Matrices

A set of mn numbers arranged in the form of an ordered set of m rows and n

columns is called 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix.
Thus 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix A is written as
𝑎 𝑎 … 𝑎
𝑎 𝑎 … 𝑎
𝐴=
… … … …
𝑎 𝑎 … 𝑎
or 𝐴 = 𝑎 : i=1, 2, …, m and j=1, 2, …, n
or 𝐴 = 𝑎
×
where aij represents the element at the intersection of ith row and jth column.

Types of Matrices
i. Square Matrix:
Number of rows = Number of columns
𝑚=𝑛
ii. Diagonal Matrix:
In a square matrix, all those elements aij for which 𝑖 = 𝑗 , i.e., a11, a22,
a33, etc. are called the diagonal elements and the line along which they
lie is called the principal diagonal.
The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix A is called trace of
A and is denoted as tr(A).
A square matrix is said to be diagonal matrix if all its non-diagonal
elements be zero, i.e., 𝑎 = 0 for all 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗.
1 0 0 𝑑 0 0
Thus 0 4 0 or 0 𝑑 0
0 0 8 0 0 𝑑
Above are diagonal matrices of the type 3 × 3. The shorthand notation
is:
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔 [1, 4, 8] or 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔 [𝑑 , 𝑑 , 𝑑 ]
iii. Scalar Matrix:
A diagonal matrix whose all the diagonal elements are equal is called a
scalar matrix.
iv. Identity Matrix:
A diagonal matrix whose all the diagonal elements are unity is called an
identity matrix or unit matrix. It is denoted by 𝐼 where n denotes the
order of the matrix.
 v. Null Matrix:
Any 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix in which all the elements are zero is called a zero
matrix or null matrix of the type 𝑚 × 𝑛 and is denoted by 𝑂 × .
vi. Equality of Matrices:
Two matrices are said to be equal if all of the following conditions are
met:
a. Each matrix has the same number of rows
b. Each matrix has the same number of columns
c. Corresponding elements within each matrix are equal
vii. Scalar multiple of matrix:
If A be a given matrix and k is any real scalar number. Then matrix kA is
defined as the matrix whose all the elements are k times the
corresponding elements of A.
1 2
If 𝐴 =
3 3
3×1 3×2
Then 3𝐴 =
3×3 3×3
3 6
 3𝐴 =
9 9
viii. Idempotent Matrix
A matrix A is said to be Idempotent if 𝐴 = 𝐴
ix. Nilpotent Matrix
A matrix A is said to be Nilpotent if 𝐴 = 𝑂 (null matrix) where k is a
positive integer. If, however, k is the least positive integer for which
𝐴 = 𝑂, then k is the index of the nilpotent matrix.
x. Involuntary Matrix
A matrix A is said to be Involuntary if 𝐴 = 𝐼 (unit matrix)

Sum (or Difference) of Matrices

Two matrices A and B can be added or subtracted if and only if both of them are
of the type 𝑚 × 𝑛. If 𝐶 = 𝐴 ± 𝐵 then 𝑐 = 𝑎 ± 𝑏 .

Properties of Matrix Addition

i. 𝐴+𝐵 = 𝐵+𝐴
ii. 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 + 𝐵 ) + 𝐶
Matrix Multiplication
If A and B be two matrices then their product is defined if the number of columns
of A is same as the number of rows in B, i.e., if A be 𝑚 × 𝑝 and B be 𝑝 × 𝑛 then
the matrix AB will be of the type 𝑚 × 𝑛.

It is to be noted that existence of the matrix AB does not necessarily guarantee the
existence of the matrix BA.

Another point to be kept in mind is that the existence of both the matrices AB and
BA does not mean that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴.
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
i. Distributive with respect to addition of matrices,
i.e., 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
ii. Associative if conformability is assured, i.e., 𝐴(𝐵𝐶 ) = (𝐴𝐵)𝐶
iii. Not always commutative, i.e., 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 may hold or may not hold.
iv. Multiplication by a null matrix results in a null matrix, i.e., 𝐴𝑂 = 𝑂.
v. Multiplication by an identity matrix results in a original matrix, i.e.,
𝐴𝐼 = 𝐴
vi. If 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂, then it does not necessarily mean that 𝐴 = 𝑂 or 𝐵 = 𝑂 or
both are 𝑂.

Matrix Multiplication Process

5 6
1 2 7
Let 𝐴 = and 𝐵 = 4 9
1 5 8
2 5
Note that A is of the type 2 × 3 and B is of the type 3 × 2. Thus, multiplication
of matrices is feasible in the order 𝐴𝐵 which is a 2 × 2 matrix and also in the order
𝐵𝐴 which is a 3 × 3 matrix.
Let 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵
𝑅1𝐶1 𝑅1𝐶2
𝐶=
𝑅2𝐶1 𝑅2𝐶2
Where 𝑅𝑖𝐶𝑗 means sum of element-by-element multiplication of Rth row of
matrix A with Cth column of matrix B.
𝑅1𝐶1 = (1 ∙ 5) + (2 ∙ 4) + (7 ∙ 2) = 27
𝑅1𝐶2 = (1 ∙ 6) + (2 ∙ 9) + (7 ∙ 5) = 59
𝑅2𝐶1 = (1 ∙ 5) + (5 ∙ 4) + (8 ∙ 2) = 41
𝑅2𝐶2 = (1 ∙ 6) + (5 ∙ 9) + (8 ∙ 5) = 91
Thus
27 59
𝐶=
41 91

Determinant of a Matrix
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
Let 𝐴 = 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 , then determinant of A, denoted as |𝐴|, is calculated in the
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
following manner:
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
|𝐴| = 𝑎 −𝑎 +𝑎
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
where
𝑏 𝑏
= (𝑏 × 𝑐 ) − (𝑏 × 𝑐 )
𝑐 𝑐
𝑏 𝑏
= (𝑏 × 𝑐 ) − (𝑏 × 𝑐 )
𝑐 𝑐
𝑏 𝑏
= (𝑏 × 𝑐 ) − (𝑏 × 𝑐 )
𝑐 𝑐

It is important to note that only square matrices have determinants.

Let A and C be two square matrices of order n such that 𝐶 = 𝑘𝐴, where k is any
scalar.
Then,
|𝐶 | = 𝑘 |𝐴|

Note: Properties of determinants will be discussed later

Transpose of a Matrix
If A be a given matrix of type 𝑚 × 𝑛 then the matrix obtained by changing rows
of A in columns and columns of A into rows is called Transpose of matrix A and
is denoted by AT. The transpose matrix of A will be of the type 𝑛 × 𝑚.

Properties of Transpose
i. (AT)T=A
ii. (kA)T=kAT where k is a scalar
iii. (A+B)T=AT+BT
iv. (ABC)T=CTBTAT
Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix A will be called Symmetric if for all values of i and j, aij = aji.
Thus, for a symmetric matrix, AT=A.

Skew-symmetric Matrix
A square matrix A will be called Skew-symmetric if for all values of i and j, aij
= –aji.
Thus, for a skew-symmetric matrix, AT= –A.

Any square matrix A can be represented as the sum of a symmetric and a skew-
symmetric matrix.

1 1
𝐴= (𝐴 + 𝐴 ) + (𝐴 − 𝐴 )
2 2
𝑆𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑤 − 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥

Inverse of a Matrix
If A and B are two n-squared matrices such that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼 , then it is said
that 𝐵 = 𝐴 , i.e., B is equal to the inverse of A.

Properties of Inverse
i. Inverse of the matrix is unique.
ii. Condition for a square matrix A to posses an inverse is that A is non-
singular, i.e.,
|𝐴| ≠ 0
iii. Inverse by the help of adjoint:
1
𝐴 = (𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴)
|𝐴|
iv. If A be non-singular and 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶, then 𝐵 = 𝐶, where B and C are
square matrices of the same order.
v. (𝐴𝐵) = 𝐵 𝐴
vi. (𝐴 ) = (𝐴 )
vii. 𝑎𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝐵) = (𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐵)(𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴)
viii. |𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴| = |𝐴|
ix. (𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴)𝐴 = 𝐴(𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴) = |𝐴|𝐼
 Elementary Row Operations
Row operations are essentially addition (or subtraction) operations carried out
between two or more rows (or scalar multiplication carried out on the same
row). The operation is carried out on corresponding elements of the rows under
consideration.

Any row operation is denoted as: 𝑅 → 𝑐 𝑅 ± 𝑐 𝑅 … and so on

Example.
Let A be a 3 × 2 matrix as given below.
5 7
𝐴= 2 3
15 11
Then the operation 𝑅 → 𝑅 − 3𝑅 yields the following matrix
5 7 5 7
2 3 ≡ 2 3
15 − 3 ∙ 5 11 − 3 ∙ 7 0 −10

Determinants

Properties
i. The value of the determinant is not altered by transposing the matrix.
ii. If any two adjacent rows or two adjacent columns are interchanged, the
determinant retains its value but changes its sign.
iii. If any two rows or two columns are identical then the value of the
determinant is zero.
iv. The value of a skew-symmetric determinant of odd order is zero.

System of Linear Equations (Solution by Cramer’s Rule)

We consider a system of two linear equations in two variables given as below.

𝑎 𝑥+𝑏 𝑦=𝑐
𝑎 𝑥+𝑏 𝑦=𝑐
We define the following three determinants:
𝑎 𝑏
∆=
𝑎 𝑏
𝑐 𝑏 𝑎 𝑐
∆ = ; ∆ = 𝑎 𝑐
𝑐 𝑏
A. Non-homogeneous equation (𝑐 or 𝑐 or both are not equal to zero)
i. If ∆≠ 0 → System is consistent and the solution is unique and
∆ ∆
given by 𝑥 = and 𝑦 =
∆ ∆
ii. If ∆= 0
a. If ∆ = ∆ = 0 → System is consistent and solution is infinite
b. In any other case, system is inconsistent and hence no solution
exists
B. Homogeneous equation (𝑐 = 𝑐 = 0)
i. If ∆≠ 0 → The solution is unique and trivial (𝑥 = 𝑦 = 0)
ii. If ∆= 0 → The solution is infinite
Note: Homogeneous system of equations is always consistent
 Combinatorial Analysis

Permutations and combinations:

The study of permutations and combinations is concerned with determining the number of different
ways of arranging and selecting objects out of a given number of objects, without actually listing them.

There are some basic counting techniques which will be useful in determining the number of different
ways of arranging or selecting objects.

The two basic counting principles are given below:

Fundamental principle of counting

Suppose an event E can occur in m different ways and associated with each way of occurring of E,
another event F can occur in n different ways, then the total number of occurrence of the two events in
the given order is m × n.

Multiplication principle

Addition principle If an event E can occur in m ways and another event F can occur in n ways, and
suppose that both can not occur together, then E or F can occur in m + n ways.

Permutations

• A permutation is an arrangement of objects in a definite order.

• The number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time, where 0 < r ≤ n, denoted by nPr , is
𝑛!
given by nPr = where n!= ∏𝑛𝑘=1 𝑘
(𝑛−𝑟)!

• some use └ as factorial symbol instead of!

0!=1

1!=1

2!=2

3!= 3x2x1=6
n
Pn = n!

• When repetition of objects is allowed

The number of permutations of n things taken all at a time, when repetition of objects is allowed is nn .
The number of permutations of n objects, taken r at a time, when repetition of objects is allowed, is nr .

• Permutations when the objects are not distinct

 The number of permutations of n objects of which p1 are of one kind, p2 are of second kind, ...,
pk are of k th kind and the rest if any, are of different kinds is
𝑛!
=𝑝 ! 𝑥 𝑝 ! 𝑥 𝑝3 !...𝑥 𝑝𝑘 !
1 2

Combinations:

On many occasions we are not interested in arranging but only in selecting r objects from given n
objects. A combination is a selection of some or all of a number of different objects where the order of
selection is immaterial. The number of selections of r objects from the given n objects is denoted by nCr
𝑛!
, and is given by ncr = 𝑟! 𝑥 (𝑛−𝑟)! =(𝑛𝑟)

1. Use permutations if a problem calls for the number of arrangements of objects and different orders
are to be counted.

2. Use combinations if a problem calls for the number of ways of selecting objects and the order of
selection is not to be counted.

Let n and r be positive integers such that r ≤ n. Then

nC = nC
r n–r

nC + nCr – 1 = n + 1Cr
r

n n – 1Cr – 1 = (n – r + 1) n Cr – 1

circular arrangement:

To calculate the number of ways in which n objects can be arranged in a circle, we arbitrarily fix the
position of one object, so the remaining (n-1) objects can be arranged as if they were on a straight line in
(n-1)! ways.

If the clockwise arrangement is same with that of anti clockwise, then we must divide 2.
290 MATHEMATICS

We already know the formulae for the derivatives of many important functions.
From these formulae, we can write down immediately the corresponding formulae
(referred to as standard formulae) for the integrals of these functions, as listed below
which will be used to find integrals of other functions.
Derivatives Integrals (Anti derivatives)

d ⎛ xn + 1 ⎞ x n +1
⎟=x ; ∫ x dx =
n
(i) ⎜ n
+ C , n ≠ –1
dx ⎝ n + 1 ⎠ n +1
Particularly, we note that
d
( x) = 1 ; ∫ dx = x + C
dx
d
(ii) ( sin x ) = cos x ; ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C
dx
d
(iii) ( – cos x ) = sin x ; ∫ sin x dx = – cos x + C
dx
d
(iv) ( tan x ) = sec2 x ; ∫ sec
2
x dx = tan x + C
dx
d
(v) ( – cot x ) = cosec2 x ; ∫ cosec
2
x dx = – cot x + C
dx
d
(vi) ( sec x ) = sec x tan x ; ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
dx
d
(vii) ( – cosec x ) = cosec x cot x ; ∫ cosec x cot x dx = – cosec x + C
dx
d –1
(
(viii) dx sin x =
1
)
; ∫
dx
= sin – 1 x + C
1 – x2 1– x 2

d
(
–1
(ix) dx – cos x =
1
; ) ∫
dx
= – cos – 1 x + C
1 – x2 1– x 2

d
(
–1
(x) dx tan x =
1
)
1 + x2
;
dx
∫ 1 + x2 = tan
–1
x+C

d
(
–1
(xi) dx – cot x =
1
1 + x2
; ) dx
∫ 1 + x2 = – cot
–1
x+C
 INTEGRALS 291

d
(xii) dx (
sec –1
x =) 1
; ∫x
dx
= sec – 1 x + C
x x2 – 1 2
x –1
d
( –1
(xiii) dx – cosec x =
1
) ; ∫x
dx
= – cosec – 1 x + C
x x2 – 1 2
x –1
d x
(e ) = e x ; ∫ e dx = e +C
x x
(xiv)
dx
d 1 1
(xv) ( log | x |) = ; ∫ x dx = log | x | +C
dx x
d ⎛ ax ⎞ ax
⎟=a ; ∫ a dx = +C
x x
(xvi) ⎜
dx ⎝ log a ⎠ log a

$ Note In practice, we normally do not mention the interval over which the various
functions are defined. However, in any specific problem one has to keep it in mind.
7.2.1 Geometrical interpretation of indefinite integral
Let f (x) = 2x. Then ∫ f (x) dx = x + C . For different values of C, we get different
2

integrals. But these integrals are very similar geometrically.

Thus, y = x2 + C, where C is arbitrary constant, represents a family of integrals. By
assigning different values to C, we get different members of the family. These together
constitute the indefinite integral. In this case, each integral represents a parabola with
its axis along y-axis.
Clearly, for C = 0, we obtain y = x2, a parabola with its vertex on the origin. The
curve y = x2 + 1 for C = 1 is obtained by shifting the parabola y = x2 one unit along
y-axis in positive direction. For C = – 1, y = x2 – 1 is obtained by shifting the parabola
y = x2 one unit along y-axis in the negative direction. Thus, for each positive value of C,
each parabola of the family has its vertex on the positive side of the y-axis and for
negative values of C, each has its vertex along the negative side of the y-axis. Some of
these have been shown in the Fig 7.1.
Let us consider the intersection of all these parabolas by a line x = a. In the Fig 7.1,
we have taken a > 0. The same is true when a < 0. If the line x = a intersects the
parabolas y = x2, y = x2 + 1, y = x2 + 2, y = x2 – 1, y = x2 – 2 at P0, P1, P2, P–1, P–2 etc.,
dy
respectively, then at these points equals 2a. This indicates that the tangents to the
dx
curves at these points are parallel. Thus, ∫ 2 x dx = x + C = FC (x) (say), implies that
2
Differential Calculus
It means computing the instantaneous rate of change (also called derivative) of
one quantity with respect to another. Let there be two quantities x and y such that
y is dependent on x in the following manner:
y = 𝑓 (𝑥 )
Then, the derivative of y with respect to x is defined as follows:
𝑑𝑦 𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ ) − 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = = lim
𝑑𝑥 → ℎ
Fundamental Rules:
Let f and g be functions of x whose derivatives exist and k be any constant.
i. =0
( )
ii. =𝑘
( ± )
iii. = ±
iv. Product Rule:
𝑑 (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 ) 𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑓
=𝑓 +𝑔
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Product Rule when extended to n-number of functions:

𝑑 (𝑓 ∙ 𝑓 ∙ … ∙ 𝑓 ) 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
= (𝑓 ∙ … ∙ 𝑓 ) + (𝑓 ∙ … ∙ 𝑓 ) + ⋯ + (𝑓 ∙ 𝑓 ∙ … ∙ 𝑓 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

v. Quotient Rule:
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑔
𝑑 𝑓 𝑔 −𝑓
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑔 𝑔

vi. Differentiation of function of a function (also called Chain Rule):

Let y = 𝑓(𝑥 ) and 𝑥 = ℎ(𝑡 ) then:

vii. Differentiation of one function with respect to another:

Let y = 𝑓(𝑥 ) and 𝑧 = 𝑔(𝑥 ) then:
viii. Implicit Function:
Let the implicit function be given as ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑘, then differentiate each
term with respect to x and note that:
( )
𝜃 ( 𝑦) = ∙
Standard Results:
( )
i. = 𝑛𝑥
( )
ii. = 𝑚𝑒
( )
iii. = 𝑎 log 𝑎
( )
iv. =

Higher Order Derivatives

And so on.

Maxima and Minima

The following graph represents the U.S. budget surplus (deficit) from 1996 (t =
0) to 2008 (t = 12). The relative maxima and the relative minima of the function f
are indicated on the graph.
A function f has a relative maximum at x = c if there exists an open interval (a,
b) containing c such that f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x in (a, b).

A function f has a relative minimum at x = c if there exists an open interval (a,

b) containing c such that f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x in (a, b).

The figure above depicts the graph of a function f that has a relative maximum at
x = x1 and another at x = x3 and has a relative minimum at x = x2 and another at x
= x4.

Relative maxima and relative minima of a function are referred to as the relative
extrema of that function. Suppose that f is a function that is differentiable on some
interval (a, b) that contains a number c and that f has a relative maximum at x = c.

The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f must change from positive to
negative as we move across x = c from left to right. Therefore, the tangent line to
the graph of f at the point (c, f (c)) must be horizontal; that is, 𝑓 (𝑐)=0.
In a similar manner, it may be shown that the derivative 𝑓 of a differentiable
function f must also be equal to zero at x = c if f has a relative minimum at x = c.
This analysis reveals an important characteristic of the relative extrema of a
differentiable function f :

At any number c where f has a relative extremum, 𝑓 (𝑐)=0.

A critical number of a function f is any number x in the domain of f such that

𝑓 (𝑥)=0 or 𝑓 (𝑥) does not exist.

Method to determine the relative extrema of a continuous function f (also called

First Derivative Test):
A. Determine the critical numbers of f.
B. Determine the sign of 𝑓 (𝑥) to the left and right of each critical number.
i. If 𝑓 (𝑥) changes sign from positive to negative as we move across a
critical number c or 𝑓 (𝑐) < 0, then f has a relative maximum at x
= c.
ii. If 𝑓 (𝑥) changes sign from negative to positive as we move across a
critical number c 𝑓 (𝑐) > 0, then f has a relative minimum at x = c.
iii. If 𝑓 (𝑥) does not change sign as we move across a critical number c
or 𝑓 (𝑐 ) = 0, then f does not have a relative extremum at x = c. This
point c is termed as point of inflection.

Increasing and Decreasing functions

A. If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) > 0 for every value of x in an interval (a, b), then f is increasing
on (a, b).
B. If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) < 0 for every value of x in an interval (a, b), then f is increasing on
(a, b).
C. If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 for every value of x in an interval (a, b), then f is constant on
(a, b).

Method to determine the intervals where a function is increasing or decreasing

A. Find all values of x for which 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 or 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is discontinuous, and
identify the open intervals determined by these numbers.
B. Select a test number c in each interval found in the previous step and
determine the sign of 𝑓 (𝑐) in that interval.
i. If 𝑓 (𝑐 ) > 0, f is increasing on that interval
ii. If 𝑓 (𝑐 ) < 0, f is decreasing on that interval
Partial Differentiation
Suppose 𝑧 = 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) is a function of two variables x and y. The first partial
derivative of f with respect to x at point (x, y) is:
𝜕𝑓 𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ, 𝑦) − 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = = lim
𝜕𝑥 → ℎ
provided that the limit exists.

Similarly, the first partial derivative of f with respect to y at point (x, y) is:
𝜕𝑓 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑘) − 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = = lim
𝜕𝑦 → 𝑘
provided that the limit exists.
Indefinite Integrals
A function F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I if 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) for all x in
I.

Thus, an antiderivative of a function f is a function F whose derivative is f. For

example, 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 is an antiderivative of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 because
𝑑
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
and 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1 is an antiderivative of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 + 2 because
𝑑
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = (𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1) = 3𝑥 + 2 = 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥

The process of finding all antiderivatives of a function is called integration.

The symbol ∫ , called an integral sign, is used to indicate that the operation of
integration is to be performed on some function f. Thus,
𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶
Where C is called the constant of integration.

Fundamental Rules:
i. ∫ 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶 where k is a constant
ii. ∫ 𝑘 ∙ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
iii. ∫[𝑓 (𝑥 ) ± 𝑔(𝑥 )] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
iv. Product Rule (also called Integration by Parts):
Let there be two functions of x, 𝑓 (𝑥 ) and 𝑔(𝑥 ) such that they belong to
one of the following 5 classes of functions (ILATE):
a. Inverse Trigonometric
b. Logarithmic
c. Algebraic
d. Trigonometric
e. Exponential
Among 𝑓 (𝑥 ) and 𝑔(𝑥 ), the function which is higher up in the above list
will be denoted by u and the one which is lower will be denoted by v.
Then,
𝑓 (𝑥 ) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 ∙ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
 The product can be evaluated in the following manner:
𝑑𝑢
𝑢 ∙ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − ∙ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Standard Results:
i. ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶 (𝑛 ≠ −1)
ii. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = log|𝑥 | + 𝐶 (𝑥 ≠ 0 )

iii. ∫𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
iv. ∫𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
v. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = tan +𝐶
vi. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = log +𝐶 (𝑥 > 𝑎)
vii. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = log +𝐶 (𝑥 < 𝑎)
viii. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑥 + √𝑥 + 𝑎 +𝐶
√
ix. ∫√ 𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑥 + √𝑥 − 𝑎 +𝐶
x. ∫√ 𝑑𝑥 = sin +𝐶
xi. ∫ √𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 + 𝑎 + log 𝑥 + √𝑥 + 𝑎 +𝐶
xii. ∫ √𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 − 𝑎 + log 𝑥 + √𝑥 − 𝑎 +𝐶
xiii. ∫ √𝑎 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑎 − 𝑥 + sin +𝐶

Method of Substitution
( )
i. ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶 (𝑛 ≠ −1)
Substitute: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒕
 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
( )
ii. ∫ ( )
𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝐶
Substitute: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒕
 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
Partial Fractions

i.
( )( )
= + ,
compute A and B by comparing LHS and RHS

ii.
( )( )
= + +( )
,
compute A, B and C by comparing LHS and RHS

iii.
( )( )
= + ,
compute A, B and C by comparing LHS and RHS
Definite Integrals

𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑏 ) − 𝐹 (𝑎)

Properties:
i. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

ii. ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

iii. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

iv. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

2 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 ⋯ 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 )

v. ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 =
0 ⋯ 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = −𝑓(𝑥 )

2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 ⋯ 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 (2𝑎 − 𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 )

vi. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 =
0 ⋯ 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 (2𝑎 − 𝑥 ) = −𝑓 (𝑥 )

vii. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

viii. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑑𝑥

ix. ∫ 𝑥𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ⋯ 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥)

x. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 ⋯ 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑥 )

Area under the curve

The area between the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥 ) and the two ordinates at
the points 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 (𝑏 > 𝑎) is given by: ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
The equation of x-axis is 𝑦 = 0, therefore, the formula reduces
to: ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥