and = eu .
dx du
dy dy du dy
Hence, chain rule yields = · = −6eu = −6e−6x . Therefore, = −6e−6x .
dx du dx dx
2 du dy
ii) Given y = ex . Let u = x2 ⇒ y = eu . Differentiating we get = 2x and = eu .
dx du
dy dy du 2 dy 2
Hence, chain rule yields = · = 2xeu = 2xex . Therefore, = 2xex .
dx du dx dx
(b) Differentiate the following functions with respect to x: (i) y = 2e−3x + e4x and (ii) y = 2esin 3θ .

Solution
Using direct chain rule, we have
[ ] [ ]
dy d [ −3x ] d [ 4x ] d d
i) =2 e + e = 2 e−3x (−3x) + e4x (4x) = −6e−3x + 4e4x .
dx dx dx dx dx
[ ]
dy d [ sin 3θ ] d
ii) =2 e = 2 esin 3θ (sin 3θ) = 2esin 3θ (3 cos 3θ) = 6esin 3θ cos 3θ.
dθ dθ dθ
dy
(c) If y = e−2x cos 4x, find .
dx

Solution
Product rule yields
dy d d [ −2x ]
= e−2x [cos 4x] + cos 4x e = −4e−2x sin 4x − 2e−2x cos 4x
dx dx dx

30
4.4 Derivative of natural logarithmic functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Exercise:
dy
1. Find given:
dx
√ √ √
2
i) y = xe x + e x +1
e2x
ii) y =
1 + x2 e3x
( )4
iii) y = 6 + e3x cos 4x
iv) y = esin 5x + 2x2 ecos 3x
( )
cos (ex + e−x )
2 +6x
v) y = e3x
1
vi) y = etan(4+sin 3x) + + 6.
e2x + e5x

4.4 Derivative of natural logarithmic functions

A natural logarithmic function of x is logarithm of x to base e, i.e., loge x = ln x. Thus in index form,
x can be rewritten as x = eln x . Similarly, y = eln y , a = eln a , etc. Suppose y = ln x. Then,

d . = 1
[ln x]
dx x

Proof. Given y = ln x. Taking exponential on both sides yields ey = x. Differentiating both sides
dy dy 1 1 dy 1
with respect to x yields ey =1 ⇒ = y = . Therefore, = .
dx dx e x dx x
In general, suppose y = ln[f (x)]. Then, ey = f (x). Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields

dy dy f ′ (x) f ′ (x)
ey = f ′ (x) ⇒ = y =
dx dx e f (x)

Therefore,
d ′
. = f (x)
{ln[f (x)]}
dx f (x)

Example(s):
(√ )
dy x2 + 1
(a) Find given: (i) y = ln(x2 ), (ii) y = ln(cos 2x), (iii) y = ln √
3
.
dx x3 + 1

Solution
du
i) Given y = ln(x2 ). Let u = x2 ⇒ y = ln(u). Differentiating yields = 2x and
dx
dy 1 1 dy dy du 2x 2
= = 2 . Hence, chain rule yields = · = 2 = . Therefore,
du u x dx du dx x x
dy 2
=
dx x
dy 1 du
ii) Let y = ln(u) where u = cos 2x. Differentiating yields = and = −2 sin 2x. Hence,
du u dx
dy dy du −2 sin 2x −2 sin 2x
chain rule yields = · = = = −2 tan 2x. Therefore,
dx du dx u cos 2x
dy
= −2 tan 2x
dx

31
4.4 Derivative of natural logarithmic functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

(√ ) [ ]
x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)1/2 1 ( 2 ) 1 ( )
iii) Given y = ln √ ⇒ y = ln = ln x + 1 − ln x3 + 1 .
3
x3 + 1 (x3 + 1)1/3 2 3
1 ( 2 ) 1 ( )
Thus, y = ln x + 1 − ln x3 + 1 . Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields
2 3
dy 1 d [ ( 2 )] 1 d [ ( )]
= ln x + 1 − ln x3 + 1
dx 2 dx 3 dx
1 d ( 2 ) 1 d ( 3 ) 1 1 ( )
= x + 1 − x + 1 = (2x) − 3x2
2 (x2 + 1) dx 3 (x3 + 1) dx 2 (x2 + 1) 3 (x3 + 1)
x x2 x(x3 + 1) − x2 (x2 + 1) x4 + x − x4 − x2 )
= − = =
(x2 + 1) (x3 + 1) (x2 + 1)(x3 + 1) (x2 + 1)(x3 + 1)
x−x 2
=
(x + 1)(x3 + 1)
2

dy
(b) Find given that y = sin (ln 2x).
dx

Solution
Let y = sin u, where u = ln 2x. Thus, chain rule yields
[ ] [ ]
dy dy du 1 d 1 cos u cos(ln 2x)
= · = (cos u) · (2x) = (cos u) = =
dx du dx 2x dx x x x
√
dy 1+x
(c) Find given y = .
dx 1−x

Solution
√
1+x
Given y = . Taking natural logarithm on both sides yields
1−x
( )1/2 ( )
1+x 1 1+x 1
ln y = ln = ln = [ln(1 + x) − ln(1 − x)]
1−x 2 1−x 2
1
Thus, ln y = [ln(1 + x) − ln(1 − x)]. Differentiating with respect to x yields
2
{ }
d 1 d d
[ln y] = [ln(1 + x)] − [ln(1 − x)]
dx 2 dx dx
{ } { }
1 dy 1 1 d 1 d 1 1 1
⇒ = (1 + x) − (1 − x) = +
y dx 2 (1 + x) dx (1 − x) dx 2 1+x 1−x
1
=
1 − x2
Therefore,
√
dy 1 1 1+x 1 (1 + x)1/2 1
= y= = · =
dx 1 − x2 1 − x2 1−x (1 + x)(1 − x) (1 − x)1/2 (1 + x)1/2 (1 − x)3/2

Exercise:
√ dy dy ex { }
(a) i) If y = ( x − 1)ex ln x, find . = √[ans: (2x2 − x) ln x + 2x − 2 ]
dx dx 2x x − 1
√ π
ii) Find the gradient of the curve y = ln( 1 + sin 2x) at the point where x = . [ans: = -1]
2
dy
(b) Find given:
dx
√
i) y = ln 2x + 6

32
4.5 Implicit differentiation ⃝Francis
c Oketch

√ √
ii) y = x ln( x)
1 + 2x2 ln 3x
iii) y = √
1 + sec(ln 2x)
1 1
iv) y = −
1 + 2 ln 46x sin(ln(15x2 ))
( √ )6
v) y = 2x2 + ln x (1 + 2x sec 2x)3
( )
vi) y = cot ln 2x + e3x

Lecture 6

4.5 Implicit differentiation

An implicit function is a function where the dependent variable y is not expressed explicitly in terms
dy
of the independent variable x (i.e., a function where y is not the subject of the formula). To find ,
dx
follow these steps:

i) Differentiate x normally

ii) Apply direct chain rule in differentiating y

dy
iii) Collect like terms and make the subject
dx

Example(s):
dy
1. Find given x4 + y 5 = 125.
dx

Solution
Differentiating the given equation implicitly with respect to x, we get

dy dy 4x3
4x3 + 5y 4 =0 ⇒ =− 4
dx dx 5y

dy
2. Find given y + xy + y 2 = 2.
dx

Solution
Differentiating the given equation implicitly with respect to x, we get
dy dy dy dy −y
+x + (1)y + 2y =0 ⇒ =
dx dx dx dx 1 + x + 2y

dy
3. Find when y 3 − 3x2 y + 2x3 = 0.
dx

Solution
Differentiating the given equation implicitly with respect to x, we get
dy dy dy
3y 2 − 3x2 − 6xy + 6x2 = 0 ⇒ (3y 2 − 3x2 ) = 6xy − 6x2
dx dx dx
Therefore,
dy 6x(y − x) 6x(y − x) 2x
= = =
dx 3(y − x )
2 2 3(y + x)(y − x) y+x

33
4.6 Differentiation of other forms of exponential functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

√ dy x
4. If y 2 − 2y 1 + x2 + x2 = 0, show that =√ .
dx 1 + x2

Solution
Differentiating the given equation implicitly with respect to x, we get
[ ] ( ) dy
dy √ dy 1 √ 2xy
−2 1 + x2 −2y (1 + x2 )− 2 (2x)+2x = 0
1
2y ⇒ 2y − 2 1 + x2 =√ −2x
dx dx 2 dx 1 + x2
Therefore,
2xy ( √ )
√ − 2x 2x y − 1 + x2
dy x2 x
= 1+√ = √ ( √ ) = √
dx 2y − 2 1 + x 2
2 1 + x2 y − 1 + x2 1 + x2

Exercise:
dy
1. Find given:
dx
(a) xy 3 − 2x2 y 2 + x4 = 1
(b) x2 sin y − y cos x = 10x3
(c) x cos y − y 2 sin x = 2
2 ( )
(d) exy = 10 x2 + y 2
√
(e) ln(x2 + y) = sin(xy 2 )
(f) tan y sin x = cos(xy)
(g) cos(x + y) sin(x − y) = 20x2
2 30
(h) y 2 ex y = √
xy
( )
x+y
(i) ln = 10x2
x2 y
(j) cos(xy) = 4x2 + y 2
dy d2 y
2. Find and given that 2x2 y 3 + x4 = 6y 2 + 2x.
dx dx2

4.6 Differentiation of other forms of exponential functions

Consider exponential functions of the form

I: A constant raised to a function (e.g., y = 10tan 3x )

In this case, introduce natural logarithm on both sides first. On the left differentiate implicitly
and on the right hand side differentiate normally.

Example(s):
dy
given: (i) y = ax where a is a constant, (ii) y = 3−x +6x+10 , and (iii) y = 4sin 5x .
2 2
(a) Find
dx
Solution
2
i) Given y = ax . Taking natural logarithm on both sides yields

ln y = x2 ln a

Differentiating with respect to x yields

d d 2 1 dy dy
[ln y] = [x ln a] ⇒ = 2x ln a ⇒ = 2xy ln a
dx dx y dx dx
dy 2
Therefore, = 2xax ln a.
dx

34
4.6 Differentiation of other forms of exponential functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

ii) Given y = 3−x

2 +6x+10
. Taking natural logarithm on both sides yields
ln y = (−x2 + 6x + 10) ln 3
Differentiating with respect to x yields
1 dy dy
= (−2x + 6) ln 3 ⇒ = (−2x + 6)y ln 3
y dx dx
dy
= (−2x + 6)3−x +6x+10 ln 3.
2
Therefore,
dx
iii) Given y = 4sin 5x . Taking natural logarithm on both sides yields
ln y = sin 5x ln 4
Differentiating with respect to x yields
1 dy dy
= 5 cos 5x ln 4 ⇒ = (5 cos 5x)y ln 4
y dx dx
dy
Therefore, = (5 cos 5x)4sin 5x ln 4.
dx

Exercise:
dy dy
i) Find given y = ax + bx , where a and b are constants. [ans: = ax ln a + bx ln b]
dx dx
II: A function raised to a function (e.g., y = xtan 3x )
In this case, introduce natural logarithm on both sides first. On the left differentiate implicitly
and on the right hand side differentiate using product rule.

Example(s):
dy 2
( 2 )x
(a) Find given: (i) y = xx , (ii) y = (tan x)x , (iii) y = (sin 4x)x , and (iv) y = ex .
dx
Solution
i) Given y = xx . Taking natural logarithm on both sides yields
ln y = x ln x
Differentiating with respect to x yields
d d
[ln y] = [x ln x]
dx dx
1 dy d d 1
⇒ = x [ln x] + ln x (x) = x · + ln x
y dx dx dx x
= 1 + ln x
dy
Therefore, = y(1 + ln x) = xx (1 + ln x).
dx
ii) Given y = (tan x)x . Taking natural logarithm on both sides yields
ln y = x ln(tan x)
Differentiating with respect to x yields
d d
[ln y] = [x ln(tan x)]
dx dx
1 dy d d sec2 x
⇒ = x [ln(tan x)] + ln(tan x) (x) = x · + ln(tan x)
y dx dx dx tan x
x sec2 x
= + ln(tan x)
tan x
( ) ( )
dy x sec2 x x x sec2 x
Therefore, =y + ln(tan x) = (tan x) + ln(tan x) .
dx tan x tan x

35
4.6 Differentiation of other forms of exponential functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

2
iii) Given y = (sin 4x)x . Taking natural logarithm on both sides yields

ln y = x2 ln(sin 4x)

Differentiating with respect to x yields

d d 2
[ln y] = [x ln(sin 4x)]
dx dx
1 dy d d 4 cos 4x
⇒ = x2 [ln(sin 4x)] + ln(sin 4x) (x2 ) = x2 · + 2x ln(sin 4x)
y dx dx dx sin 4x
= 4x2 cot 4x + 2x ln(sin 4x)
dy [ ] 2 [ ]
Therefore, = y 4x2 cot 4x + 2x ln(sin 4x) = (sin 4x)x 4x2 cot 4x + 2x ln(sin 4x) .
dx

Exercise:

(b) Differentiate the following functions with respect to x.

( )
dy cos x
i) y = xcos x . [ans: = xcos x − sin x ln x + ]
dx x
dy
ii) y = (sin x)x . [ans: = (sin x)x (ln(sin x) + x cot x)]
dx ( )
dy 1 + 2x
iii) y = (x + x2 )x . [ans: 2 x
= (x + x ) ln(x + x ) + 2 ]
dx (
1+x )
dy y 1
iv) y x = x. [ans: = − ln y ]
dx x( x )
dy 1 y
v) xy = sin x. [ans: = cot x − ]
dx (ln x x)
√ dy y 1
vi) y sin x = x. [ans: = − cot x ln y ]
dx sin x 2x
dy
(b) Find given:
dx
i) y = (cos 3x)sin 3x
ii) y = ax + sin (2x )
iii) y = (cos x)x + 2x2
( )
iv) y = sin a2x + 3x

III: Derivatives of other logarithmic functions e.g., y = log2 (3x2 + 1)

dy
To find , first convert the logarithm to index notation then introduce natural logarithm on
dx
both sides.

Example(s):
dy
(a) Find given: (i) y = log2 (3x2 + 1), (ii) y = logsin x x, and (iii) y = logx (cos 3x)
dx
Solution
i) Given y = log2 (3x2 + 1). In index notation, we have 2y = 3x2 + 1. Taking natural
logarithm on both sides yields

y ln 2 = ln(3x2 + 1)

Differentiating with respect to x yields

d d dy 6x
[y ln 2] = [ln(3x2 + 1)] ⇒ ln 2 = 2
dx dx dx 3x + 1
dy 6x
Therefore, = .
dx (3x2 + 1) ln 2

36
4.7 Inverse trigonometric functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

ii) Given y = logsin x x. In index notation, we have (sin x)y = x. Taking natural logarithm
on both sides yields
y ln(sin x) = ln x
Differentiating with respect to x yields
cos x dy 1 dy 1
y + ln(sin x) = ⇒ y cot x + ln(sin x) =
sin x dx x dx x
( )
dy 1 1
Therefore, = − y cot x .
dx x ln(sin x)
iii) Given y = logx (cos 3x). In index notation, we have xy = cos 3x. Taking natural
logarithm on both sides yields

y ln x = ln(cos 3x)

Differentiating with respect to x yields

y dy −3 sin 3x y dy
+ ln(x) = ⇒ + ln(x) = −3 tan 3x
x dx cos 3x x dx
( )
dy y 1
Therefore, = − − 3 tan 3x .
dx x ln x

Lecture 7

4.7 Inverse trigonometric functions

y = sin−1 x = arcsin x, y = cos−1 x = arccos x, y = tan−1 x = arctan x
y = cosec−1 x = arccosec x, y = sec−1 x = arcsec x, y = cot−1 x = arccot x.
1 1
→ Note: sin−1 x ̸= , cos−1 x ̸= , etc.
sin x cos x

4.7.1 Derivative of inverse trigonometric functions

dy
To find , follow these steps
dx
i) Introduce the trigonometric function corresponding to the given inverse on both sides of the
given equation

ii) Differentiate implicitly on the left hand side and differentiate normally on the right hand side.
dy
iii) Make the subject.
dx
To find a suitable form of the trigonometric function in the denominator,

 put the given equation in place of y, or

 replace the denominator by either making use of trigonometric identities or draw a right angled
triangle and find the missing side using Pythagoras theorem, as follows:

For example,

I Let y = sin−1 x ⇒ sin y = x. Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields

dy dy 1
cos y = 1 ⇒ =
dx dx cos y
dy 1
 Formula 1: putting y = sin−1 x in place of y yields = ( )
dx cos sin−1 x

37
4.7 Inverse trigonometric functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

 Formula 2:
√
 using the identity cos2 y + sin2 y = 1 ⇒ cos y = 1 − sin2 y. Thus,
dy 1 dy 1
=√ . Putting sin y = x yields =√ , or
dx 1 − sin2 y dx 1 − x2
 using the right angled triangle

From sin y = x, we have opposite is x and hypotenuse

√ is 1. From
x 1
Pythagoras theorem, the adjacent is given by 1 − x2 . From the
y √ dy 1
. diagram, cos y = 1 − x2 . Hence, =√
√ dx 1 − x2
1 − x2

d [ −1 ] 1
Therefore, dx sin x . = √ .
1 − x2

II Let y = cos−1 x ⇒ cos y = x. Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields

dy dy −1 −1 −1
− sin y = 1 ⇒ = =√ =√
dx dx sin y 1 − cos y
2 1 − x2

d [ −1 ] −1
Therefore, dx cos x . = √ .
1 − x2

III Let y = tan−1 x ⇒ tan y = x. Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields
dy dy 1 1 1
sec2 y = 1 ⇒ = 2
= 2 =
dx dx sec y 1 + tan y 1 + x2

d [ −1 .] 1
Therefore, tan x = .
dx 1 + x2

IV Let y = cot−1 x ⇒ cot y = x. Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields

dy dy −1 −1 −1
−cosec2 y = 1 ⇒ = 2
= 2 =
dx dx cosec y 1 + cot y 1 + x2

d [ −1 .] −1
Therefore, cot x = .
dx 1 + x2

V Let y = sec−1 x ⇒ sec y = x. Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields

dy dy 1 1 1
sec y tan y = 1 ⇒ = = (√ ) = √
dx dx sec y tan y sec y sec2 y − 1 x x2 − 1

d [ −1 ] . 1
Therefore, dx sec x = √ 2 .
x x −1

VI Let y = cosec−1 x ⇒ cosec y = x. Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields

dy dy −1 −1 −1
−cosec y cot y = 1 ⇒ = = (√ ) = √
dx dx cosec y cot y cosec y cosec y − 1
2 x x2 − 1

d [ −1
] −1
Therefore, dx cosec x . = √ 2 .
x x −1

Example(s):

38
4.7 Inverse trigonometric functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

dy
(a) Find if y = sin−1 (2x2 + x + 1).
dx

Solution
dy 1 du
Let y = sin−1 u, where u = 2x2 + x + 1. Differentiating yields =√ and = 4x + 1.
du 1 − u2 dx
Therefore, chain rule yields
( )
dy dy du 1 4x + 1
= · = √ (4x + 1) = √
dx du dx 1 − u2 1 − (2x2 + x + 1)2

dy
(b) Find if y = cos−1 (2x + 1).
dx

Solution
dy −1 du
Let y = cos−1 u, where u = 2x + 1. Differentiating yields =√ and = 2. Therefore,
du 1−u 2 dx
chain rule yields ( )
dy dy du −1 −2
= · = √ (2) = √
dx du dx 1−u 2 1 − (2x + 1)2

dy
(c) Find if y = tan−1 (cos x + x).
dx

Solution
dy 1 du
Let y = tan−1 u, where u = cos x + x. Differentiating yields = and = − sin x + 1.
du 1 + u2 dx
Therefore, chain rule yields
( )
dy dy du 1 − sin x + 1
= · = 2
(− sin x + 1) =
dx du dx 1+u 1 + (cos x + x)2

(d) Differentiate y = x sin−1 x with respect to x.

Solution
1
Let y = uv, where u = x and v = sin−1 x. Differentiating yields u′ = 1 and v ′ = √ .
1 − x2
Therefore, product rule yields
( )
dy 1 x
= uv ′ + vu′ = (x) √ + (sin−1 x)(1) = √ + sin−1 x
dx 1 − x2 1−x2

dθ
(e) Find when (i) θ = cos−1 (1 − 2t2 ) and (ii) θ = sin−1 (2t3 − 1).
dt

Solution

i) Given that θ = cos−1 (1 − 2t2 ). Let θ = cos−1 u, where u = 1 − 2t2 . Differentiating yields
dθ −1 du
=√ and = −4t. Therefore, chain rule yields
du 1−u 2 dt
( )
dθ dθ du −1 4t 4t
= · = √ (−4t) = √ = √
dt du dt 1 − u2 1 − (1 − 2t2 )2 1 − 1 + 4t2 − 4t4
4t 4t 2
= √ = √ =√
4t (1 − t )
2 2 2t 1 − t 2 1 − t2

39
4.7 Inverse trigonometric functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

ii) Given that θ = sin−1 (2t3 − 1). Let θ = sin−1 u, where u = 2t3 − 1. Differentiating yields
dθ 1 du
=√ and = 6t2 . Therefore, chain rule yields
du 1−u 2 dt
( )
dθ dθ du 1 6t2 6t2
= · = √ (6t2 ) = √ = √
dt du dt 1 − u2 1 − (2t3 − 1)2 1 − 4t6 + 4t3 − 1
4t 6t2 3t
= √ = √ =√
4t (t − t )
2 4 2t t − t 4 t − t4
{ }
( )2 d dy 2
(f) If y = tan−1 x , prove that (1 + x2 ) = .
dx dx 1 + x2

dy du 1
Proof. Let y = u2 , where u = tan−1 x. Differentiating yields = 2u and = .
du dx 1 + x2
Therefore, chain rule yields
( )
dy dy du 1 2 tan−1 x
= · = (2u) =
dx du dx 1 + x2 1 + x2
Now,
{ } { }
d dy d 2 tan−1 x d { } 2
(1 + x2 ) = 2
(1 + x ) = 2 tan−1 x =
dx dx dx 1 + x2 dx 1 + x2

Exercise:
dy
(a) i) If y = sin−1 (cos x), show that = −1.
dx
√ dy
ii) If y = sin−1 (3x − 4x3 ), show that 1 − x2 = 3.
dx
( )2 √ √ du
iii) If u = θ2 + sin−1 θ − 2θ 1 − θ2 sin−1 θ, show that 1 − θ2 = 4θ2 sin−1 θ.
dθ
( ) √
(b) Find the( derivative of the following functions: (i) y = x 2 sin−1 )x 2 , (ii) y = tan−1 x, and (iii)
−1
)
y = sin tan x .
dy √ dy 1
(c) Find given that y = sin−1 x. [ans: = √ ]
dx dx 2 x − x2
dy
(d) Find given:
dx
−1 (3x) 1
i) y = esin +
2x + cos−1 (4x)
ii) y = 2x + cos−1 (4x)
( )
iii) y = ln x2 + 2x
sin−1 (3x)
iv) y =
23x + sin 3x
v) y = cosec−1 (3x)
vi) y = x2 cosec−1 (4x)
vii) y = xx sin−1 (2x)

(e) Trey knows the following values for f (x) and f ′ (x):

x 5 6 7 8 9
f (x) 8 2 7 9 5
f ′ (x) -3 1 -8 9 6

40
4.8 Parametric differentiation ⃝Francis
c Oketch

i) Let h(x) = ln(5x + 3) tan−1 (f (x)). Find h′ (8) [ans: h′ (8) = 0.5826]
ii) Let m(x) = sec−1 (f (x)). Find m′ (8) [ans: m′ (8) = 1.1118]

(f) Brendan knows the following values for f (x) and f ′ (x):

x 3 4 5 6 7
f (x) -0.6 0.7 0.7 -0.3 -0.4
f ′ (x) 10 -9 6 -5 -2

i) Let h(x) = sin−1 (f (x)). Find h′ (3) [ans: h′ (3) = 12.5]

ii) Let m(x) = e5x sin−1 (f (x)). Find m′ (3) [ans: m′ (3) = 3.0345 × 107 ]

CAT 1

Lecture 8

4.8 Parametric differentiation

If both x and y are defined as functions of another variable (parameter), say t, i.e., x = x(t), y = y(t),
then
( ) ( )
dy dy dx dy/dt
= ÷. =
dx dt dt dx/dt

Example(s):
dy
1. Find , in terms of the parameter t, when (a) x = at2 , y = 2at, (b) x = (t + 1)2 , y = (t2 − 1),
dx
and (c) x = cos−1 (3t), y = sin−1 (3t).

Solution
dx dy dy dy/dt 2a 1
(a) = 2at, = 2a. Therefore, = = = .
dt dt dx dx/dt 2at t
dx dy dy dy/dt 2t t
(b) = 2(t + 1), = 2t. Therefore, = = = .
dt dt dx dx/dt 2(t + 1) t+1
dx
(c) Rewrite as cos x = 3t, sin y = 3t. Differentiating with respect to t yields − sin x = 3 and
dt
dy dx 3 3 dy 3 3
cos y = 3. Hence, =− = −√ and = = √ . Therefore,
dt ( dt ) sin ( x 1)− 9t2 dt cos y 1 − 9t2
dy dy/dt 3 3
= = √ ÷ −√ = −1.
dx dx/dt 1 − 9t 2 1 − 9t2

Exercise:
dy
(a) Find given:
dx
i) x = ln(2t2 ), y = ln(4 + t2 )
ii) x = 2t , y = 2−t
iii) x = tan−1 (2t), y = sec−1 (2t)
iv) x = t sin(t2 ), y = t3 cos(t2 )
t2 1 − t2
v) x= , y =
1 + t2 1 + t2
vi) x = e cos 2t, y = e−t sin 2t
t

2t
vii) x= , y = t3 − 4t + 8
1 + 3t
viii) x = θ − sin 2θ, y = θ + cos 2θ
ix) x = a cos3 θ, y = b sin3 θ

41
4.9 Higher order derivatives ⃝Francis
c Oketch

4.9 Higher order derivatives

Suppose y(x) is an n−times differentiable function of x. Then,
dy
First derivative of y(x) is given by = y ′ (x)
dx ( )
d dy d2 y
Second derivative of y(x) is given by = 2 = y ′′ (x)
dx ( dx ) dx
d d2 y d3 y
Third derivative of y(x) is given by 2
= 3 = y ′′′ (x)
dx dx dx
.. ..
. ( . )
d dn−1 y dn y
nth derivative of y(x) is given by = = y (n) (x)
dx dxn−1 dxn

Example(s):
dy d2 y d3 y d4 y
1. Given that y = 4x3 − 6x2 − 9x + 1, find , 2 , 3 , and .
dx dx dx dx4

Solution
dy d2 y d3 y d4 y
= 12x2 − 12x − 9, = 24x − 12, = 24, = 0.
dx dx2 dx3 dx4
d2 y d3 y
2. Find and when (a) y = x10 and (b) y = cos 2x.
dx2 dx3

Solution
dy d2 y d3 y
(a) = 10x9 , = 90x8, = 720x7 .
dx dx2 dx3
dy d2 y d3 y
(b) = −2 sin 2x, = −4 cos 2x, = 8 sin 2x.
dx dx2 dx3
cos x d2 y 2 dy
3. If y = , prove that 2
+ + y = 0.
x dx x dx

d d
dy x [cos x] − cos x [x] −x sin x − cos x
Proof. Quotient rule yields = dx 2
dx = .
dx x x2
d d
d2 y x2 [−x sin x − cos x] − (−x sin x − cos x) [x2 ]
= dx dx
dx2 x4
x2 (−x cos x − sin x + sin x) + (x sin x + cos x)(2x) −x3 cos x + 2x2 sin x + 2x cos x
= =
x4 x4
−x cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x
2
=
x3
Now,
( )
d2 y 2 dy −x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x 2 −x sin x − cos x cos x
2
+ +y = 3
+ 2
+
dx x dx x x x x
−x cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x − 2x sin x − 2 cos x + x cos x
2 2
=
x3
= 0

d3 d3 u d2 u dv du d2 v d3 v
4. Given that u and v are functions of x, show that (uv) = v + 3 + 3 + u .
dx3 dx3 dx2 dx dx dx2 dx3

42
 ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Proof.
[ ] [ { }] [ { }]
d3 d d2 d d d d d du dv
(uv) = (uv) = (uv) = v+u (product rule)
dx3 dx dx2 dx dx dx dx dx dx dx
[ ]
d d2 u du dv d2 v d3 u d2 u dv d2 u dv du d2 v du d2 v d3 v
= v + 2 + u = v + + 2 + 2 + + u
dx dx2 dx dx dx2 dx3 dx2 dx dx2 dx dx dx2 dx dx2 dx3
d3 u d2 u dv du d2 v d3 v
= v + 3 + 3 + u
dx3 dx2 dx dx dx2 dx3

Exercise:
d2 y 2 ) sin x, (b) y = x tan−1 x, (c) y = x
2
1. Find when (a) y = (1+4x+x , (d) y = (3x−sin 2x)2 ,
dx2 1+x
2
and (e) y = ln(3x3 + 4x − 1) + xex .
sin x dy d2 y 2
2 d y + 4x dy + (x2 + 2)y = 0.
2. If y = , find and . Hence, prove that x
x dx dx2 dx2 dx

Lecture 9

5 Applications of differentiation
5.1 Equation of a tangent line and normal line to a curve
Consider the diagram below

A tangent line to a curve is a line that touches the

curve at one point, say (x0 , y0 ), while a normal
line to a curve is a line perpendicular to the
tangent line and passes through the point (x0 , y0 ).

dy
1. The rate of change of y with respect to x, i.e., = y ′ (x), gives the gradient function to the
dx
curve y = f (x).
dy
2. If y ′ (x) (or ) is evaluated at point x = x0 , the result is the gradient of the tangent line at the
dx
point x = x0 .
3. Since the normal line is perpendicular to the tangent line, the product of their gradients must
be equal to −1, i.e.,
m1 × m.2 = −1 ,
where m1 and m2 represents the gradient of the tangent line and normal line, respectively.
4. To find the equation of a straight line, we require a known point (x0 , y0 ), a general point (x, y),
∆y
which must all lie on the line, and the gradient, m = , of the line. Thus, the equation of a
∆x
straight line is given by
y − y0.
=m
x − x0

43
5.1 Equation of a tangent line and normal line to a curve ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Example(s):
1. Find the equation of the tangent line and normal line to the curve x2 + 2xy + 3y 2 = 17 at point
(1, 2).

Solution
Clearly, the point (1, 2) lies on the given curve. Now, differentiating the given curve implicitly
dy dy
with respect to x yields 2x + 2x + 2y + 6y = 0. Therefore,
dx dx
dy −(x + y)
=
dx x + 3y
dy −(1 + 2) 3
The gradient of the tangent line at point (1, 2) is = = − = m1 . Thus, the
dx 1 + 3(2) 7
equation of the tangent line at point (1, 2) is
y−2 3 3 17
=− ⇒ y =− x+
x−1 7 7 7
1 7
The gradient of the normal line at (1, 2) is m2 = − = . Thus, the equation of the normal
m1 3
line at (1, 2) is
y−2 7 7 1
= ⇒ y = x−
x−1 3 3 3
2. Find the equation of tangent line and normal line to the following curves at the indicated points.

(a) 2e−x + ey = 3ex−y at point (0,0).

Solution
Clearly, the point (0, 0) lies on the given curve. Now, differentiating the given curve
implicitly with respect to x yields −2e−x + ey y ′ = 3(1 − y ′ )ex−y . Therefore,

2e−x + 3ex−y
y′ =
ey + 3ex−y
dy 2e−0 + 3e0 2+3 5
The gradient of the tangent line at point (0, 0) is = 0 0
= = = m1 .
dx e + 3e 1+3 4
Thus, the equation of the tangent line at point (0, 0) is
y−0 5 5
= ⇒ y= x
x−0 4 4
1 4
The gradient of the normal line at (0, 0) is m2 = − = − . Thus, the equation of the
m1 5
normal line at (0, 0) is
y−0 4 4
=− ⇒ y=− x
x−0 5 5
(b) xy = 6e2x−3y at point (3,2). [hint: m1 = 10/21]
t2 t3
(c) x = , y= at t = 2. [hint: m1 = −9/2]
1+t 1−t
π
(d) y = a cos3 t, x = a sin3 t at t = . [hint: m1 = −1]
4
3. The parametric equations of a curve are x = 3 (2θ − sin 2θ), y = 3 (1 − cos 2θ). The tangent
π
and normal to the curve at the point P where θ = meet the y−axis at L and M, respectively.
4
9 2
Show that the area of triangle PLM is (π − 2) .
4

Solution

44
5.1 Equation of a tangent line and normal line to a curve ⃝Francis
c Oketch

dx dy dy dy/dθ 6 sin 2θ sin 2θ

= 3 (2 − 2 cos 2θ) and = 6 sin 2θ. Therefore, = = = .
dθ dθ
(π) dx dx/dθ 3 (2 − 2 cos 2θ) 1 − cos 2θ
π dy sin 2 1
When θ = , = ( ) = = 1. Hence,
4 dx 1 − cos π2 1−0
π [ ( )]
 Gradient of the tangent at P is 1. Now, the value of x when θ = is x = 3 π2 − sin π2 =
4
3π − 6 π [ ( π )]
. The value of y when θ = is y = 3 1 − cos 2 = 3. Thus, the co-ordinate of
2 ( ) 4
3π − 6
point P is ,3 .
2
 Equation of the tangent at P is
y−3 3π − 6 12 − 3π
=1 ⇒ y =x− +3 ⇒ y =x+
3π − 6 2 2
x−
2
( )
12 − 3π 12 − 3π
Thus, the y−intercept is y = . Hence, the co-ordinate of point L is 0, .
2 2
 Gradient of the normal at P is −1. Thus, equation of the normal at P is
y−3 3π − 6 3π
= −1 ⇒ y = −x + +3 ⇒ y = −x +
3π − 6 2 2
x−
2
( )
3π 3π
Thus, the y−intercept is y = . Hence, the co-ordinate of point M is 0, .
2 2

3π − 6
Height of triangle PLM is h = and the
2
3π 12 − 3π
base length is LM = − = 3π − 6.
2 2
Thus, area of triangle PLM
( )
1 3π − 6 9
= (3π − 6) = (π − 2)2
2 2 4

Exercise:
1. Find the equation of tangent line and normal line to the following curves
(a) 12(x2 + y 2 ) = 25xy at point (3,4)
(b) x2 y = x + 2 at point (2,1)
( )
x
(c) xy = ln y at point (1,3)
(d) xy = 6e2x−3y at point (3,2)
1 1
(e) + = 1 at point (1,1)
x+1 y+1
t2 + 1 t3 − 7
(f) x = , y = at t = 1
t + 3t2 t + 3t2
2. Find the equations of the tangent lines and normal lines to the curve y = x2 − 4x + 3 at the
points where the curve cuts the x-axis.
3. (a) Show that the equation of the tangent to x2 + xy + y = 0 at the point (x1 , y1 ) is (2x1 +
y1 )x + (x1 + 1)y + y1 = 0.
(b) Show that the equation of the tangent at (x1 , y1 ) to the curve ax2 + by 2 + cxy + dx = 0 is
1 1
ax1 x + by1 y + c(y1 x + x1 y) + d(x1 + x) = 0.
2 2

Lecture 10

45
5.2 Linear approximation/small changes ⃝Francis
c Oketch

5.2 Linear approximation/small changes

Linear approximation is a technique used to estimate values of some functions close to some known
results. The equation of tangent line at the point (x0 , y0 ) can be used to approximate the function
y(x) close to this point. Now, the gradient of tangent line to the curve y(x) at point (x0 , y0 ) is denoted
by
dy
= y ′ (x0 )
dx (x0 ,y0 )
∆y y − y0
Thus, the equation of the tangent line at this point is = gradient ⇒ = y ′ (x0 ).
∆x x − x0
Therefore, for x close to x0 and denoting y0 = y(x0 ), we have the following approximation of y(x):

y(x) ≈ y(x0 ) + .y ′ (x0 )(x − x0 ).

→ Notes:
dy y − y0
(1) This formula comes from the slope ≈ for x close to x0 .
dx x − x0
∆y dy
(2) This is also equivalent to taking ≈ , i.e. the differential as an approximation of the
∆x dx
increment.

Example(s):
√ √
(a) Use linear approximation to estimate (i) 26 and (ii) 4 80.

Solution
√ 1 1 1 −1
i) Note that 26 = 26 2 . Let y(x) = x 2 ⇒ y ′ (x) =
x 2 . Take x0 = 25 (a value close
2
1 1
to 26 and has exact square root), we have y(x0 ) = (25) 2 = 5 and y ′ (x0 ) = (25)− 2 =
1 1
.
2 10
By linear approximation, we have
1
y(x) ≈ y(x0 ) + y ′ (x0 )(x − x0 ) = 5 + (x − 25)
10
Plugging in x = 26 yields

(26 − 25) 1
y(26) ≈ 5 + =5+ = 5.1
10 10
√
Therefore, 26 ≈ 5.1.
√ 1 1 1 −3
ii) Note that 4 80 = 80 4 . Let y(x) = x 4 ⇒ y ′ (x) =
x 4 . Take x0 = 81 (a value close
4
1 1
to 80 and has exact fourth root), we have y(x0 ) = (81) 4 = 3 and y ′ (x0 ) = (81)− 4 =
1 3
.
4 108
By linear approximation, we have
1
y(x) ≈ y(x0 ) + y ′ (x0 )(x − x0 ) = 3 + (x − 81)
108
Plugging in x = 80 yields

(80 − 81) 1 324 − 1 323

y(80) ≈ 3 + =3− = = ≈ 2.9907
108 108 108 108
√
Therefore, 4
80 ≈ 2.9907.

(b) Use differentials to approximate (i) cos(44o ) and (ii) sin(60o 1′ ).

Solution

46
5.3 Related rates ⃝Francis
c Oketch

dy π
i) Let y = cos x ⇒ = − sin x. Take x0 = 45o = (a value close to 44o and its cosine
dx 4
1
can be obtained without using SMP table or a calculator), we have y(x0 ) = cos(45o ) = √
2
′ 1
and y (x0 ) = − sin(45 ) = − √ . By linear approximation, we have
o
2
( )
1 1 π
y(x) ≈ y(x0 ) + y ′ (x0 )(x − x0 ) = √ − √ x −
2 2 4
11π
Plugging in x = 44o ≡ radians yields
45
( ) ( )
11π 1 1 11π π
y ≈ √ −√ − = 0.7194
45 2 2 45 4

Therefore, sin(44o ) ≈ 0.7194.

dy π
ii) Let y = sin x ⇒ = cos x. Take x0 = 60o = (a value close to 60o 1′ and its sine
dx 3 √
o 3
can be obtained without using SMP table or a calculator), we have y(x0 ) = sin(60 ) =
2
′ o 1
and y (x0 ) = cos(60 ) = . By linear approximation, we have
2
√ ( )
′ 3 1 π
y(x) ≈ y(x0 ) + y (x0 )(x − x0 ) = + x−
2 2 3
( )
π
Plugging in x = 60o 1′ ≡ + 0.0003 radians yields
3
( ) √ ( )
π 3 1 π π
y + 0.0003 ≈ + + 0.0003 − = 0.86618
3 2 2 3 3
Therefore, sin(60o 1′ ) ≈ 0.86618.

Exercise:
√ √
(a) Estimate 5
30 by linear approximation. [ans: 5
30 ≈ 1.975]
3 3
(b) Find the approximate value of 80 4 using linear approximation. [ans: 80 4 ≈ 26.75]

(c) Find the cube root of 24 without using a calculator.

√
(d) Find the √
linearization
√ of the function y = x + 3 at x0 = 1 and use it to approximate the
numbers 3.98 and 4.05. Are these approximations overestimates or underestimates?

(e) Use linear approximation to estimate ln(1.1). You must make an appropriate choice of where
to center your approximation. Draw a picture illustrating your approximation and write and
explanation of why you chose to base your approximation where you did (In other words, explain
your choice of x0 ).
dy √
(f) Use linear approximation to estimate y(4.1) given that y(4) = 2 and = x2 + 20.
dx

5.3 Related rates

dx
If a variable x is a function of time t, then the time rate of change of x is given by . When two
dt
or more variables, all functions of t, are related by an equation, the relation between their rates of
change may be obtained by differentiating the equation with respect to t. For example, if z 2 = x2 + y 2
dz dx dy
then differentiating the equation implicitly with respect to t yields 2z = 2x + 2y . To solve
dt dt dt
related rates problems, follow these steps:

47
5.3 Related rates ⃝Francis
c Oketch

i) Assign symbols to all quantities given and their respective rates of change. Use a sketch where
necessary.

ii) Write an equation relating all the variables whose rates of change are given or are to be
determined.

iii) Apply chain rule of differentiation to differentiate implicitly both sides of the equation with
respect to time t

iv) Substitute into the resulting equation all the known variables and their rates of change and then
solve for the required rate of change.

Example(s):

1. Sand is being emptied from a hopper at a rate of 10 cubic feets per second. The sand forms
a conical pile whose height is always twice its radius. At what rate is the radius of the pile
increasing when its height is 5 feets.

Solution

 Step I: Let V be the volume of the conical pile, h the height and r the radius. Given
dV dr
= 10 ft3 /s and h = 2r. We are required to find when h = 5 ft.
dt dt
1
 Step II: At time t, the conical pile has the volume V = πr2 h. Putting h = 2r yields
3
2 3
V = πr .
3
 Step III: Differentiating the equation implicitly with respect to t, we obtain
dV dr dr 1 dV
= 2πr2 ⇒ = (∗)
dt dt dt 2πr2 dt
dV h 5
 Step IV: Substituting = 10 and r = = into equation (∗) yields
dt 2 2
dr 1 4
= 5 2
(10) = ≈ 0.254648 ft/s
dt 2π( 2 ) 5π

Therefore, the radius of the conical pile is increasing at the rate of 4/(5π) feets per second
when its height is 5 feets.

2. Gas is escaping from a spherical balloon at the rate of 900 cm3 /s. How fast is the surface area
shrinking when the radius is 360 cm.

Solution

 Step I: Let V be the volume of the sphere, S the surface area and r the radius. Given
dV dS
= −900 m3 /min. We are required to find when r = 360m.
dt dt
4
 Step II: At time t, the sphere has the volume V = πr3 and surface area S = 4πr2 .
3
 Step III: Differentiating implicitly with respect to t, we obtain
dV dr dS dr
= 4πr2 and = 8πr
dt dt dt dt
( )
dS 1 dV dS 2 dV
Thus, = 8πr ⇒ = (∗).
dt 4πr2 dt dt r dt

48
5.3 Related rates ⃝Francis
c Oketch

dV
 Step IV: Substituting = −900 and r = 360 into equation (∗) yields
dt
dS 2
= (−900) = −5
dt 360
Therefore, the surface area of the balloon is decreasing at the rate of 5cm2 per second when
its radius is 360 cm.

3. Car A is traveling west at 50km/h and car B is traveling north at 60km/h. Both are headed for
the intersection of the two roads. At what rate are the cars approaching each other when car A
is 0.3km and car B is 0.4km from the intersection?

Solution

 Step I: Let x and y be the distance of car A and

B from the junction C at any time t, respectively.
Let z be the distance between car A and B at
dx dy
any time t. Given = −50km/h and =
dt dt
dz
−60km/h. We are required to find when x =
dt
0.3km and y = 0.4km.
 Step II: At time t the distance between A and B
is z 2 = x2 + y 2 . (use Pythagoras theorem)

 Step III: Differentiating the equation implicitly with respect to t, we obtain

( )
dz dx dy dz 1 dx dy
2z = 2x + 2y ⇒ = x +y (∗)
dt dt dt dt z dt dt

 Step IV: When x = 0.3km and y = 0.4km, we have

√ √
z= x2 + y 2 = (0.3)2 + (0.4)2 = 0.5km

dx dy
Substituting x = 0.3km, y = 0.4km, z = 0.5km, = −50km/h and = −60km/h into
dt dt
dz 1
equation (∗) yields = [(0.3)(−50) + (0.4)(−60)] = −78. Therefore, the two cars are
dt 0.5
approaching each other at a rate of 78km/h when car A is 0.3km and car B is 0.4km from
the intersection.

4. Water is running out of a conical funnel at the rate of 5cm3 /s. If the radius of the base of the
funnel is 10cm and the altitude is 20cm, find the rate at which the water level is dropping when
it is 5cm from the top.

Solution

 Step I: Let r be the radius, h the height of

the surface of the water, and V the volume of
dV
water in the cone at time t. Given = −5
dt
3
cm /min, r = 10cm and h = 20cm. We are
dh
required to find when h = 5cm from the
dt
top.

49
5.3 Related rates ⃝Francis
c Oketch

1
 Step II: The volume of the cone at time t is given by the equation V = πr2 h. But by
3
r h h
similar triangles, we have = ⇒ r = . Substituting into the above equation
10 20 2
yields
( )2
1 h π
V = π h ⇒ V = h3
3 2 12
 Step III: Differentiating the equation implicitly with respect to t, we obtain
dV π dh dh 4 dV
= h2 ⇒ = (∗)
dt 4 dt dt πh2 dt
dV
 Step IV: Substituting = −5cm3 /s and h = 20 − 5 = 15cm into equation (∗), we get
dt
dh 4 4
= (−5) = −
dt π(15)2 45π
4
Therefore, the water level is dropping at the rate of cm/s when it is 5cm from the top.
45π

Exercise:
4
1. Sands falling from a chute form a conical pile whose altitude is equal to of the radius of the
3
base.

(a) How fast is the volume increasing when the radius of the base is 0.3m and is increasing at
dV
the rate of 0.025m/s. [ans: = 0.003π m3 /s]
dt
(b) How fast is the radius increasing when it is 0.6m and the volume is increasing at the rate
dr 1
of 0.024m3 /s. [ans: = m/s]
dt 20π
2. Water is running out of a conical funnel at the rate of 1000m3 /s. If the radius of the base of
the funnel is 40mm and the altitude is 80mm, find the rate at which the water level is dropping
dh 10
when it is 20mm from the top. [ans: =− m/s]
dt 9π
3. (a) Gas is escaping from a spherical balloon at the rate of 0.02 m3 /s. How fast is the surface
dS
area shrinking when the radius is 4 meters. [ans: = −0.01 m2 /s]
dt
(b) A spherical balloon is blown up so that its volume increases at a constant rate of 2cm3 /s.
Find the rate of increase of the radius when the volume of the balloon is 50cm3 . [ans:
dr
= 0.030472 cm/s]
dt
4. Ink is dropped onto a blotting paper forming a circular stain which increases in area at the rate
dr 5
of 5cm2 /s. Find the rate of change of the radius when the area is 30cm2 . [ans: = √
dt 2 30π
cm/s]

5. The length of a thin rectangular metal sheet is twice its width. If the sheet is subjected to a
constant heating, find the rate of change of its perimeter when its width is 1m and its area is
changing at the rate of 18cm2 /s. (Assume that the expansion is uniform and that the thickness
dP
of the metal sheet is negligible) [ans: = 27 m/s]
dt
10(20 + x)
6. A machine produces two products and the number of each product is related by y = ,
50 − x
where x and y denote the number of each product produced. How fast is y changing if x is
dy
changing at the rate of 2 units per hour when x = 40. [ans: = 14 units per hour]
dt

50
5.4 Turning points/Stationary points/Critical points/Extrema ⃝Francis
c Oketch

7. An air traffic controller spots two airplanes at the same altitude converging to a point as they
fly at right angles to each other. One airplane is 150 miles from the point and has a speed of 300
miles per hour. The other is 200 miles from the point and has a speed of 400 miles per hour. At
dz
what rate is the distance z between the planes changing? [ans: = −500 miles per hour]
dt
8. A company is increasing the production of a product at the rate of 20 units per week. The demand
and cost functions for the product are given by p = 60 − 0.01x and C = 4000 + 40x − 0.03x2 ,
where x is the number of units produced per week. Find the rate of change of the profit with
dP
respect to time (in dollars per week) when the weekly sales are x = 700 units. [ans: = 960
dt
dollars per week]

9. A ladder of length 5 metres rests against a vertical wall with the bottom end on horizontal
ground. If the foot of the ladder is 3m from the wall and moving away at 20m/s, find the rate
dx
at which the top end is sliding down the wall. [hint: x2 + y 2 = 25 at x = 3, y = 4, = 20, ans:
dt
dy
= −15m/s]
dt

5.4 Turning points/Stationary points/Critical points/Extrema

The points at which the slope (gradient) of a curve is zero are called stationary points (or turning
points). For example, consider the following curve y = f (x):

A- a maximum turning point

B- a minimum turning point

C- a point of inflection

To classify the stationary values, consider the points A1 and A2 , B1 and B2 , C1 and C2 which are left
and right of A, B, and C, respectively, and close to them.

(1) First derivative test (or sign test)

dy
This test relies on the sign of just to the LHS and just to the RHS of the turning point.
dx
dy
Consider the behaviour of the gradient at points A, B and C.
dx
 For A (a maximum point)
dy
at point A1 , is positive (+ve)
dx
dy
at point A, is zero (0)
dx
dy
at point A2 , is negative (-ve)
dx
 For B (a minimum point)
dy
at point B1 , is negative (-ve)
dx
dy
at point B, is zero (0)
dx
dy
at point B2 , is positive (+ve)
dx
 For C (a point of inflection)
dy
at point C1 , is positive (+ve)
dx
dy
at point C, is zero (0)
dx

51
5.4 Turning points/Stationary points/Critical points/Extrema ⃝Francis
c Oketch

dy
at point C2 , is positive (+ve)
dx
Summary:

Maximum Minimum Inflection

dy
Sign of when +0− −0+ + 0 + OR − 0 −
dx 
moving through a stationary value      OR 


dy d2 y dy
(2) Second derivative test: first compute and 2
. Now, when passing through point A,
dx dx dx
dy
changes from +ve to -ve i.e., decreases as x increases
dx
d2 y d2 y
is negative (i.e., < 0)
dx2 dx2
dy dy
Similarly, when passing through point B, changes from -ve to +ve i.e., increases as x
dx dx
increases
d2 y d2 y
is positive (i.e., > 0)
dx2 dx2
Summary:

Maximum Minimum Inflection

d2 y
Sign of at negative positive zero
dx2 ( ) ( ) ( )
d2 y d2 y d2 y
a turning point i.e., <0 i.e., >0 i.e., =0
dx2 dx2 dx2

In summary, the steps for finding critical points are?

i) Find the first derivative

ii) Equate the first derivative to zero

iii) Solve the equation to get the turning points

iv) Use the second derivative test to check whether the points you found are maxima or minima or
points of inflection.

Example(s):

1. Find the stationary points on the following curves and classify them.

(a) y = x4 + 4x3 − 6.

Solution
Differentiating the given curve, we obtain

dy d2 y
= 4x3 + 12x2 and = 12x2 + 24x
dx dx2
dy
At a stationary point, = 0, i.e., 4x3 + 12x2 = 0. Solving yields x = 0 or x = −3. The
dx
value of y at x = 0 is y = (0)4 + 4(0)3 − 6 = −6. Similarly, the value of y at x = −3 is
y = (−3)4 + 4(−3)3 − 6 = −33. So the turning points are (0, −6) and (−3, −33). Using the
second derivative test, we classify the points as follows:

52
5.4 Turning points/Stationary points/Critical points/Extrema ⃝Francis
c Oketch

d2 y
 When x = −3, we have = 12(−3)2 + 24(−3) = 36 > 0. Therefore, the point
dx2
(−3, −33) is a minimum point.
d2 y
 When x = 0, we have 2 = 12(0)2 + 24(0) = 0. Therefore, the point (0, −6) is a point
dx
of inflection.
(b) y = x2 (x + 1).

Solution
Differentiating the given curve, we obtain

dy d2 y
= 3x2 + 2x and = 6x + 2
dx dx2
2
At a stationary point, 3x2 +2x = 0. Solving yields x = 0 or x = − . The value of y at x = 0
( 3 )2 ( )
2 2 2 4
is y = (0) (0 + 1) = 0. Also, The value of y at x = − is y = −
2 − + 1 = . So
( ) 3 3 3 27
2 4
the turning points are (0, 0) and − , . Using the second derivative test, we classify
3 27
the points as follows:
d2 y
 When x = 0, we have = 6(0) + 2 = 2 > 0. Therefore, (0, 0) is a minimum point.
dx2 ( ) ( )
2 d2 y 2 2 4
 When x = − , we have = 6 − + 2 = −2 < 0. Therefore, − , is a
3 dx2 3 3 27
maximum point.

Exercise:

1. Find the maximum and minimum values of the function y = 2 sin θ + cos 2θ. [ans: max point
π 3 π
( , ), min point ( , 1)]
6 2 2
2. Find the turning points and point of inflection on the curve y = x5 − 5x4 + 5x3 − 1. [ans: max
point (1, 0), min point (3, −28), point of inflection (0,-1)]

3. Find and classify all the points on the curve y = 3x4 − 8x3 − 24x2 + 96x at which the tangent
to the curve is parallel to the x−axis.

4. Find and classify the stationary points of the following functions.

i) y = 3x5 + 6x4 − 4x3 + 1.

ii) f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 + 1.
1 1
iii) f (x) = x4 − x3 − 6x2 . [ans: stationary points at x = −3, 0, 4]
4 3
a2
5. Show that the curve y = a sec θ − b tan θ has a minimum value if √ > 0.
a2 − b2
6. Find the inflection points in the interval [0, 2π] of the function f (x) = 2 sin x − sin x cos x. [ans:
6 , −0.57)]
(0, 0), ( π6 , 0.57), (π, 0), ( 11π

 Areas where the concept of maxima and minima is applied

5.4.1 Optimization

Example(s):

53
5.4 Turning points/Stationary points/Critical points/Extrema ⃝Francis
c Oketch

1. A box with a square base and an open top is to have volume 62.5 in3 . Neglect the thickness of
the material used to make the box, and find the dimensions that will minimize the amount of
material used.

Solution

Let the base width be x in. Thus, the height is

62.5
in. The surface area is given by
x2
( )
62.5 250
A = x2 + 4x = x2 +
x2 x

dA 250 d2 A 500
Thus, = 2x − 2 and 2
=2+ 3 .
dx x dx x
dA 250
For maximum or minimum area, = 0. That is, 2x − 2 = 0. Solving yields x = 5. At
dx x
d2 A 500
x = 5, 2
= 2+ = 6 > 0. Therefore, the box has a minimum area when its base is 5 in
dx (5)3
62.5
by 5 in and height is = 2.5 in.
(5)2
2. Find the height of the right circular cylinder of greatest volume which can be cut from a sphere
of radius a.

Solution

Let the radius of the cylinder be r and its height

be h. From triangle OBX, Pythagoras theorem
yields
h2
r2 + = a2
4
h2
Thus, r2 = a2 − . The volume of the cylinder
4
is given by
( ) ( )
h2 h3
V = πr h = π a −
2 2
h=π a h−2
4 4
( )
dV 3 d2 V 3 dV
Thus, = π a2 − h2 and 2
= − πh. For maximum or minimum volume, = 0.
dh ( )4 dh 2 dh
3 2a 2
2a d V 3πa
That is, π a2 − h2 = 0. Solving yields h = √ . At h = √ , 2
= − √ < 0. Therefore,
4 3 3 dh 3
2a
the cylinder has a maximum volume when its height is √ .
3
3. Find the values of x and y that will maximize the function f (x, y) = xy subject to the constraint
4x + 2y = 40.

Solution
Given 4x + 2y = 40, we have y = 20 − 2x. Substituting into f (x, y) = xy, we get
f (x) = x(20 − 2x) = 20x − 2x2
Differentiating with respect to x, we have f ′ (x) = 20 − 4x. At maxima or minima, f ′ (x) = 0,
i.e., 20 − 4x = 0 ⇒ x = 5. Substituting into the given constraint, we get y = 10. To classify
the optimal value, we use second derivative test. Now, f ′′ (x) = −4 < 0. Therefore, x = 5 and
y = 10 will maximize xy.

54
5.4 Turning points/Stationary points/Critical points/Extrema ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Exercise:

1. Find the height of the right circular cone of maximum volume, given that the sum of the height
and radius of the base is 0.12m [ans: h = 0.04m]

2. Find the dimensions of the rectangle of greatest area which can be inscribed in a circle of radius
√
r. [ans: a square of side 2r]

3. (a) A manufacturer wants to design an open box having square base and surface area of 108
square meters. Find the dimensions of the box that will give maximum volume. [hint:
x 3
x2 + 4xh = 108, V = 27x − , ans: length x= 6m and height h= 3m]
4
(b) An open box is to be made from a twelve-inch by twelve-inch square piece of material by
cutting equal squares from the corners and turning up the sides. Find the volume of the
largest box that can be made. [ans: V = 128in3 ]

4. ABCD is a square ploughed field of side 132m, with a path along its perimeter. A man can walk
at 8 km/h along the path, but only at 5 km/h across the field. He starts from A along AB,
leaves AB at a point P, and walks straight from P to C. Find the distance of P from A, if the
time taken is the least possible.

5. (a) Choose x and y to maximize xy subject to the constraint 3x + y = 60. (Note: you do not
need to confirm that your solution is a maximum).
(b) Choose x and y to maximize xy 2 subject to the constraint x + y = 200. [ans: x = 200/3
and y = 400/3]

6. Coughing forces the trachea (windpipe) to contract, which in turn affects the velocity of the air
through the trachea. The velocity of the air during coughing can be modeled by

v = k(R − r)r2 , 0 ≤ r < R

where k is a positive constant, R is the normal radius of the trachea, and r is the radius during
2
coughing. What radius r will produce the maximum air velocity? [ans: r = R]
3
7. A rectangular solid with a square base has a surface area of 121.5 square centimeters. (Let w
represent the width of the sides of the square base and let h represent the height of the solid.)

(a) Determine the dimensions (in cm) that yield the maximum volume. [ans: w = 4.5cm and
h = 4.5cm]
(b) Find the maximum volume (in cm3). [ans: V = 91.125cm3 ]

8. A rectangular solid with a square base has a volume of 1,728 cubic inches. (Let w represent the
length of the sides of the square base and let h represent the height of the solid.)

(a) Determine the dimensions (in inches) that yield the minimum surface area. [ans: w = 12in
and h = 12in]
(b) Find the minimum surface area (in in.2 ). [ans: S = 864in2 ]

9. A campground owner plans to enclose a rectangular field adjacent to a river. The owner wants the
field to contain 125,000 square meters. No fencing is required along the river. What dimensions
(in meters) will use the least amount of fencing? [ans: l = 500m and w = 250m]

10. A storage box with a square base must have a volume of 128 cubic centimeters. The top and
bottom cost $0.40 per square centimeter and the sides cost $0.20 per square centimeter. Find
the dimensions that will minimize cost. (Let x represent the length of the sides of the square
base and let y represent the height.) [ans: x = 4cm and y = 8cm]

55
5.4 Turning points/Stationary points/Critical points/Extrema ⃝Francis
c Oketch

5.4.2 Economics: cost, revenue and profit

 The cost function, C(x), is the total cost incurred in producing x units of a commodity. It is
given by the sum of the fixed costs and variable cost.
→ Note: The fixed cost is determined when zero units are produced.

 Marginal cost (MC) is the rate of change of the total cost function with respect to the number
dC
of units produced, i.e., MC = . It represents the extra cost incurred in producing one extra
dx
unit of a commodity when the level of production is already at x.
C(x)
 Average cost (AC or C(x)) is given by C(x) = .
x
 Revenue function, R(x), is the (total) revenue received when x units of a given commodity are
produced and sold at a unit price p(x) (or the demand function). Thus, R(x) = x · p(x), where
x is the number of units produced and sold. Note that the supply function is given by x = f (p).
dR
 Marginal revenue, MR = .
dx
R(x)
 Average revenue (AR or R(x)) is given by R(x) = .
x
 Profit function, P (x) or Π(x), is given by total revenue minus total cost, i.e., P (x) = R(x)−C(x).
dP
 Marginal profit, MP = .
dx
P (x)
 Average profit (AP or P (x)) is given by P (x) = .
x
dC dR dP
At maxima or minima, we have MC = = 0, or MR = = 0 or MP = = 0. The values of
dx dx dx
x which satisfy these equations are the critical points (or the optimizing level of production).

→ Note:

 Break-even point refers to the point in which total cost incurred and total revenue earned are
equal, i.e., the value(s) of x for which C(x) = R(x).
d2 P
 Point of diminishing returns refers to the point (x, P (x)) in which = 0.
dx2

Example(s):

1. In marketing a certain commodity, a business has discovered that the demand for the commodity
50
is represented by p(x) = √ . The cost of producing x units of the commodity is given by
x
C(x) = 0.5x + 500. Find the price per unit that will yield maximum profit. (Note: p is in
dollars)

Solution
The profit function is given by
50 √
P (x) = xp(x) − C(x) = x √ − (0.5x + 500) = 50 x − 0.5x − 500
x

dP 25 dP
The marginal profit (MP) is given by MP = = √ − 0.5. At maxima or mimima, = 0.
dx x dx
That is,
25
√ − 0.5 = 0 ⇒ x = 2500
x

56
5.4 Turning points/Stationary points/Critical points/Extrema ⃝Francis
c Oketch

d2 P
We need to test if this value of x will lead to maximum profit. Now, = −12.5x−3/2 . When
dx2
x = 2500, P ′′ (x) = −12.5(2500)−3/2 = −0.0001 < 0. Hence, the business will realize maximum
profit if 2500 units of the commodity are produced. The optimal price per unit (demand) is
50 50
p(2500) = √ = = 1 dollar.
2500 50
2. A certain company faces market demand given by p = 48 − 3x. This company has total cost
given by C(x) = 2x2 − 12x + 100. Find:

(a) Price when revenue is maximized. [hint: R(x) = xp = 48x − 3x2 , ans: p = 24]
(b) Revenue when cost is maximized. [ans: R(3) = 117]
(c) Maximum possible profit. [hint: P (x) = −5x2 + 60x − 100, ans: P (6) = 80]
(d) How many items should be produced and sold in order to break-even. [hint: R(x) = C(x),
ans: x = 2 and x = 10]

3. A monopolist faces the demand function p = 200 − x. The total cost is C = 100 − 40x + 5x2 .

(a) Write down the monopolist’s profit as a function of the quantity produced x.
(b) Find the profit-maximizing level of production and confirm that your solution is a
maximum.
(c) How does the profit-maximizing level of production change if the government imposes a
lump sum tax of L dollars per each unit sold?

Solution

(a) Given x = 200 − p, we have p = 200 − x. The profit function is given by

( )
P (x) = xp(x) − C(x) = x(200 − x) − 100 − 40x + 5x2 = −6x2 + 240x − 100

dP
(b) The marginal profit (MP) is given by MP = = −12x + 240. At maxima or minima,
dx
dP
= 0. That is,
dx
−12x + 240 = 0 ⇒ x = 20
d2 P
We need to test if this value of x will lead to maximum profit. Now, = −12 < 0.
dx2
Hence, the business will realize maximum profit if 20 units of the commodity are produced.
(c) Since the government imposes a lump tax of L per each unit sold, the total tax bill is given
by
T = Lx
The profit function, given a lump sum tax L, is given by P = −6x2 + 240x − 100 − T , i.e.,

P = −6x2 + 240x − 100 − Lx

dP
At maximum or minimum, = 0. That is, −12x + 240 − L = 0.
dx
L
⇒ x = 20 −
12
This is the optimal level of production. The government raises a total tax bill of
( )
L L2
T = Lx = L 20 − ⇒ T = 20L −
12 12

57
5.4 Turning points/Stationary points/Critical points/Extrema ⃝Francis
c Oketch

dT L
Differentiating with respect to L, we have = 20 − . To maximize the government’s
dL 6
dT
tax revenue, then = 0. That is,
dL
L
20 − =0 ⇒ L = 120
6
d2 T 1
Thus, L = 120 maximizes the government’s tax revenue since 2
= − < 0. Therefore,
dL 6
L 120
the new profit-maximizing level of production is x = 20 − = 20 − = 10 units.
12 12

Exercise:
1. For a production level of x units of a commodity, the cost function is C(x) = 100 + 30x and the
demand function is p(x) = 90 − x. What price p will maximize profit?

Solution
The profit function is given by

P (x) = xp(x) − C(x) = x(90 − x) − (100 + 30x) = 90x − x2 − 100 − 30x = 60x − x2 − 100
dP dP
The marginal profit (MP) is given by MP = = 60 − 2x. At maxima or minima, = 0.
dx dx
That is,
60 − 2x = 0 ⇒ x = 30
d2 P
Now, = −2. When x = 30, P ′′ (x) = −2 < 0. Hence, the profit-maximizing level of
dx2
production x = 30 units. Therefore, the optimal unit price is p(30) = 90 − 30 = 60 dollars.

2. A monopolist faces the demand function given by x = 10 − 0.5p, where x is the number of units
produced and sold at price p dollars per unit. The total cost incurred consists of a fixed overhead
of 28 dollars plus production cost of 2 dollars per unit of x. [hint: C(x) = 2x + 28]

(a) Write down the monopolist’s profit as a function of the quantity produced x.
(b) Find the profit-maximizing level of production and confirm that your solution is a
maximum.
(c) Find the break-even points. What is the slope of the profit function at each of the break-
even points?
(d) Assume now that the government imposes a fixed tax of t dollars per each unit sold. What
t maximises the government’s tax revenue?

3. A manufacturer estimates that if x units of a particular commodity are produced, the total cost
will be C(x) dollars, where C(x) = x3 − 24x2 + 350x + 338.

(a) At what level of production will the marginal cost be minimized?

(b) At what level of production will the average cost be minimized?

4. A manufacturer estimates that if q units of a particular commodity are produced, the total
cost incurred will be C(q) dollars and the total revenue earned will be R(q) dollars, where
C(q) = q 3 − 6q 2 + 140q + 750 and R(q) = 1400q − 7.5q 2 .

(a) What will be the maximum profit? [ans: Π(20) = 15850 dollars]
(b) What will be the quantity demanded when the market price is set at 275 dollars per unit
R(q)
of the commodity? [hint: demand p = = 1400 − 7.5q, ans: q = 150 units]
q
5. A manufacturer can produce digital recorders at a cost of 70 dollars each. It is estimated that if
the recorders are sold for p dollars each, consumers will buy x = 120 − p recorders each month.

58
5.4 Turning points/Stationary points/Critical points/Extrema ⃝Francis
c Oketch

(a) Express the manufacturer’s profit P as a function of x. [ans: P (x) = 50x − x2 ]

(b) What is the average rate of change in profit obtained as the level of production increases
P (20) − P (0)
from x = 0 to x = 20 recorders. [ans: = = 30]
20 − 0
(c) At what rate is profit changing when x = 20 recorders are produced? Is the profit increasing
or decreasing at this level of production? [ans: P ′ (20) = 10, increasing]

6. Consider the two functions f (x) and g(x) where 0 ≤ x ≤ 12 represents the number of items
(in thousands) sold by a certain small business and both f and g are in thousands of dollars.
The graphs of f (curve in red) and g (line in blue) are given below. One of these two functions
represents the total costs, and the other the total revenue. All we know so far is that the fixed
costs are nonzero.

(a) How much is the fixed costs? How much is each item being sold for? Explain.
(b) Approximate f ′ (4) and interpret its meaning. [hint: f ′ (4) = f (5) − f (4)]
(c) How many items (approximately) should the company produce and sell in order to break-
even? Explain briefly.
(d) Using the graph, approximate the maximum profit. Briefly explain.
(e) Copy the functions and sketch a rough graph of the profit function.

7. Student Government at a University is chartering a plane for Spring Break. The plane can seat
150 passengers. The airline will charge $120 per passenger and added to this a surcharge of $15
per passenger for each unsold seat. Let x represent the number of unsold seats.

(a) Find the revenue function R(x). [ans: R(x) = (150 − x)(120 + 15x)]
(b) How many seats should be unused to maximize the airline’s revenue.
(c) What price would each passenger pay if the airline maximized its revenue?
(d) Is this a good deal for the Student Government?

8. You have a business that sells phone chargers. You know that the cost of producing x units
is C = 200 + 40x. In order to sell x units, you also know that you need to set the price at
p = 90 − 2x dollars. Find the price for which the profit is maximized. [ans: p = 65 dollars]
1
9. The weekly demand function for x units of a product sold by a firm is p = 400 − x dollars, and
2
the average cost of production is AC = 100 + 2x dollars.

(a) Find the quantity that will maximize profit. [ans: x = 30]
(b) Find the selling price at this optimal quantity. [ans: p = 370 dollars per unit]
(c) What is the maximum profit? [ans: P (30) = 9000 dollars]

59
5.4 Turning points/Stationary points/Critical points/Extrema ⃝Francis
c Oketch

10. When a wholesaler sold a product at $40 per unit, sales were 180 units per week. After a price
increase of $5 per unit, however, the average number of units sold dropped to 165 per week.
Assuming that the demand function is linear, what price per unit will yield a maximum total
1
revenue? [hint: demand function p = − x + 100, ans: p(150) = 50]
3

5.4.3 Kinematics
The motion of a particle P along a straight line is completely described by the equation S = f (t),
where t > 0 is time and S is the distance of P from a fixed point O in its path. The velocity of P at
dS
time t is V = .
dt
 If V > 0, P is moving in the direction of increasing S.

 If V < 0, P is moving in the direction of decreasing S.

 If V = 0, P is instantaneously at rest.
dV d2 S
The acceleration of P at time t is a = = 2.
dt dt
 If a > 0, V is increasing.

 If a < 0, V is decreasing.

 If V and a have the same sign, the speed of P is increasing.

 If V and a have the opposite signs, the speed of P is decreasing.

Example(s):
1. A body moves along a straight line according to the law S = t3 − 6t2 + 9t + 4. Find

(a) S and a when V = 0

(b) S and V when a = 0
(c) when is S increasing?

Solution
dS dV
(a) = V = 3t2 − 12t + 9 = 3(t − 1)(t − 3) and a = = 6t − 12 = 6(t − 2). When V = 0,
dt dt
t = 1 or t = 3.
 When t = 1, S = (1)3 − 6(1)2 + 9(1) + 4 = 8 and a = 6(1 − 2) = −6.
 When t = 3, S = (3)3 − 6(3)2 + 9(3) + 4 = 4 and a = 6(3 − 2) = 6.
(b) When a = 0, we have 6(t − 2) = 0 ⇒ t = 2. When t = 2, S = (2)3 − 6(2)2 + 9(2) + 4 = 6
and V = 3(2 − 1)(2 − 3) = −3
(c) S is increasing when V > 0 i.e., when t < 1 and t > 3.

2. A body moves in a straight line so that the distance moved S metres is given in terms of the
time t seconds by S = t3 − t2 . Find an expression for the acceleration of the body at time t and
find the times at which the body is at rest.

Solution
dS d2 S dV
= V = 3t2 − 2t and 2
= = a = 6t − 2. The body is at rest when V = 0, i.e.,
dt dt dt
2
3t2 − 2t = 0 ⇒ t = 0 or t = seconds.
3
3. The distance S moved in a straight line by a particle in time t is given by S = bt2 + ct + d, where
b, c and d are constants. If V is the velocity of the particle at time t, show that 4b(S−d) = V 2 −c2 .

60
5.4 Turning points/Stationary points/Critical points/Extrema ⃝Francis
c Oketch

dS
Proof. V = = 2bt + c. Now,
dt
4b(S − d) = 4b(bt2 + ct + d − d) = 4b2 t2 + 4bct) = (2bt + c)2 − b2
= V 2 − c2

Exercise:

1. The displacement S at time t of a moving particle is given by √

S = b sin 2t + c cos 2t, where b and
c are constants. If V is the speed at time t, prove that V = 2 b2 + c2 − S 2 .

2. A particle moves in a horizontal line according to the law S = t4 − 6t3 + 12t2 − 10t + 3. Find

(a) the velocity and acceleration

(b) the time when the particle is at rest

3. If the velocity of a body varies inversely as the square root of the distance, prove that the
acceleration varies as the fourth power of the velocity.

4. A body moves in a straight line so that its distance S meters from a fixed point O at time t
seconds is given by S = (t − 2)2 (2t − 7). Find the time when the body passes through point O
and the acceleration each time it passes through point O.

5. The velocity V m/s of a particle which has traveled a distance S metres from a fixed point is
given by V 2 = 16S. Find the acceleration of the particle.

6. A ball is thrown vertically upwards so that its height S metres after t seconds is given by
1 √
S = t2 + 4 t. Find its:
27
i) velocity at any time t.
ii) acceleration when t = 1.
iii) maximum height reached.

7. The distance traveled by a projectile at any time t seconds is given by S = 4t3 + 3t + 2 feet.
Find the velocity and acceleration after 1 second. [ans: velocity = 15 ft/s, acceleration = 24
2
ft/s ]

61
 ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Lecture 11

6 Introduction to integration
Definition 6.1 (Integration). Integration is the reverse process of differentiation.
dy
Suppose = f (x). To obtain y, we integrate the function f (x) with respect to the independent
dx
variable x. This is put in notation form as
∫
y= .
f (x)dx +C ,

where C is a constant of integration and f (x) is the integrand. For example,

∫
dy
 If = cos x, then y = cos xdx = sin x + C.
dx
The following are some important results of integration, based on the definition of integration as the
reverse process of differentiation.
∫ ∫
xn+1
(1) 1dx = x + C (2) xn dx = + C, for n ̸= −1
∫ ∫ n+1
1
(3) dx = ln |x| + C (4) ex dx = ex + C
∫ x ∫
sin(kx) cos(kx)
(5) cos(kx)dx = + C, for k ̸= 0 (6) sin(kx)dx = − + C, for k ̸= 0
∫ k ∫ k
(7) sec2 xdx = tan x + C (8) cosec2 xdx = − cot x + C
∫ ∫
(9) sec x tan xdx = sec x + C (10) cosec x cot xdx = −cosec x + C

These types of integrals are called indefinite since they lack limits of integration.

6.1 Techniques of integration

6.1.1 Power rule of integration
∫
xn+1 .
xn dx = + C, for n ̸= −1 ,
n+1
where C is a constant of integration.

Example(s):
∫
x3+1 x4
(a) x3 dx = +C = + C.
3+1 4
∫
x−7+1 x−6
(b) x−7 dx = +C =− + C.
−7 + 1 6
∫ ∫ 1
√ x 2 +1 2
(c) xdx = x1/2 dx = 1 + C = x3/2 + C.
2 +1
3
∫ ∫
x2 x3 x2
(d) x(1 − 3x)dx = (x − 3x2 )dx = −3· = − x3 + C.
2 3 2
∫ ∫
4
(e) (2x − 3) dx =
2
(4x2 − 12x + 9)dx = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + C.
3
(f)
∫ √ √ ∫ ( 1/2 ) ∫ ( )
x+ 3x+6 x x1/3 6 − 32 − 53 −2
dx = + + dx = x + x + 6x dx
x2 x2 x2 x2
3 2
= −2x− 2 − x− 3 − 6x−1 + C
1

62
6.1 Techniques of integration ⃝Francis
c Oketch

∫
x3
(g) dx.
x+1

Solution
Since the degree of the polynomial in the numerator is greater than that in the denominator,
long division yields

x2 − x + 1
)
x+1 x3
− x3 − x2
− x2
x2 + x
x
−x−1
−1
Therefore,
∫ ∫ ( )
x3 1 x3 x2
dx = x2 − x + 1 − dx = − + x − ln |x + 1| + C
x+1 x+1 3 2
6.1.2 The u-substitution method
This technique requires that a new variable, say u, be introduced in the integrand to reduce the
problem to a form in which the power rule of integration can be applied.

Example(s):
∫
(a) Evaluate (2x + 1)1/3 dx.

Solution
du du
Let u = 2x + 1. Differentiating with respect to x yields =2 ⇒ dx = . Substituting
dx 2
into the given integral, we get
∫ ∫ ∫ [ ]
1/3 1/3 du 1 1/3 1 3 4/3 3
(2x + 1) dx = u = u du = u + C = (2x + 1)4/3 + C
2 2 2 4 8
∫
x
(b) Evaluate dx.
(1 − x2 )3

Solution
du du
Let u = 1 − x2 . Differentiating with respect to x yields = −2x ⇒ dx = − .
dx 2x
Substituting into the given integral, we get
∫ ∫ ( ) ∫ [ ]
x x du 1 −3 1 1 −2 1
dx = − =− u du = − u + C = (1 − x2 )−2 + C
(1 − x2 )3 u3 2x 2 2 −2 4
∫
(c) Evaluate 5x(1 + 3x)5 dx.

Solution
du du
Let u = 1 + 3x. Differentiating with respect to x yields = 3. Therefore, dx = and
dx 3
1
x = (u − 1). Substituting into the given integral, we get
3
∫ ∫ ( ) ∫ [ ]
5 du 5 ( 6 ) 5 1 7 1 6
5x(1 + 3x)3 dx = (u − 1) u5 = u − u5 du = u − u +C
3 3 9 9 7 6
[ ]
5 1 1
= (1 + 3x)7 − (1 + 3x)6 + C
9 7 6

63
6.1 Techniques of integration ⃝Francis
c Oketch

∫
(d) Evaluate sec2 (5x + 1)dx.

Solution
du du
Let u = 5x + 1. Differentiating with respect to x yields =5 ⇒ dx = . Substituting
dx 5
into the given integral, we get
∫ ∫ ( ) ∫
du 1 1 1
sec2 (5x + 1)dx = sec2 (u) = sec2 (u)du = tan u + C = tan(5x + 1) + C
5 5 5 5

Exercise:

1. Evaluate the following integrals

∫
1
(a) (7x − 2)3 dx. [hint: put u = 7x − 2, ans: = (7x − 2)4 + C]
28
∫ √ 1
(b) 3x 1 + 2x2 dx. [hint: put u = 1 + 2x2 , ans: = (1 + 2x2 )3/2 + C]
2
∫
1 −1
(c) dx. [hint: put u = x + 1, ans: = + C]
(x + 1)2 x+1
∫
1
(d) (3x + 5)−2 dx. [hint: put u = 3x + 5, ans: = − (3x + 5)−1 + C]
3
∫ ( ) ( )
x−1 x−1
(e) cosec2 dx. [hint: put u = , ans: = −3 cot x−1
3 + C]
3 3
∫
(ln x)2 1
(f) dx. [hint: put u = ln x, ans: = (ln x)3 + C]
x 3
∫
1
(g) x(3 − 5x2 )4 dx. [hint: put u = 3 − 5x2 , ans: = − (3 − 5x2 )5 + C]
50
∫
x+1 5
(h) √
5
dx. [hint: put u = x2 + 2x + 7, ans: = (x2 + 2x + 7)4/5 + C]
x2+ 2x + 7 8
∫ ( )
1 (2 + 3x)6 2(2 + 3x)5
(i) x(2 + 3x) dx.4
[hint: put u = 2 + 3x, ans: = − + C]
3 18 15
∫
1 ( )4
(j) x2 (1 + 4x3 )3 dx. 1 + 4x3 + C]
[hint: put u = 1 + 4x3 , ans: =
48
∫
1 √ 2 √ −3
(k) √ √ 4 dx. [hint: put u = 1 + x, ans: = − (1 + x) + C]
x (1 + x) 3
6
2. If the marginal revenue function for output x is given by M R = + 5, find the total
(x + 2)2
6
revenue function and the demand equation. [hint: R(0) = 0, ans: revenue R(x) = − + 5x,
x+2
R(x)
demand p = ]
x

64