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Blue and Green Cities
The Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure
in Managing Urban Water Resources
Robert C. Brears
Second Edition
Blue and Green Cities
 Robert C. Brears

Blue and Green Cities

The Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure in Managing
Urban Water Resources

Second Edition
Robert C. Brears
Founder of Our Future Water
Christchurch, Canterbury,
New Zealand

ISBN 978-3-031-41392-6 ISBN 978-3-031-41393-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41393-3

1st edition: © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018
2nd edition: © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

Cover credit: Howard Kingsnorth

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Paper in this product is recyclable.

 Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I wish to thank Rachael Ballard, a truly wonderful

commissioning editor and visionary who enables books like mine to come
to fruition. Second, I would like to express my gratitude to my mum,
who has a keen interest in environmental matters and has supported me
in this journey of writing the book. Lastly, I want to extend a special
acknowledgement to Kate, my love, who enriches my life in countless
ways and has been an inexhaustible source of inspiration and motivation
during the creation of this work.

v
 Contents

1 Introduction 1
2 From Traditional Grey Infrastructure to Blue-Green
Infrastructure 5
3 Blue-Green Infrastructure in Managing Urban Water
Resources 43
4 Adaptive Management and Blue-Green Infrastructure 61
5 Amsterdam Becoming a Blue-Green City Through
Blue-Green Infrastructure 99
6 Copenhagen Becoming a Blue-Green City Through
Blue-Green Infrastructure 115
7 Melbourne Becoming a Blue-Green City Through
Blue-Green Infrastructure 133
8 New York City Becoming a Blue-Green City Through
Blue-Green Infrastructure 155
9 Philadelphia Becoming a Blue-Green City Through
Blue-Green Infrastructure 175
10 San Francisco Becoming a Blue-Green City Through
Blue-Green Infrastructure 195

vii
viii CONTENTS

11 Singapore Becoming a Blue-Green City Through

Blue-Green Infrastructure 219
12 Best Practices and Conclusion 237

Index 249
 List of Figures

Fig. 4.1 General process for adaptation planning 66

Fig. 4.2 Components of the adaptive management decision-making
framework 75

ix
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Change in watershed characteristics after urbanisation 7

Table 2.2 Effects of pollutants from road runoff 9
Table 2.3 Climate change risks to cities 10
Table 2.4 Barriers to the implementation of blue-green
infrastructure 22
Table 3.1 Stormwater detention or retention system-specific
benefits 45
Table 3.2 Green roof-specific benefits 48
Table 3.3 Rainwater harvesting-specific benefits 50
Table 3.4 Pervious pavement-specific benefits 52
Table 3.5 Benefits of planting trees 54
Table 4.1 Residential stormwater rates 77
Table 4.2 Framework for establishing stormwater fee discounts
and credits 78
Table 4.3 Stormwater credit categories 80
Table 4.4 Green stormwater infrastructure project selection 83
Table 4.5 Clean water partnership goals and key performance
indicators 85
Table 4.6 Green roof requirement 90
Table 5.1 Subsidy per measure 104
Table 5.2 Case study summary 111
Table 6.1 BGI creating synergies with existing green infrastructure 118
Table 6.2 Economic benefits of climate adaptation measures 118
Table 6.3 Case study summary 131
Table 7.1 Water-sensitive urban design options 139

xi
xii LIST OF TABLES

Table 7.2 Multiple co-benefits of greening city laneways 143

Table 7.3 Case study summary 150
Table 8.1 Green roof reimbursement schedule 160
Table 8.2 Green infrastructure practices available to meet
the urban stormwater rule 163
Table 8.3 Case study summary 170
Table 9.1 Benefits of green stormwater infrastructure to manage
stormwater 177
Table 9.2 Above-ground green stormwater infrastructure 179
Table 9.3 Below-ground green stormwater infrastructure tools 180
Table 9.4 Triple bottom line benefits of green stormwater
infrastructure 182
Table 9.5 Rain check subsidies 186
Table 9.6 Case study summary 192
Table 10.1 Urban water assessment steps 197
Table 10.2 Green infrastructure grant programme co-benefits 200
Table 10.3 Watershed Stewardship grants evaluation criteria 202
Table 10.4 Urban Watershed Stewardship grant awards 202
Table 10.5 Green infrastructure monitoring project results 209
Table 10.6 Case study summary 214
Table 11.1 Holistic stormwater management 221
Table 11.2 ABC waters certification points 225
Table 11.3 Case study summary 235
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Cities are home to half the world’s population and serve as global
economic hubs, generating 80 per cent of the world’s GDP. With cities
facing extreme weather events and rapid urban growth leading to the
overuse of natural resources and creating environmental degradation,
urban centres around the world need to become more resilient to climate
change, and reduce their ecological footprints.
Green Cities are concerned with designing the whole city more
sustainably, efficiently, adaptive, and resiliently. Green Cities recognise
connections between different sectors and support development strate-
gies that fulfil multiple functions and create benefits for society and urban
ecosystems. For example, in urban water resource management, a Blue-
Green City calls for the holistic planning and management of water,
wastewater, and stormwater across the whole city to ensure that popu-
lations are resilient to climate change and extreme weather events while
ensuring the health of aquatic ecosystems.
Traditionally, urban water managers have relied on grey infrastructural
solutions, including dams and levees, to mitigate risks—with numerous
environmental and economic consequences. For instance, traditional
stormwater drainage systems, designed to prevent localised flooding,
have created downstream flooding risks and stormwater overflows into
waterways. At the same time, traditional systems have impacted the

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2023
R. C. Brears, Blue and Green Cities,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41393-3_1
2 R. C. BREARS

local hydrological cycle with less groundwater recharge and lower base-
flows of waterways, impacting the availability of water for humans and
nature. In addition, traditional systems are inadequate to deal with climate
change-related extreme weather events, with systems unable to cope
with sudden large volumes of precipitation. Finally, traditional systems
also impact water quality, with runoff washing pollutants into nearby
waterways. Furthermore, runoff causes turbidity and thermal pollution,
impacting drinking water quality. In addition to climate change impacting
water quality and quantity, urbanisation results in environmental degra-
dation. Finally, cities face regulatory challenges in managing floods while
restoring waterways’ health.
In a Blue-Green City, Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI) involves the use
of natural or human-made systems to enhance ecosystem services in the
management of water resources and increase resilience to climate risks.
BGI solutions can also be used to support the goals of multiple policy
areas. For example, green spaces and restored lakes and wetlands can
reduce flooding risks to neighbourhoods while supporting urban agri-
cultural production and wildlife and providing recreational and tourism
benefits. In Blue-Green Cities, urban water managers also use various
innovative fiscal and non-fiscal tools to encourage the implementation
of BGI on public and private property to manage water resources and
increase resilience to climate risks sustainably.
Nonetheless, our understanding of urban water managers’ role in
implementing BGI to mitigate climate risks while reducing environmental
degradation lags significantly behind engineering knowledge on water
resource management. As such, there is minimal literature on executing
innovative urban policies that foster the use of BGI projects to miti-
gate climate risk, restore ecosystems, and enhance the numerous benefits
they offer. In addition, because the application of BGI requires holistic
planning, little has been written on how innovative policies have been
developed to ensure BGI water projects fulfil multiple functions and
policy goals and create multiple benefits for society and urban ecosystems.
This book provides new research on urban policy innovations that
promote the application of BGI in managing water resources sustain-
ably. In particular, the book contains case studies that illustrate how
cities of differing climates, lifestyles, and income levels have implemented
policy innovations that promote the application of BGI in managing
water, wastewater, and stormwater sustainably to enhance resilience to
climate change and reduce environmental degradation. The seven case
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

studies review cities implementing various fiscal and non-fiscal policy tools
to encourage the implementation of BGI on both public and private
property to reduce stormwater runoff volumes, enhance the health of
waterways, enhance resilience to climate change, and meet regulatory
requirements.
The book will introduce readers to the adaptive management frame-
work that guides cities in implementing BGI to increase resilience to
climate change and reduce environmental degradation. In the context of
climate change, adaptive management is a process where decision-makers
take action in the face of uncertainty. Society can decide how to manage
climate risk by quantifying and acknowledging the uncertainty. Adaptive
management also seeks to improve scientific knowledge, develop practices
considering future possibilities, and even take advantage of unanticipated
climatic events. In natural resource management, adaptive management
hypothesises how ecosystems work and modifies management decisions
to achieve environmental objectives through improved understanding.
Adaptive management can be used to restore or enhance ecosystems
damaged by the impacts of urbanisation as the framework recognises that
resource systems are only partially understood and that there is value in
tracking responses of natural resources to management decisions. In Blue-
Green Cities, adaptive management relies on monitoring, investigating,
and researching to build knowledge on waterways and understand the
outcomes of management decisions on the environment and the effects
of climate change.
In the operationalisation of BGI, Blue-Green Cities use various fiscal
tools to encourage implementing BGI practices on public and private
property, including new and existing developments. Fiscal tools are easy to
implement and provide decision-makers with the flexibility and creativity
to meet specific priorities and the opportunity to pilot new incentives
before citywide application. Meanwhile, non-fiscal tools encourage the
implementation of BGI on both public and private property and allow
policymakers to test and refine BGI programmes that could one day
become mandatory requirements.
The synopsis of the book is as follows:
Chapter 2 introduces traditional grey infrastructure stormwater
systems, followed by a review of the impacts of traditional grey infras-
tructure on water quantity and water quality before discussing the
challenges posed by climate change, rapid urbanisation, and meeting
regulatory requirements. The chapter then introduces readers to BGI
4 R. C. BREARS

and its multiple benefits before finally discussing the barriers to its
implementation.
Chapter 3 discusses two types of BGI: natural and human-made water
features, which provide numerous multifunctional benefits in addition to
managing water quantity and quality.
Chapter 4 defines urban resilience and reviews the measures that can be
taken to increase it. It then introduces the concept of adaptive manage-
ment and how BGI can be operationalised using an adaptive management
framework. Finally, the chapter discusses how cities can use various fiscal
and non-fiscal tools to encourage the development of BGI.
Chapters 5–11 comprise case studies on the implementation of BGI,
as part of the process of becoming a Blue-Green City, in the following
cities: Amsterdam (Chapter 5), Copenhagen (Chapter 6), Melbourne
(Chapter 7), New York City (Chapter 8), Philadelphia (Chapter 9), San
Francisco (Chapter 10), and Singapore (Chapter 11).
Chapter 12 provides a series of best practices from the selected case
studies for other cities planning to implement BGI in an attempt to
become Blue-Green Cities, followed by the conclusion.
 CHAPTER 2

From Traditional Grey Infrastructure

to Blue-Green Infrastructure

Introduction
Traditionally, stormwater systems, comprising stormwater drainpipes,
kerb inlets, utility holes, minor channels, roadside ditches, and culverts,
are designed to remove stormwater from sites as soon as possible to a
main river channel or the nearest large body of water to reduce on-site
flooding.1
Despite traditional grey infrastructure systems quickly collecting
stormwater runoff and draining it from the city, the reliance on traditional
grey infrastructure has led to numerous unintended negative conse-
quences relating to water quantity and water quality, including increased
peak flows and total discharges from storm events, enhanced delivery
of nutrients and toxins degrading aquatic habitats in urban waterways,
and combined sewage overflows during wet conditions exposing urban
populations to health risks from waterborne pathogens and toxins.2,3,4
This chapter will first provide an overview of the two types of tradi-
tional grey infrastructure before discussing their impacts on water quantity
and water quality. Following this, the chapter will discuss the challenges
of climate change on grey infrastructure and the environmental impacts of
urbanisation. The chapter will then discuss the concept Blue-Green Infras-
tructure (BGI) in managing water quantity and improving water quality

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 5

Switzerland AG 2023
R. C. Brears, Blue and Green Cities,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41393-3_2
6 R. C. BREARS

by restoring the hydrologic function of the landscape, all the while deliv-
ering multiple co-benefits. Finally, the chapter will review the barriers to
mainstreaming BGI across urban centres.

Traditional Grey Infrastructure

Many cities have implemented drainage systems as part of a larger sewage
system that regulates domestic and industrial wastewater and manages
stormwater. There are two types of sewage systems:

• Combined sewage systems : Wastewater and stormwater are collected in

one pipe network. Mixed water is then transported to a wastewater
treatment plant for cleaning before being discharged into a river or
large body of water
• Separate sewage systems : Wastewater and stormwater are collected in
two separate networks. The wastewater is directed to a wastewater
treatment plant while the stormwater pipe discharges to the receiving
water if it does not contain pollutants or is treated separately before
being discharged into a waterway5

Impacts of Traditional Grey Infrastructure on Water Quantity

There are numerous impacts traditional grey infrastructure has on water
quantity, including changes in hydrological cycles, increased peak flows
and downstream flooding risks, changes in groundwater and surface water
levels, and inadequate dimensioning resulting in increased climate change-
related flood risks.

Changes in the Local Hydrological Cycle

In natural settings, only a limited amount of surface area is covered
by impervious surfaces resulting in most rainwater replenishing ground-
water resources, filling rivers and lakes, and being taken up by plants and
trees. This is due to infiltration, rainfall interception, evapotranspiration,
and soil retention. In cities, sealed surfaces, including buildings, squares,
streets, and sidewalks, act as a barrier for water, and instead of infiltrating
through the soil, rainwater flows on the surface.6
 2 FROM TRADITIONAL GREY INFRASTRUCTURE … 7

Table 2.1 Change in watershed characteristics after urbanisation

Ground cover Evapotranspiration Runoff Shallow Deep infiltration

infiltration

Natural ground 40 10 25 25
cover
10–20% impervious 38 20 21 21
surface
35–59% impervious 35 30 20 15
surface
75–100% impervious 30 55 10 5
surface

Increased Peak Flows

Urban expansion, particularly in flood-prone areas, alters the natural path
of waterways, increasing impervious surfaces that reduce rainwater infil-
tration and increasing overland flows that are typically beyond the capacity
of drainage systems (Table 2.1).7,8

Downstream Flooding Risks

Traditionally, urban drainage systems are designed to prevent local
flooding by conveying stormwater away from vulnerable sites: the aim
being to drain stormwater as fast as possible out of the city. However,
if urban districts upstream drain stormwater too quickly, it may cause
urban flooding downstream.9 In addition, downstream flood risks may
be amplified due to ageing sewage systems that cause sewers to overflow,
block natural flow paths, and increase runoff.10 This issue is exacerbated
by many cities facing financial challenges of developing new infrastructure
while operating, maintaining, rehabilitating, and ensuring environmental
compliance with the current ageing infrastructure.11

Changes in Groundwater and Surface Water Levels

Stormwater systems can negatively impact the local climate as infiltra-
tion and evaporation are reduced, making cities’ climates warmer and
drier than the surrounding areas. Warmer, drier climates result in lower
groundwater recharge rates, limiting city drinking water availability. In
addition, lower groundwater levels will lead to lower stream base flows,
decreasing habitats, and cover available for stream inhabitants. Reduced
8 R. C. BREARS

flow, increased water temperatures, and lower dissolved oxygen levels will
likely cause additional stress to instream inhabitants.12,13

Increased Climate Change-Related Flooding Events

In many urban settings, stormwater drains are typically designed for a one
in 30-year flood occurrence. However, this dimensioning is likely inade-
quate with climate change and extreme weather events.14 For example,
heavy downpours have increased in frequency and magnitude in the past
50 years. They are expected to become more frequent and intense as
global temperatures rise, leading to unmanageable stormwater runoff. In
the United States, the average 100-year floodplain is projected to increase
by 45 per cent by 2100.15 Adapting to these changes will lead to higher
running costs and investments, placing capital budgetary pressures on
municipalities soon.16

Impacts of Traditional Grey Infrastructure on Water Quality

There are numerous impacts traditional grey infrastructure has on water
quality, including pollutants being easily flushed into waterways, urban
runoff lowering visual quality, and increased thermal pollution.

Pollutants Entering Waterways

When it rains, runoff from roads and highways frequently wash pollutants
into nearby waterways, including rivers, streams, and lakes. Common
pollutants include dirt, oil, grease, toxic chemicals, heavy metals, road
salts, nitrogen and phosphorous, pathogens and rubbish, a majority of
which are deposited on roads due to traffic activity, for instance, fluid
leakage and wear and tear of vehicle parts. For example, brake pad wear-
related deposits include copper and zinc, and wintertime salting and
sanding can cause chloride, sodium, and calcium deposits onto roads.
At the same time, fertiliser application on medium strips is a source
of nitrogen and phosphorous. In addition, roads degrade, generating
pollutants as the pavement degrades. There are numerous effects of pollu-
tants from road runoff that are harmful to both humans and ecosystems,
summarised in Table 2.2.17
 2 FROM TRADITIONAL GREY INFRASTRUCTURE … 9

Table 2.2 Effects of pollutants from road runoff

Pollutant type Effect

Suspended Small solid particles that remain in suspension in stormwater cause

solids issues including increased turbidity, decreased light penetration, and
toxicity to aquatic organisms
Pathogens Viruses and bacteria cause public health impacts when they are
discharged into waterways used for drinking water supplies or
recreational purposes
Nitrogen and Excess nitrogen and phosphorous can stimulate excess algae growth as
phosphorous algae die and decompose. Dissolved oxygen concentrations in the
water decrease to low levels, a process called eutrophication
Heavy metals Heavy metals are toxic to aquatic life and can contaminate drinking
water supplies

Poor Visual Quality

Urban runoff often has poor visual water quality in waterways, with
outbreaks of blue-green algae, piles of foam, significant fish kill, and
cloudy and highly coloured water and oil slicks, all examples of visual
problems. In addition, floating inorganic debris and litter, for example,
drums, car tyres, bottles, and aluminium cans, raise community concerns.
Organic debris, including leaves, timber, paper, cardboard, and food, will,
in the short term, cause visual pollution. However, when this material
decays, it releases nutrients that can form rich organic sediment that can
cause algal blooms.18

Thermal Pollution
Urban stormwater runoff is a significant contributor of thermal pollution
to small waterways, which are highly sensitive to changes in temperature.
Increased temperatures can damage cold-water fish species numbers by
interfering with spawning and migration patterns. Meanwhile, warmer
temperatures can lead to harmful algal blooms that produce dangerous
toxins that can sicken or kill people, create dead zones in water, and raise
water treatment costs for drinking water and harm industries that rely on
clean water.19,20,21

The Challenge of Climate Change on Traditional Grey Infrastructure

Climate change and extreme weather will challenge the traditional grey
infrastructure for stormwater management. During wet weather events,
10 R. C. BREARS

heavier storms will mean increased water and wastewater in combined

sewer systems for short periods. As such, current designs, based on critical
‘design storms’ defined through analysis of historical precipitation data,
need to be modified. Meanwhile, during extended periods of dry weather,
soils dry up and shrink, resulting in the cracking of water mains and
sewers, making them vulnerable to infiltration and exfiltration of water
and wastewater. A combination of high temperatures, increased pollu-
tant concentrations, longer retention times, and sedimentation of solids
may lead to the corrosion of sewers, shorter asset lifetimes, more drinking
water pollution, and higher maintenance costs.22
In addition to extreme periods of wet and dry weather from climate
change, cities and their infrastructure are exposed to numerous other
climatic risks, summarised in Table 2.3.23,24,25 Overall, traditional grey
infrastructure is neither sustainable nor adaptable to changing climates.26

Table 2.3 Climate change risks to cities

Climate Description
change impact

Higher Higher ambient temperatures, which reduce snow and ice volumes and
temperatures increase evaporation rates from lakes, reservoirs, and aquifers, will
decrease the natural storage of water and increase water demand
Droughts Shifts in the timing of river flows, and more frequent or intense
droughts will reduce the availability of water, increasing the need for
artificial water storage
Flooding Heavy downpours have increased in frequency and intensity over the
past 50 years and are expected to become more frequent and intense
as global temperatures continue to rise. As such, flood risks to cities
are likely to increase
Contaminated Drier conditions will increase pollutant concentrations. This is a
water concern for populations that rely on groundwater sources that may
already be of low quality
Increased Increased stormwater runoff will increase loads of pathogens, nutrients,
runoff and suspended sediment
Urban heat Climate change will lead to more frequent, severe, and prolonged heat
island effect waves during the summer months
Coastal As global temperatures continue to rise, sea levels will likely continue
damage and to rise, storm surges will likely be amplified, and heavy storm events
erosion will occur with greater frequency and intensity, damaging infrastructure
 2 FROM TRADITIONAL GREY INFRASTRUCTURE … 11

Rapid Urbanisation Increasing Environmental Degradation

The world’s population is likely to grow from 8 billion to 9.7 billion
by 2050 and could peak at nearly 11 billion around 2100.27 Rapid and
unplanned urban growth has led to urban sprawl, water pollution, and
environmental degradation in many countries.28,29,30,31
In 2018, 55 per cent of the world’s population resided in urban areas.
This figure is projected to increase to 68 per cent by 2050. Today, the
most urbanised regions include North America (with 82 per cent of its
population living in urban areas), Latin America and the Caribbean (81
per cent), Europe (74 per cent), and Oceania (68 per cent). The world’s
urban population has multiplied from 751 million in 1950 to 4.2 billion
in 2018. Growth in the urban population is driven by population growth
and an increasing shift in the percentage of people living in urban areas.
These two factors are projected to add 2.5 billion to the world’s cities
by 2050, with almost 90 per cent of this growth happening in Asia and
Africa.32
High-income countries have been highly urbanised for several decades,
while upper-middle-income countries have experienced the fastest urban-
isation since 1950. In 1950, nearly 60 per cent of the population in
high-income countries lived in urban areas. Their level of urbanisation
is expected to rise from 80 per cent today to nearly 90 per cent by
2050. In contrast, in 1950, just over 20 per cent of the population in
upper-middle-income countries lived in urban areas. This has risen to
two-thirds today and is projected to increase to over 80 per cent by 2050.
Meanwhile, population growth is predicted for all sizes of cities.33

Mega-Cities
In 1990, there were ten cities with populations of 10 million or more.
At the time, these mega-cities were home to 153 million people. Today,
mega-cities have tripled to 33, with a total population of 529 million.

Large Cities
Cities with 5–10 million inhabitants account for a small but growing
proportion of the global urban population. However, these cities more
than doubled, from 21 in 1990 to 48 in 2018. Today, they host over 325
million people. By 2030, the number of large cities is expected to grow
to 66 and house almost 450 million people.
12 R. C. BREARS

Medium–Small Cities
The global population living in medium-sized cities (1–5 million inhabi-
tants) nearly doubled between 1990 and 2018 and is expected to increase
by another 28 per cent between 2018 and 2030, growing from 926
million to 1.2 billion. In 2018, 400 million lived in settlements between
500,000 and one million, and two billion people lived in settlements with
less than 500,000 inhabitants.34

Regulatory Response to Managing Stormwater

In many countries, changing social values and environmental legislation
are challenging cities to manage floods while restoring urban waterway
ecosystems and their environmental and cultural values. For example,
in the United States, the Endangered Species Act requires those in
charge of flood management to consider the needs of endangered aquatic
species.35 Meanwhile, Federal Clean Water Act requirements, including
the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES,) require
the development and implementation of a municipal separate stormwater
sewer system (MS4) programme to address post-construction runoff from
newly developed and redeveloped areas to be implemented at the local
level. As a result, many cities are incorporating BGI into local stormwater
codes as part of NPDES requirements.36

Blue-Green Infrastructure
Green infrastructure is a strategically planned network of natural and
semi-natural areas with other environmental features designed and
managed to deliver a wide range of ecosystem services. It incorporates
green spaces, or blue if aquatic ecosystems are concerned, and other phys-
ical features.37 In the context of water, BGI is a strategically planned
network of high-quality natural and semi-natural areas that utilise natural
processes to manage water quantity and improve water quality. BGI
restores the urban landscape’s hydrologic function while delivering a wide
range of ecosystem services and protecting biodiversity.38

Implementing Blue-Green Infrastructure Through Spatial Planning

The most effective way of implementing BGI is through spatial planning.
This enables interactions between different land uses to be investigated
 2 FROM TRADITIONAL GREY INFRASTRUCTURE … 13

over a large geographical area. Strategic spatial planning will locate the
best places for habitat enhancement projects to help reconnect healthy
ecosystems, improve landscape permeability, or improve connectivity
between protected areas. It also guides infrastructure developments from
sensitive natural areas to more robust areas that might contribute to
restoring or recreating green infrastructure features as part of the devel-
opment proposal. Finally, spatial planning identifies multifunctional zones
where compatible land uses that support healthy ecosystems are favoured
over single-focus developments.39

Blue-Green Infrastructure and Stormwater Management

Regarding stormwater management, BGI enables the cost-effective
management of excess stormwater during heavy, short-duration wet
weather events. It increases the storage capacity on public and private
property to retain stormwater runoff until the stormwater infrastructure
can process it. Alternatively, the BGI can facilitate water loss by evapo-
transpiration to the atmosphere or infiltration to the groundwater system,
eliminating the need to process the stormwater runoff through wastew-
ater treatment plants or discharging it into surface waters.40 When BGI
measures are implemented as part of a large-scale stormwater manage-
ment system, it prevents the exceedance of the drainage system, mitigates
the generation of flooding hazards downstream, and lowers the volume
of stormwater requiring treatment, reducing the need for additional
grey infrastructure. Nonetheless, BGI can be complementary to grey
infrastructure.41,42,43

Multifunctionality of Blue-Green Infrastructure

A key aspect of BGI is its multifunctionality, specifically, its ability to
perform several functions and provide several benefits in the same spatial
area by harnessing the interrelationships between vegetation and the water
cycle.44,45 For example, a green roof can reduce stormwater runoff and
the pollution load of the water while also decreasing the urban heat island
effect, improving the insulation of the building and providing a habitat for
species.46,47 However, it is essential to note that not all green spaces or
environmental features qualify as BGI. In addition to being high quality,
they must also form an integral part of an interconnected BGI network
and can deliver multiple benefits. For instance, an urban park might be
14 R. C. BREARS

considered an integral part of BGI if it absorbs excess water runoff, offers

recreational opportunities, and enhances wildlife.48

Multiple Co-Benefits
of Blue-Green Infrastructure
In addition to the primary objective of managing stormwater on-site,
BGI delivers multiple economic, environmental, and social co-benefits
to urban communities due to its multifunctionality.49,50,51 BGI aims to
enhance nature’s ability to deliver multiple ecosystem services. This, in
turn, fosters a better quality of life and human well-being and improved
biodiversity while protecting humans against climate change. In addition,
BGI encourages a more thoughtful and integrated approach to develop-
ment, ensuring limited space is utilised efficiently and coherently as best
as possible.52

Economic Benefits of Blue-Green Infrastructure

Numerous economic benefits of BGI are listed as follows.

Deferring or Replacing Costly Grey Infrastructure

BGI can defer or even replace costly grey infrastructure projects.53
These large installations, for example, major sewage expansions and deep
tunnels, are costly to construct and take years to complete, making them
vulnerable to rising costs of materials, labour, and financing. Compared
to large-scale grey infrastructure projects, the implemental construction of
BGI typically uses more level cash flows that provide flexibility and better
financing.54 Overall, BGI can be less capital-intensive than grey infras-
tructure in terms of operating and maintenance by having lower: built
capital costs associated with equipment and installation; land acquisition
costs; operational costs; repair and maintenance costs; and infrastructure
replacement costs.55

Blue-Green Infrastructure is Less Capital-Intensive

BGI is less capital-intensive and requires infrequent maintenance
compared to grey infrastructure. As grey infrastructure systems require
 2 FROM TRADITIONAL GREY INFRASTRUCTURE … 15

increased operations and maintenance over time as equipment and mate-

rials wear down, BGI, in contrast, is designed to increase its resilience and
function as vegetation matures and adapts to local resource cycles.56

Reduced Water Treatment Costs

BGI can reduce water treatment costs as rainfall is filtered and treated
naturally.57 BGI can also reduce the need for water purification if the
runoff is stored and used for irrigation. This decreases the costs of energy
and chemicals for pumping and treating water.58,59,60,61

Lower Landscape Maintenance Costs

BGI, including rainwater harvesting systems and drought-resistance
plants, can reduce the costs of irrigation and maintenance of public and
private spaces.62

Increased Groundwater Resources

BGI practices that increase groundwater recharge levels can provide
significant cost savings by avoiding increased pumping costs associated
with declining groundwater levels.63,64,65

Reduced Water Imports

Cities often rely on costly imports of water from great distances to meet
demand. BGI practices that reduce landscape irrigation can reduce water
demand and water imports.66

Reduced Energy Costs

BGI can reduce energy demand for residents. For example, green
roofs provide insulation and shade cover reducing energy demand for
heating and cooling. In addition, rain gardens can reduce the amount
of energy required for pumping by raising groundwater levels, and rain-
water harvesting systems can reduce the energy used in treating potable
water.67,68,69,70

Enhanced Ecosystem Service Values

BGI provides many ecosystem services necessary for economic and social
well-being, including water filtration and storage, air filtration, carbon
storage, nutrient cycling, soil formation, recreation, and food.71,72 Many
of these services have not been monetised, and therefore, the economic
benefits of healthy, intact ecosystems are usually undervalued. Ecosystems
16 R. C. BREARS

provided by healthy waterways are often very expensive to engineer, and

they may only provide a fraction of the services provided by a healthy
functioning natural system.73

Increased Employment
BGI can create jobs directly through construction, maintenance, or
management of various BGI initiatives or indirectly through increased
tourism related to events—from small community-based events to those
of national importance—in environments with BGI.74,75,76,77,78

Increased Investment
Investments in BGI improve a region’s image, helping to attract and
retain high-value industries, new business start-ups, entrepreneurs, and
workers. Jobs can also be directly linked to or depend on a city’s
BGI.79,80,81

Increased Land and Property Values

Developing and improving BGI space in critical locations within urban
areas can increase nearby property and land values.82,83 Greener areas
also have a better image and attract more visitors bringing increased retail
and leisure spending. Specifically, BGI can improve an area’s aesthetic
quality, resulting in rising average property prices, increasing inward
investment, attracting businesses and customers, and encouraging people
to spend more time and money there. This increased economic growth
can lead to higher levels of employment and tourism and lower crime
levels.84,85,86,87

Environmental Benefits of Blue-Green Infrastructure

Numerous environmental benefits of BGI are listed as follows.

Reduced Flood Risk

Urban development often removes much or all of the area’s original plants
and landscapes. Buildings, roads, gardens, and parks replace them. These
changes can harm the area’s natural water systems and freshwater habitats
for different species. BGI provides the ability to restore natural environ-
mental features to urban environments and alleviate floods.88 BGI can
contribute to flooding alleviation by delaying the downstream passage
 2 FROM TRADITIONAL GREY INFRASTRUCTURE … 17

of flood flows, reducing the volume of runoff through interception, and

promoting rainfall infiltration into soils.89,90,91

Reduced and Delayed Stormwater Runoff Volumes

BGI reduces stormwater runoff volumes, and peak flows by utilising vege-
tation and soils’ natural retention and absorption capabilities. In addition,
increasing pervious cover BGI can increase stormwater infiltration rates,
reducing the volume of stormwater entering combined or separate sewer
systems and then into waterways.92,93

Stormwater Pollutant Reductions

BGI infiltrates runoff close to its source, helping prevent pollutants from
being transported to nearby surface waters. Once runoff is infiltrated into
soils, vegetation and microbes can naturally filter and break down most
pollutants found in stormwater.94

Reduced Sewer Overflow Events

Using the natural retention and infiltration capabilities of soils and vege-
tation, BGI limits the frequency of sewer overflow events by reducing
runoff volumes and delaying stormwater discharge.95

Improved Waterway Quality

BGI can remove pollutants directly from stormwater. BGI can filter pollu-
tants or biologically or chemically degrade them using natural processes.
This is particularly beneficial for separate stormwater sewage systems that
do not provide additional treatment before discharging stormwater.96
BGI can also improve local waterways’ health by reducing erosion, sedi-
mentation, and pollutant concentrations in rivers, lakes, and streams. This,
in turn, leads to overall riparian health and aesthetics.97,98,99,100,101

Enhanced Water Conservation

BGI, for example, rainwater harvesting systems and drought-tolerant
landscaping, can help reduce the need for irrigation, reducing the
demand for potable and recycled water.102,103,104 This enables popula-
tions to mitigate water scarcity risks from projected population increases
and climate change by maximising their existing water supply sources,
preventing costly water treatment, storage, and transmission facility
expansions.105 BGI practices can also be designed to provide emergency
drinking sources in case of natural disasters.
18 R. C. BREARS

Increased Groundwater Recharge

BGI practices, including swales and rain gardens, reduce impervious
surface areas, helping replenish groundwater supplies by allowing rain-
water to infiltrate the soil. This can improve the rate at which groundwater
aquifers are recharged. In addition, groundwater provides around 40 per
cent of the water needed to maintain normal base flow rates in rivers and
streams, so enhanced groundwater recharge can increase water volumes
for habitats and human uses.106,107,108

Improved Air Quality and Lower Greenhouse Gas Emissions

BGI facilitates the incorporation of trees and vegetation in urban land-
scapes, contributing towards improved air quality.109,110 Trees and
vegetation produce oxygen during photosynthesis. They can also absorb
pollutants from the air by absorbing gaseous pollutants and intercepting
particles onto leaf surfaces.111,112 If trees and plants are widely planted in
a neighbourhood, they can also lower air temperatures through transpira-
tion, slowing the temperature-dependent reaction that forms ground-level
ozone pollution (smog).113 Meanwhile, BGI can reduce greenhouse gas
emissions by reducing the volume of wastewater requiring treatment in
wastewater treatment plants.114

Reduced Urban Heat Island Effects

Urban heat islands form when cities replace the natural land cover with
dense concentrations of pavements, buildings, and other surfaces that
absorb and retain heat. In addition, tall buildings and narrow streets trap
and concentrate waste heat from vehicles, factories, and air conditioners.
By providing increased amounts of urban green space and vegetation, BGI
can help mitigate the effects of urban heat islands.115 In addition, BGI
trees, green roofs, and other green infrastructure can lower demand for air
conditioning energy, decreasing emissions from power plants.116,117,118

Improved Habitats
BGI practices, including parks, urban forests, wetlands, and vegetated
swales, provide increased habitats for wildlife, particularly birds and
insects. BGI can also be linked to creating green corridors, helping
conserve and promote biodiversity.119,120,121,122
 2 FROM TRADITIONAL GREY INFRASTRUCTURE … 19

Carbon Sequestration
Soils and vegetation that comprise BGI can act as sources of carbon
sequestration, where carbon dioxide is captured and removed from the
atmosphere via photosynthesis.123,124,125 BGI vegetation removes and
stores carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, with Portland, Oregon, esti-
mating its BGI will sequester around 8800 metric tonnes of carbon
dioxide annually.126

Social Benefits of Blue-Green Infrastructure

Numerous social benefits of BGI are listed as follows.

Increasing Life Expectancy and Reducing Health Inequalities

It is common for green spaces to be unequally distributed across socio-
economic groups, with poorer social groups typically having lower access.
BGI in neighbourhoods provides opportunities for people to exercise and
relax, increasing physical health by reducing obesity, circulatory disease,
chronic stress, and asthma, particularly in underprivileged neighbour-
hoods.127,128

Improving Levels of Physical Activity and Health

There is a correlation between access to BGI spaces and higher physical
activity levels. For instance, living closer to parks or recreation/leisure
facilities is generally associated with increased physical activity. In addi-
tion, communities with more parks show significantly higher levels of
walking and cycling for transportation.129,130,131,132

Improving Psychological Health and Mental Well-Being

BGI spaces provide a stimulating environment that helps alleviate stress
and mental fatigue.133 In particular, BGI spaces benefit mental well-
being and physical activity through physical access, usage, and access to
views.134,135,136,137,138,139,140

Social Interaction, Inclusion, and Cohesion

By beautifying neighbourhoods and creating unique spaces, BGI prac-
tices can increase neighbourhood interactions, with neighbours working
together to integrate and maintain BGI in their neighbourhoods. This
increased social activity leads to improved community cohesion, develop-
ment of local attachment, and lower crime levels.141,142,143,144
20 R. C. BREARS

Increased Quality of Neighbourhoods

Implementing BGI can increase the quality of neighbourhoods and add
community amenities. For example, grey infrastructure usually means
digging up streets to install underground infrastructure or tunnelling deep
below the city’s surface. While these projects benefit the city, the result
on the surface is a restored street that functions the same as before but
with better pavement. In contrast, BGI can provide additional benefits
by planting trees that offer shade, installing green roofs that provide
communal open space or enhancing parks for community and social
spaces.145,146

Increased Public Safety

BGI can reduce street widths and introduce curves, slowing down traffic
speeds. In addition, BGI green streets improve pedestrian safety by
slowing traffic.147,148

Healthier Air
BGI can purify the air, improving health, particularly for children and
older people.149,150

Food Production
BGI spaces incorporating food production provide low-income residents
access to affordable and healthy food, as inner-city stores often have fewer
nutritional options and charge higher prices. Food production associ-
ated with BGI also provides educational and business opportunities and
reconnects communities with their local environments.151,152,153

Recreation and Pleasure

BGI spaces can provide resources for recreation, sports, and pleasure that,
in turn, increase health and well-being.154,155,156

Quality of Place
BGI can improve the quality of space to motivate people to enjoy nature
and exercise.157,158

Safer Water Quality

BGI can reduce polluted runoff and contaminants entering local water-
ways, minimising illness from recreational contact or contaminated
drinking water. The resulting improvement can lower health care costs
 2 FROM TRADITIONAL GREY INFRASTRUCTURE … 21

for communities and minimise the closure of beaches for shellfish

collecting.159,160

Reduced Crime Levels

BGI can reduce crime levels by increasing actual and implied surveillance
making these areas less attractive for criminal activity: crime is less likely to
occur when there are more people around or where there is a perception
that people may be around.161,162

Educational Opportunities
The visible nature of BGI offers enhanced public education opportuni-
ties to teach the community about mitigating the adverse environmental
impacts of our built environment.163

Beautifies Neighbourhoods
Private gardens and public rights-of-way BGI can beautify streets and
neighbourhoods.164

Enhanced Climate Resilience

BGI can be implemented to enhance community resilience to both
localised flooding and droughts from climate change.165 For example,
with localised flooding, BGI can reduce stormwater runoff. At the same
time, in times of drought, BGI can be used to replenish local ground-
water supplies. On individual properties, rainwater harvesting techniques,
for example, rain barrels and cisterns, can reduce the demand for potable
water.166

Barriers to Blue-Green Infrastructure

Nonetheless, while significant economic, environmental, and
social benefits are associated with BGI, many barriers exist to
mainstream BGI across urban centres, including economic, finan-
cial, institutional, regulatory, infrastructural, and lack thereof of
awareness and knowledge. Examples of these are summarised in
Table 2.4.167,168,169,170,171,172,173,,174,175,176,177,178,179,180,181,182,183
22 R. C. BREARS

Table 2.4 Barriers to the implementation of blue-green infrastructure

Barrier Type Description

Economic High transaction costs BGI approaches require the coordination

of multiple stakeholders, often across
regulatory jurisdictions, and
collaborating with dispersed landowners
to implement BGI projects, which can
be time-consuming and costly
High land values BGI solutions often require more land
than traditional grey infrastructure, and
as land can be expensive, it makes BGI
solutions more expensive in the
short-term
Difficult to quantify The difficulty in quantifying the
numerous benefits BGI brings, including
improving water quality and supporting
aquatic ecosystems, means cost–benefit
analyses often favour traditional grey
infrastructure over BGI approaches
despite the numerous negative impacts
of traditional grey infrastructure
Long-time horizons BGI solutions may require more time to
establish than business-as-usual grey
solutions. In addition, it may take
several years before BGI solutions can
deliver a full range of benefits
Initial high costs Initial investments in BGI can be
expensive despite relatively low
maintenance costs
Financial Perceived higher risk The economic analysis of BGI is
relatively new, with a lack of historical
cost/benefit data compared to the
wealth of cost/benefit data available for
grey infrastructure. This increases the
perceived risk associated with BGI
projects

(continued)
 2 FROM TRADITIONAL GREY INFRASTRUCTURE … 23

Table 2.4 (continued)

Barrier Type Description

Undefined financial Exactly who should pay for BGI and

responsibilities how to fund the monitoring or
maintenance costs can create challenges
for scaling up BGI. First, those who
benefit from existing BGI often receive
these benefits for free and, therefore,
may not be inclined to pay for the
maintenance of the system. Second, BGI
projects often require long-term
monitoring and maintenance costs that
beneficiaries may not have the ability to
finance themselves
Lack of financial Municipalities have limited financial
resources resources to allocate to the many
competing demands under local control.
However, inadequate investment in the
long-term management of BGI assets
means the benefits are less likely to be
realised and/or deteriorate over time.
This, in turn, leads to a lack of
appreciation of the multiple potential
benefits BGI offers, with a consequent
lack of investment in the future
Institutional Lock-in of traditional Grey infrastructure solutions have
practices dominated water management systems
and engineering curricula for decades
leading to informal biases and even
scepticism of BGI approaches
Lack of long-term The effectiveness of decentralised BGI
planning depends on the aggregate, cumulative
effects of many small-scale measures.
However, this can fail due to a lack of
coordinated planning involving public
agencies, community groups, and private
landowners
Insufficient policy The competitiveness of BGI solutions
coherence compared to grey solutions can suffer
due to a lack of policy coherence
regarding different aspects of the water
cycle that often crosses administrative
boundaries and jurisdictions
Lack of resources Planning systems can lack sufficient
resources to turn BGI strategies into
completed projects

(continued)
24 R. C. BREARS

Table 2.4 (continued)

Barrier Type Description

Political boundaries Administrative boundaries can limit the

area that needs to be considered for
effective BGI implementation
Regulatory Regulatory standards Standards-based approaches to open
spaces have in the past emphasised
quantity over quality and on single-use
land allocations rather than rich,
multifunctional green space
Lack of clarity on how Uncertainty and lack of clarity
BGI complies with surrounding how BGI strategies align
regulations with environmental regulations is a
common deterrent to implementation.
Regulators may not approve these
projects due to the uncertainty of time
between project implementation and the
emergence of results and temporal
variability in performance
Regulations crossing Regulations across different agencies,
multiple jurisdictions jurisdictions or levels of government
may also hinder the development of BGI
solutions
Infrastructural Lack of physical space The lack of physical space in urban areas
can limit the implementation of BGI.
For example, detention ponds are
suitable for suburban areas but require
too much area and, therefore, are not
feasible in many urban city centres. In
addition, retrofitting is difficult,
particularly in high-density areas
Poor maintenance Lack of proper maintenance can make
BGI ineffective over time and even fail.
Implementing large-scale BGI
programmes may be constrained by
insufficient resources and people trained
in installing and maintaining BGI
Inadequate sizing BGI is often well-suited for handling
small rain events, but significant storms
can generate volumes that can
overwhelm BGI, e.g. rain gardens, rain
barrels, and bioswales
Awareness and Lack of knowledge of Many communities are either unaware of
knowledge BGI benefits the benefits of BGI or believe it is more
expensive or difficult to implement than
traditional grey infrastructure

(continued)
 2 FROM TRADITIONAL GREY INFRASTRUCTURE … 25

Table 2.4 (continued)

Barrier Type Description

Limited scope of Many cities have built pilot or

current BGI pilot demonstration BGI projects that provide
projects cost information and short-term
performance data, but these studies are
not able to provide cost information on
the large-scale implementation of BGI
or able to provide information on the
benefits of installing many BGI measures
near a watershed or large community
area
Lack of awareness of Private sector bodies are not widely
private sector actors convinced of the commercial benefits of
becoming involved and fail to make land
available for multifunctional land use or
dedicate resources to developing BGI
Lack of understanding Lack of understanding of BGI and the
importance of multifunctional land use
planning and connectivity between
spaces
Shortage of trained A shortage of professionals who have
professionals the skills needed to plan, design, and
manage successful BGI
Short-term thinking A culture of short-term thinking means
that BGI, which is a long-term
contributor to environmental, social, and
economic benefits, fails to receive
sufficient support

Notes
1. World Meteorological Organization and Global Water Partnership,
“Urban Flood Risk Management,” (2008), http://www.apfm.info/pub
lications/tools/Tool_06_Urban_Flood_Risk_Management.pdf.
2. JJ Opperman, “A Flood of Benefits: Using Green Infrastructure to
Reduce Flood Risks,” (2014), https://www.conservationgateway.org/
ConservationPractices/Freshwater/HabitatProtectionandRestoration/
Documents/A%20Flood%20of%20Benefits%20-%20J.Opperman%20-%
20May%202014.pdf.
3. CT Driscoll, CG Eger, DG Chandler, CI Davidson, BK Roodsari, CD
Flynn, KF Lambert, ND Bettez, and PM Groffman, “Green Infrastruc-
ture: Lessons from Science and Practice,” (2015), http://projects.iq.har
vard.edu/files/science-policy/files/gi_report_surdna_6_29_15_final.pdf.
26 R. C. BREARS

4. American Rivers American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA), the

Water Environment Federation (WEF), and ECONorthwest, “Banking
on Green: A Look at How Green Infrastructure Can Save Municipalities
Money and Provide Economic Benefits Community-Wide,” (2012),
https://www.asla.org/uploadedFiles/CMS/Government_Affairs/Fed
eral_Government_Affairs/Banking%20on%20Green%20HighRes.pdf.
5. SWITCH Project, “Sustainable Water Management in the City of
the Future,” (2011), http://www.switchurbanwater.eu/outputs/pdfs/
Switch_-_Final_Report.pdf.
6. Iwona Wagner, Kinga Krauze, and Maciej Zalewski, “Blue Aspects of
Green Infrastructure,” Sustainable Development Applications 4 (2013).
7. Abhas K Jha, Todd W Miner, and Zuzana Stanton-Geddes, Building
Urban Resilience: Principles, Tools, and Practice (World Bank Publica-
tions, 2013).
8. Ibid.
9. World Meteorological Organization and Global Water Partnership,
“Urban Flood Risk Management”.
10. Laura Grant, “Multi-Functional Urban Green Infrastructure,” (The
Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management
[CIWEM], 2010).
11. Kara DiFrancesco et al., “Natural Infrastructure in the Nexus,” 1 (2015),
https://www.iucn.org/content/natural-infrastructure-nexus.
12. SWITCH Project, “Sustainable Water Management in the City of the
Future”.
13. Christchurch City Council, “Waterways, Wetlands and Drainage
Guide,” Visions. Christchurch, New Zealand, Christchurch City
Council (2003), http://ccc.govt.nz/environment/water/water-policy-
and-strategy/waterways-wetlands-and-drainage-guide/.
14. Grant, “Multi-Functional Urban Green Infrastructure”.
15. U.S. EPA, “Green Infrastructure for Climate Resiliency,” https://www.
epa.gov/green-infrastructure/green-infrastructure-climate-resiliency.
16. SWITCH Project, “Sustainable Water Management in the City of the
Future”.
17. NRDC, “After the Storm: How Green Infrastructure Can Effec-
tively Manage Stormwater Runoff from Roads and Highways,”
(2011), https://www.nrdc.org/resources/after-storm-how-green-infras
tructure-can-effectively-manage-stormwater-runoff-roads-and.
18. Australian Government Department of Environment and Energy, “Intro-
duction to Urban Stormwater Management in Australia,” (2002).
19. U.S. EPA, “Urbanization and Stream Temperature,” https://www3.epa.
gov/caddis/ssr_urb_tem1.html.
20. University of New Hampshire, “Thermal Impacts,” http://www.unh.
edu/unhsc/thermal-impacts.
 2 FROM TRADITIONAL GREY INFRASTRUCTURE … 27

21. Auckland Council, “Temperature as a Contaminant in Streams in

the Auckland Region: Stormwater Issues and Management Options,”
(2013), http://www.aucklandcouncil.govt.nz/SiteCollectionDocu
ments/aboutcouncil/planspoliciespublications/technicalpublications/
tr2013044temperatureasacontaminantinstreamsintheaucklandregion.pdf.
22. Blanca E Jimenez Cisneros et al., “Freshwater Resources,” Working
Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2014), http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/
report/graphics/Ch3.
23. U.S. EPA, “Green Infrastructure for Climate Resiliency”.
24. Jimenez Cisneros et al., “Freshwater Resources”.
25. Maryam Astaraie-Imani et al., “Assessing the Combined Effects of
Urbanisation and Climate Change on the River Water Quality in an Inte-
grated Urban Wastewater System in the Uk,” Journal of Environmental
Management 112 (2012).
26. SWITCH Project, “Sustainable Water Management in the City of the
Future”.
27. United Nations, “Population,” https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/
population.
28. “Population,” https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population.
29. United Nations Department Of Economic And Social Affairs Popu-
lation Division, “World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision,
Highlights,” http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/highlights/wup2014-highli
ghts.pdf.
30. Xing Quan Zhang, “The Trends, Promises and Challenges of Urbanisa-
tion in the World,” Habitat International 54 (2016).
31. Yi Li et al., “On the Relationship between Landscape Ecological Patterns
and Water Quality across Gradient Zones of Rapid Urbanization in
Coastal China,” Ecological Modelling 318 (2015).
32. Population Division UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
“2018 Revision of World Urbanization Prospects,” (2018), https://
www.un.org/development/desa/publications/2018-revision-of-world-
urbanization-prospects.html.
33. UNDESA, “World Urbanization Prospects. The 2018 Revision,” (2019).
34. Ibid.
35. Opperman, “A Flood of Benefits: Using Green Infrastructure to Reduce
Flood Risks”.
36. Abby Hall, “Green Infrastructure Case Studies: Municipal Policies for
Managing Stormwater with Green Infrastructure,” (2010), http://www.
sustainablecitiesinstitute.org/topics/water-and-green-infrastructure/sto
rmwater-management/green-infrastructure-case-studies-municipal-pol
icies-for-managing-stormwater-with-green-infrastructure.
28 R. C. BREARS

37. European Commission, “Communication from the Commission: Green

Infrastructure,” (2013), http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/
TXT/?uri=CELEX:52013DC0249.
38. “Building a Green Infrastructure for Europe,” (2013), http://ec.eur
opa.eu/environment/nature/ecosystems/docs/green_infrastructure_
broc.pdf.
39. Ibid.
40. Driscoll, “Green Infrastructure: Lessons from Science and Practice”.
41. World Meteorological Organization and Global Water Partnership,
“Urban Flood Risk Management”.
42. U.S. EPA, “Green Infrastructure: Opportunities That Arise During
Municipal Operations,” (2015), https://www.epa.gov/sites/produc
tion/files/2015-09/documents/green_infrastructure_roadshow.pdf.
43. European Commission, “Green Infrastructure (Gi)—Enhancing
Europe’s Natural Capital,” (2013), http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A52013DC0249.
44. “Building a Green Infrastructure for Europe”.
45. Wagner, Krauze, and Zalewski, “Blue Aspects of Green Infrastructure”.
46. European Commission, “The Multifunctionality of Green Infrastruc-
ture,” (2012), http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/ecosystems/
docs/Green_Infrastructure.pdf.
47. “Building a Green Infrastructure for Europe”.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid.
50. Melbourne Water, “Water Sensitive Urban Design (Wsud),” http://
www.mvcc.vic.gov.au/~/media/Files/Statutory%20Planning/WSUD%
20external%20links/Melb%20Water_WSUD%20overview.pdf.
51. Driscoll, “Green Infrastructure: Lessons from Science and Practice”.
52. European Commission, “Building a Green Infrastructure for Europe”.
53. Josh Foster, Ashley Lowe, and Steve Winkelman, “The Value of Green
Infrastructure for Urban Climate Adaptation,” Center for Clean Air
Policy 750 (2011).
54. City of Chicago, “City of Chicago Green Stormwater Infrastructure
Strategy,” (2014), https://www.cityofchicago.org/content/dam/city/
progs/env/ChicagoGreenStormwaterInfrastructureStrategy.pdf.
55. American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA), “Banking on Green:
A Look at How Green Infrastructure Can Save Municipalities Money
and Provide Economic Benefits Community-Wide”.
56. Ibid.
57. William C Lucas and David J Sample, “Reducing Combined Sewer Over-
flows by Using Outlet Controls for Green Stormwater Infrastructure:
Case Study in Richmond, Virginia,” Journal of Hydrology 520 (2015).
 2 FROM TRADITIONAL GREY INFRASTRUCTURE … 29

58. City of Chicago, “City of Chicago Green Stormwater Infrastructure

Strategy”.
59. City of Portland, “Grey to Green,” https://www.portlandoregon.gov/
bes/47203.
60. U.S. EPA, “Green Infrastructure in Arid and Semi-Arid Climates,”
(2010), https://www3.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/arid_climates_casestudy.
pdf.
61. American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA), “Banking on Green:
A Look at How Green Infrastructure Can Save Municipalities Money
and Provide Economic Benefits Community-Wide”.
62. U.S. EPA, “Green Infrastructure in Arid and Semi-Arid Climates”.
63. Steve Wise, “Green Infrastructure Rising,” Planning 74, no. 8 (2008).
64. U.S. EPA, “Green Infrastructure in Arid and Semi-Arid Climates”.
65. Foster, Lowe, and Winkelman, “The Value of Green Infrastructure for
Urban Climate Adaptation”.
66. U.S. EPA, “Green Infrastructure in Arid and Semi-Arid Climates”.
67. M Santamouris, “Cooling the Cities–a Review of Reflective and Green
Roof Mitigation Technologies to Fight Heat Island and Improve
Comfort in Urban Environments,” Solar Energy 103 (2014).
68. American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA), “Banking on Green:
A Look at How Green Infrastructure Can Save Municipalities Money
and Provide Economic Benefits Community-Wide”.
69. Scottish Natural Heritage, “Urban Green Infrastructure Benefits Fact-
sheets,” (2014), http://www.snh.gov.uk/docs/A1413427.pdf.
70. U.S. EPA, “Green Infrastructure for Climate Resiliency”.
71. Sarah Taylor Lovell and John R Taylor, “Supplying Urban Ecosystem
Services through Multifunctional Green Infrastructure in the United
States,” Landscape ecology 28, no. 8 (2013).
72. Erik Andersson et al., “Reconnecting Cities to the Biosphere: Steward-
ship of Green Infrastructure and Urban Ecosystem Services,” AMBIO
43, no. 4 (2014).
73. U.S. EPA, “The Economic Benefits of Protecting Healthy Watersheds:
Factsheet,” (2012), https://www.epa.gov/hwp/learn-about-healthy-wat
ersheds-their-assessment-and-protection#economic.
74. Alexandra Dapolito Dunn, “Siting Green Infrastructure: Legal and
Policy Solutions to Alleviate Urban Poverty and Promote Healthy
Communities,” Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review 37
(2010).
75. Manchester City Council, “Manchester Green and Blue Infrastructure
Strategy,” (2015), http://www.manchester.gov.uk/info/200024/consul
tations_and_surveys/6905/green_and_blue_infrastructure_consultation.
76. UK Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, “Urban Green
Infrastructure,” (2013), http://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/Resear
chBriefing/Summary/POST-PN-448.
30 R. C. BREARS

77. Scottish Natural Heritage, “Urban Green Infrastructure Benefits Fact-

sheets”.
78. European Commission, “The Multifunctionality of Green Infrastruc-
ture”.
79. Devon County Council, “Guiding Principle 9: Generating Income and
Attracting Investment,” https://new.devon.gov.uk/greeninfrastructure/
strategy/principles-and-strategic-priorities-for-devon/d9generating-inc
ome-and-attracting-investment.
80. Manchester City Council, “Manchester Green and Blue Infrastructure
Strategy”.
81. Forest Research, “Benefits of Green Infrastructure,” (2010), http://
www.forestry.gov.uk/fr/infd-8a9a2w.
82. Joseph Schilling and Jonathan Logan, “Greening the Rust Belt: A
Green Infrastructure Model for Right Sizing America’s Shrinking Cities,”
Journal of the American Planning Association 74, no. 4 (2008).
83. Robert F. Young, “Planting the Living City,” ibid 77 (2011).
84. Scottish Natural Heritage, “Urban Green Infrastructure Benefits Fact-
sheets”.
85. Forest Research, “Benefits of Green Infrastructure”.
86. U.S. EPA, “Green Infrastructure: Opportunities That Arise During
Municipal Operations”.
87. Michelle C Kondo et al., “The Impact of Green Stormwater Infrastruc-
ture Installation on Surrounding Health and Safety,” American Journal
of Public Health 105, no. 3 (2015).
88. Ross WF Cameron et al., “The Domestic Garden–Its Contribution to
Urban Green Infrastructure,” Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 11,
no. 2 (2012).
89. Forest Research, “Benefits of Green Infrastructure”.
90. U.S. EPA, “Green Infrastructure in Arid and Semi-Arid Climates”.
91. “Green Infrastructure: Opportunities That Arise During Municipal
Operations”.
92. Mark A Benedict and Edward T McMahon, Green Infrastructure:
Linking Landscapes and Communities (Island Press, 2012).
93. Santamouris, “Cooling the Cities–a Review of Reflective and Green Roof
Mitigation Technologies to Fight Heat Island and Improve Comfort in
Urban Environments”.
94. Diane E Pataki et al., “Coupling Biogeochemical Cycles in Urban Envi-
ronments: Ecosystem Services, Green Solutions, and Misconceptions,”
Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 9, no. 1 (2011).
95. Kevin M Flynn and Robert G Traver, “Green Infrastructure Life Cycle
Assessment: A Bio-Infiltration Case Study,” Ecological Engineering 55
(2013).
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 FIG. 144.—STAFFORDSHIRE SIDE.

FIG. 145.—DUBLIN CUT.

Rubbing Side and Pockets.—In salting sides, salt the heaviest on

the shoulder and along the loin, rubbing the edges of all cuts
carefully, seeing that the salt adheres to all parts of the meat before
it is piled, for if there are places where there is no salt on the meat, it
will discolor and eventually become slippery and in bad condition.
In stuffing the pockets of long clears and long ribs, do not use
more than one and one-half times the amount of salt on the same
area of shoulder or loin. Too much salt used in the pockets of the
sides gives the meat a burned salty appearance and condition.

FIG. 146.—ANTWERP BACK CUT.

 In rubbing the salt into the pockets be careful to put the salt into
every part, otherwise meat will spoil in places missed.
Bellies require less salt, the fixed rule being 42%. They are not
usually overhauled but are frozen at cure, if shipping is deferred.

FIG. 147.—SQUARE EXPORT SHORT RIB.

Color.—A great deal depends upon the color of English meats.

The trade demands a bright, attractive appearance in same and
considerable saltpetre is necessary. Four ounces of saltpetre to the
100 pounds of meat on cuts weighing from three to five pieces per
100 pounds, to as high as six ounces per 100 pounds on smaller
cuts, should be used. The salt and saltpetre should be thoroughly
mixed before applying.
 FIG. 148.—WILTSHIRE SIDE.

Piling.—Use extra care to pile meats closely and exclude the air,
for they will not develop a desirable color when they are exposed to
the air. After the meats are all piled evenly, the edges should be
gone over, and any exposed parts covered with a fine sprinkling of
salt.
Sides are piled so as to make a cup of the hollow portion with a
tendency for the pickle to drain slightly toward the back. Hams are
piled shank down on an angle of about 45°.
 FIG. 149.—SQUARE SHORT CLEAR.

Overhauling.—English middles weighing from twenty-three to thirty

pounds average, and long cut hams from twelve to fourteen pounds
and heavier, should be overhauled at from eight to twelve days old,
salting them as before described. Do not overhaul English meats
unless necessary in order to hold them after they are cured.

SHIPPING AGE.
Product Average Oct. 15 March 1
wt. lbs. to March 1 to Oct. 15
 Days Days
Bellies ... 15 to 25 15 to 25
Boneless backs ... 15 to 25 15 to 25
Cumberlands 20-24 20 to 25 20 to 25
Cumberlands 24-30 20 to 25 25 to 30
Cumberlands 30-40 25 to 30 25 to 30
Long clears under 30 20 to 25 20 to 25
Long clears over 30 20 to 25 25 to 30
Dublins and long ribs ... 20 to 25 20 to 25
Long cut hams 10-14 20 to 25 20 to 25
Long cut hams 14-18 25 to 30 25 to 30

Shipping Ages.—The table on the preceding page shows the ages

at which English meats can be safely shipped during seasons from
October 15 to March 1, and from March 1 to October 15.
These ages for shipping should be followed closely, but when
necessary the following exception may be made without detriment.
From October 15 to March 1, shortest shipping age may be
reduced five days.
Boxing Meats.—Meats to be packed in borax, cured as above,
should be put in a plain cold pickle 100-degree strong, then scraped
on the skin side and wiped with cloths wrung out of hot water. If the
meats are old and have a slippery appearance, they should be
scrubbed with a brush in warm pickle and wiped afterwards. They
should then be rubbed in borax with the rind placed upon a grating
and the surplus borax brushed off the skin side of the meat, using a
fine brush for so doing. It is customary to use from five and one-half
to six and one-half pounds of borax per 300 pounds of meat. Meats
to be packed in salt should not be washed. The skin and edges of
the meat should be thoroughly scraped and then rubbed in fine salt
before being put in the boxes. Meats are nailed under heavy
pressure so as to exclude all the air possible.
Wiltshires.—Singed Wiltshires, a cut which was revived during the
“Great War,” are made from hogs suitable for Cumberlands. Weights
vary by averages. The hogs are singed during slaughter, cured in
plain pickle, and shipped on ten days’ pickling, packed in dry salt.
 LONG CUT HAMS AND CUMBERLAND TESTS.
Av. wt.
live Average Per cent Per
hogs, weight cuts, Per cent Cumber- Per cent cent
lbs. lbs. hams lands miscellaneous total
16- P. S. lard 9.86
190 { Long cuts
Cumberlands 36-
18
} 18.37 40.43 { Raw leaf 3.59
Trimmings
} 73.97
42 1.92
14- P. S. lard 7.42
168 { Long cuts
Cumberlands 32-
16
} 18.66 39.17 { Raw leaf 3.30
Trimmings
} 70.47
38 1.92
12- P. S. lard 8.48
136 { Long cuts
Cumberlands 24-
14
} 18.45 37.48 { Raw leaf 3.38
Trimmings
} 69.34
28 1.55

Test.—This test may be of service. It shows the percentage of

yields of different weight hogs made into long cut hams and
Cumberlands, also average weights.
Pig Feet.—Usually only the front foot is used as it is a better
shaped foot to prepare than the hind foot. The hind feet are more or
less disfigured and out of condition by having the gam strings
opened in order to hang the hog on the sticks. The hind foot being
used largely for making a low grade of glue. It can, however, be used
in boneless pig’s feet.
Preparation.—The feet are scalded, after which the hoofs are
removed and the feet are shaved and cleaned, put into a plain salt
pickle, 90-degree strong by salometer test, and to this pickle should
be added six ounces of saltpetre to each 100 pounds of feet. The
feet should be left in this curing pickle for from six to eight days, or
until they show a bright red appearance when cooked. If this red
appearance does not extend clear through the feet after being
cooked, it shows that they are not fully cured. They should not be left
in the pickle longer than necessary to fully cure them for if heavily
salted it has the effect of making them break in the cooking water.
 Cooking.—After properly cured in the salt pickle the feet should be
cooked in a wooden vat (an iron vat discoloring them)
provided with a false bottom about six inches above the bottom, so
that the direct heat from the steam pipe does not come in contact
with the feet. The water should be brought to a temperature of 200°
to 206° F. and held at this temperature until the feet are sufficiently
cooked. The water should never be brought to the boiling point, as
the feet will become badly broken, which greatly injures their
appearance.
After the feet are sufficiently cooked and thoroughly chilled in cold
water, they should be put into a white wine vinegar pickle 45-degree
strong, it being preferable to pack feet which are to be used at once
in open vats in a refrigerated room held at a temperature of 38° to
40° F. Where feet are to be held for some months before using it is
advisable to put them into barrels or tierces after filling the tierces
with vinegar of 45-degree strength. The packages should be stored
in a temperature 40° F. When held this way it will be found that the
feet have absorbed a great deal of the vinegar and a very marked
increase in weight is obtained. There should be a gain of from 10 to
15 per cent in weight at the end of three months.
Tests.—Prepared pig’s feet at certain seasons of the year are
difficult of sale and there are times when it pays better to tank them
or use them for glue purposes. The following tests on rough
uncleaned fore and hind feet will show the yield when tanked.
Percentages in tests are correct. The prices are those ruling at the
time tests were made:

TEST ON TANKED PIGS FEET.

Total weight of front feet tanked 1,070 pounds cooked in tank five hours at
forty pounds pressure:
Sixty pounds hock meat, 5.61 per cent, at 3c per pound $ 1.80
Prime steam lard, 138 pounds, 12.90 per cent, at $9.35 per cwt. 12.90
Tankage (dry basis), 125 pounds, 11.68 per cent, at $17.50 per ton 1.09
Total $15.79
Gross value, $1.47 per cwt.

Weight hind feet to tank, 996 pounds, cooked in test tank five hours, with forty
pounds pressure:
Prime steam lard, 163 pounds, 16.37 per cent, at $9.35 per cwt. $15.24
Tankage (dry basis), 13.76 per cent, at $17.50 per ton 1.19
Total $16.43
Gross value, $1.62 per cwt.

The following tests show costs, in detail, of pig’s feet put up in

different sized packages, costs being figured at the regular Chicago
market prices at the time these tests were made:
TEST ON 483 PIECES OR 500 POUNDS PIGS FORE FEET.
Debit:
Cost of 500 pounds pigs fore feet at 1¹⁄₈c per pound $5.63
Shaving, hand and machine, 32c per 100 pieces 1.55
Pulling toes, 5c per 100 pieces .24
Counting, pickling and cooking .20
Splitting, 2c per 100 pounds .10
Miscellaneous labor .10
Fifty-five pounds salt at ¹⁄₄c per pound .14
Two pounds saltpetre at 5c per pound .10
Administrative expense at 47c per 100 pounds on 300 pounds
produced 1.41
Total $9.47
Credit:
Pigs feet oil, 18 pounds at $5.60 per cwt. $1.00
Pigs feet bones, 58 pounds at ³⁄₄c per pound .43
Pigs feet trimmings, 13 pounds at 1¹⁄₄c per pound .13
Total $1.56
Total net cost of 300 pounds of prepared feet 7.91
Cost per pound, including administrative expense, $0.026.
Green weight, 500 pounds; cleaned weight, 450 pounds;
split weight, 300 pounds.

Pig Tongues.—Various uses are made of this piece of meat. They

are very extensively used in canning factories where they are put up
and known as “lunch tongue”; they are also used in different kinds of
sausage, and are put up to quite an extent in vinegar pickle. When
handled in the latter manner the following suggestions are of
practical value.
The tongues after being trimmed should be cured in a 75-degree
plain salt pickle using three ounces of saltpetre to 100 pounds of
tongue. After the tongues are fully cured, which will require from
eight to twelve days, they are scalded, the outer surface of the
tongue being scraped off. In some instances the scalding is done
before the tongues are put in the pickle. Either way is proper. After
being scraped and cleaned they are cooked as desired and
afterward pickled in a white wine vinegar pickle of 45-degree
strength. The following tests will show the cost of tongues packed in
different sized packages, the cost being determined by the cost of
meat and supplies at the time tests were made:

TEST ON 1,000 PIECES, OR 910 POUNDS PIG TONGUES.

Debit:
910 pounds pig tongues, at 6¹⁄₄c per pound $56.88
Scraping at 15c per 100 pieces 1.50
Counting, cooking, etc., three hours at 18c per hour .54
Trimming at 5c per 100 pieces .50
Miscellaneous labor .20
Administrative expense, 47c per 100 on 560 pounds produced 2.63
Total $62.25
Credit:
Green weight, 910 pounds; cooked weight, 560 pounds; shrinkage, 38
per cent.
Trimming 112 pounds at 1¹⁄₂c 1.68
Net cost $60.57
Cost per pound, 10⁴⁄₅c; cost handling per cwt., including administrative expense,
$0.665 per 100 pounds finished.

COST OF ONE BARREL PIG TONGUES PACKED AT 190 POUNDS NET.

190 pounds pig tongues at 10⁴⁄₅c per pound $20.52
One barrel .78
Packing, one-half hour at 17¹⁄₂c per hour .09
Pickle, ten gallons at 2¹⁄₂c per gallon .25
Coopering, one-sixth hour at 25c per hour .04
 Spices, 2c .02
Miscellaneous labor .03
Total cost per barrel $21.73

Formula for Export Hog Tongue Pickle.—There is at times quite a

demand for fresh pig tongues in Liverpool and other foreign points, in
which case the trade demands that they arrive there without being
salt-cured. The following formula will be found very valuable for this
purpose and also point out how to carry tongues without salting
them, when it is desired to do so: Use 116 pounds of boracic acid,
fifty-eight pounds of borax, twenty-nine pounds of fine salt and seven
and one-quarter pounds of saltpetre.
The method of mixing is as follows: The boracic acid and borax
are put into a vat containing sixty gallons of water. The vat should be
connected with steam supply so that it can be brought to the boiling
point, cooking same slowly and stirring it well for half an hour. The
salt and saltpetre is then added and should be stirred until
thoroughly dissolved. After the solution has been allowed to cool,
add sufficient cold water to give it a strength of 21 degrees by
salometer test. Chill the solution to a temperature of 38° F. The
tongues should be trimmed and thoroughly chilled, it being essential
that they are in perfect condition. They should then be packed in a
tierce, after which the tierce is filled with the preservative. Tongue
should be shipped in refrigerator cars where the temperature is not
allowed to go above 38° F.
Pig Snouts.—These consist of the snout of the hog together with
the upper lips and front part of the nose. During preparation they are
handled very much in the same manner as pig’s feet. They are first
shaved and cleaned, afterward scalded, removing the outer skin or
membrane of the nose. Then they are cured, using a 90-degree plain
salt pickle and adding thereto three ounces of saltpetre to 100
pounds of snouts. After they are fully cured, which will require from
five to eight days, they should be cooked in a wooden vat to the
desired degree of tenderness after which they are chilled in cold
water and pickled in white wine vinegar of 45-degree strength. The
following tests show the cost of preparing pig snouts in different
sized packages:

TEST ON 1,060 PIECES, OR 1,000 POUNDS PIG SNOUTS.

Debit:
Cost of 1,000 pounds pig snouts at 2¹⁄₂c per pound $25.00
Shaving at 40c per 100 pieces 4.24
Labor, trucking, cooking, inspecting, pickling, etc. 1.10
100 pounds salt at ¹⁄₄c per pound .25
Two pounds saltpetre at 5c per pound .10
Administrative expenses, 47c per 100 pounds on 610 pounds
production 2.87
Total $33.56
Credit:
Trimmings, 90 pounds at 2c per pound 1.80
Net cost $31.76
Cost per pound, 5¹⁄₅c; cost of handling, administrative expense,
85⁶⁄₁₀c per cwt.
Green weight, 1,000 pounds; cleaned weight, 900 pounds;
cooked weight, 610 pounds.
 CHAPTER XXIII.
LARD, COMPOUND AND GREASES
Historical — Quantity and Quality — Neutral Lard — Kettle Rendered
Lard — Prime Steam Lard — Refined Lard — Bleaching Lard — Filter
Press — Lard Roll — Lard Packing — Compound Lard — Cottonseed
Oil — Refining Crude Oil — Deodorizing Cottonseed Oil — Pressing
Temperatures — Lard Oil — Treatment for Lard Grease.

Historical.—The refining of lard in packing houses is

comparatively recent, and many people will be surprised to know
that even the largest packers only added lard refining to their
business within the past twenty-five to thirty years. Previous to that
time lard refineries were operated by independent firms, who bought
their supply of prime “steam” lard, converting it into the different
grades in their own establishments. In the natural evolution of the
business this branch was taken up by the packers.
Before the advent of present methods, lard refining consisted in
pressing from the lard about 30 to 40 per cent lard oil, sold for
lubricating and lighting purposes, etc., and mixing the stearine with
straight lard, making a high grade pure lard. At this time the method
of bleaching in all lard refineries was accomplished by the use of
caustic soda, pearl ash, lime, alum, or other substances, the
principal ingredient, being caustic soda. The underlying principle is
that alkali, used in proper proportion, saponified the acid in the lard.
This process, however, is a thing of the past.
Quantity and Quality.—As shown in a previous chapter from
thirteen to fifteen percent of the live weight of the hog is fresh lard,
consequently where large numbers of hogs are killed the
manufacture of lard is an important factor in the packing business.
The principal grades are known as neutral lard, kettle rendered lard,
prime steam lard, refined lard and compound lard.
Tallow and stearine also enter into the manufacture of refined and
compound lards.
Neutral Lard.—When oleomargarine was first manufactured it
was considered necessary to use natural butter in the mixture in
order to give it the proper consistency, as the oleo oil was grainy and
coarse, therefore sufficient natural butter was added to change that
condition. Some one conceived the idea of using neutral lard made
from leaf lard in place of natural butter in oleomargarine. When this
was worked out successfully the term oleomargarine practically
disappeared and the term “butterine” was substituted. In most of the
butterine made today no natural butter is used.
The conditions in making oleo oil and tallows have their parallel in
neutral lard and kettle rendered lard. When leaf lard is cooked for
kettle rendered lard, if a temperature of from 250° to 260° F. is
obtained the tissues of the lard are burned or partially consumed,
this heat giving it a flavor which is called “high kettle rendered” flavor.
When it is made into neutral this condition is reversed, the lard being
melted at a temperature of from 126° to 128° F. At this temperature
no burning of tissues is possible, hence the oil extract is neutral in
every sense of the word, in color, flavor and smell. With these three
essential points the material readily forms the chief substance for
butterine by adding milk or cream and oleo oil and cotton seed oil, as
desired.
Manufacture of Neutral.—The following steps define the process
of manufacture necessary to produce neutral:
Chilling.—The leaves as pulled from the hogs are rapidly sent to a
cooling room to be thoroughly chilled. The leaves are spread
separately in flat sheets on metal supports, which are preferable to
wood. If it is chilled too slowly a strong “hoggy” flavor is developed,
which it is impossible to eradicate from the fresh product. The leaf
lard should be chilled for twenty-four hours in a temperature of 32° to
34° F.
Melting.—It is put through a hasher of the Enterprise type to an
open top water jacketed kettle, similar in type to an oleo kettle.
Frequently the melting kettle is a wooden vat with a galvanized iron
kettle inside, the space between the wooden vat and the galvanized
kettle being filled with water which is heated to the desired
temperature for melting the product. It is not practicable to use a
steam jacket as the heat would be excessive and it would be difficult
to control. This kettle properly is water jacketed and open top so no
pressure is generated.
In a kettle holding 4,000 to 5,000 pounds, water should be warmed
in the jacket before lard is put in, the agitator started slowly, not to
exceed 10 to 12 revolutions per minute, and the heat should be
regulated so as to have the lard all melted and ready to drop in one
and one-half hours from the time of starting to hash. By the time the
lard is thoroughly melted the temperature should be 126° to 128° F.
Settling.—As soon as the lard is melted it should be drawn off with
a siphon into receiving kettles, which are also jacketed and held at
practically the same temperature. When dropped it should be salted
with one-half to one per cent of fine salt, letting it stand from fifteen
to thirty minutes. In drawing off it should be siphoned through several
layers of cheese cloth, forming a strainer, into receiving tanks, where
it should settle four hours. It is drawn into tierces through a pipe
raised from the bottom to leave one and one-half to two inches of
lard in the tank, care being taken that no “bottoms” are drawn into
the tierce, as these contain tissues which are, for the most part,
undiscernible; also moisture. These ingredients in neutral, being only
partially cooked, immediately begin to decompose. It is a delicate
article to handle and the settling of all impurities is important. The
neutral, when drawn into tierces, should be at a temperature of from
115° to 118° F.
Storage.—The tierced lard should be kept at a temperature of
about 75° F. for about ten or fifteen hours, and then put into a cooler
with a temperature of from 45° to 50° F. The tierces should be filled
through the bilge and not closed when stored in the first mentioned
temperature, the bungs being left out, while the heat is permitted to
escape, thus carrying with it considerable flavor, and making the
material more neutral than if the tierces were closed as soon as
filled.
 No. 2 Neutral Lard.—This is a neutral lard made from back fat. At
times it is profitable to make this product into
No. 2 neutral instead of steam lard, for when the market for No. 1
neutral is extremely high there is demand for a good No. 2. When
making this, the rind should be skinned off from the back fat, leaving
clear back fat to be hashed for neutral. If the rinds are put in, it gives
the product a “hoggy” flavor, which makes it undesirable. It is hashed
and melted the same as No. 1 neutral, except as to temperature, the
melting point for this being 132° to 134° F., method and apparatus as
described for the making of No. 1 neutral, being applicable to this.
Test—Pure Steam Lard vs. Neutral.—Below is a test on raw leaf
lard rendered into neutral, showing yield, and percentage of the
neutral lard produced; the scrap and bottoms from the kettle being
run into kettle rendered lard.

TEST ON LEAF LARD RENDERED INTO NEUTRAL.

Raw leaves 8,958 pounds at $ 0.08¹⁄₈ per pound = $727.84
Salt for settling 35 pounds at 4.90 per ton = .09
$727.93
Production:
Neutral lard 7,880 pounds at $0.09125 per pound = $718.96
Neutral bottoms 1,055 pounds
(Run under forty pounds pressure two and one-half hours.)
Prime steam lard 497 pounds at 0.082 per pound = 40.75
Tankage 56 pounds at 18.00 per ton = .45
$760.16
Gain on production $ 32.23
Gain per 100 pounds on raw weight, $0.036.
Percentage Production:
Neutral lard to raw weight 87.97
Neutral bottoms to raw weight 11.78
Prime steam lard to raw weight 5.55
Tankage to raw weight .63
Prime steam lard to weight of bottoms 47.11
Tankage to weight of bottoms 5.31
Total production of lards 93.52
 Total production of raw weights 94.15
Tanking Leaf Lard:
Raw leaves 1,000 pounds at $ 0.08125 per pound = $ 81.25
Prime steam lard 929 pounds at 0.0825 per pound = 76.18
Tankage 5 pounds at 18.00 per ton
Loss on production $ 5.07
Loss per pound on raw weight .0051
Prime steam lard to raw weight, per cent, 92.9.

Test—Chilling and Tanking.—

TEST ON CHILLED LEAF LARD TO DETERMINE VALUE AND YIELD.

Warm leaf lard to cooler 1,000 lbs.
Chilled leaf lard 986 lbs.
Shrinkage, 1.4 per cent 14 lbs.
Weight to test tank, 986 pounds; value per cwt., $7,556.
Yield prime steam lard 94.12 per cent; 928 lbs. at $8.025 per cwt. $74.47
Yield tankage (pressed) .81 per cent; 8 lbs. at 9.89 per ton .04
Total $74.51

Test.—Showing manipulation of 5,000 pounds of back fat to make

neutral, kettle rendered lard and pure steamed lard:
TEST ON 5,000 POUNDS OF BACK FAT CONVERTED TO NO. 2 NEUTRAL
KETTLE RENDERED LARD AND PRIME STEAM LARD.
Net wt. Per
lbs. cent.
Back fat 5,000
Less skins removed 586 = 11.72
Skinned back fat rendered to No. 2 neutral 4,414
Production No. 2 neutral 1,846 = 41.82
Bottoms left in kettle 2,568
Bottoms from No. 2 neutral rendered to kettle rendered lard 2,568
Stearine added 270 = 10.51
Total 2,838
Production of kettle rendered lard from above 1,940 = 68.36
Bottoms from No. 2 neutrals 898
Kettle rendered bottoms 673
Loss on production 225
Bottoms from kettle rendered to prime steam lard to tank 673
Production of prime steam lard 307 = 45.62
Skins from back fat rendered to prime steam lard 586
Production of prime steam lard 192 = 32.76

RECAPITULATION.
Net wt.
lbs.
Rendering back fat 5,000
Oleo stearine added 270
Total 5,270
Production No. 2 neutral lard 1,846 pounds
Production kettle rendered lard 1,940 pounds
Production prime steam lard 499 pounds 4,285
Waste 985

Kettle Rendered Lard.—Kettle rendered lard is the purest and

best lard made in packing houses and consists of leaf lard and back
fat, the proportions varying according to the value of the raw product,
usually on a basis of about 60 per cent back fat and 40 per cent leaf.
While kettle rendered lard is sold under the label of “pure leaf lard”
there is little leaf used, as this part is worth more as a neutral lard
than when made into kettle rendered. A very acceptable formula for
kettle rendered lard, if handled properly, is as follows:

70 per cent back fat;

15 per cent leaf scraped lard, which is pieces of leaf, scraped out of the hog after
the leaf lard has been pulled, and thoroughly chilled;
15 per cent lard stearine.

Where neutral lard and kettle rendered lard are made together a
nice flavor may be imparted to the kettle rendered lard by using the
bottoms of neutral lard when cooking it, as the scrap from the neutral
when brought to the high temperature of kettle rendered lard imparts
a rich flavor.
Process for Kettle Rendered Lard.—The raw product is put
through a hasher which cuts the fat tissues, so that when the heat is
applied the oil readily separates. The kettle generally used for this
purpose is about five feet in diameter and from five to seven feet
deep, made of wrought iron, jacketed for steam, with an agitator to
keep the product agitated while cooking. The jacket should be kept
heated until through hashing, then increased until the temperature of
the lard reaches 255° to 260° F., when the pressure should be shut
off for one and one-half hours at least—one and one-half hours
should be taken to reach this period. If lard stearine is used it should
be added at this time, using about 15 per cent for the summer
formula. After this period of shut-off, again turn on the steam, holding
temperature, allowing the contents to cook until dry, or until no
further steam arises, which will consume probably from thirty to forty-
five minutes. Stop agitating and add twenty pounds of salt, let stand
to settle one hour, then lower into the kettle below, strain through a
cloth sieve, the lard being taken off the scrap with a siphon. The
scrap will remain in the bottom of the cooking kettle; if handled
carefully, very little will pass through the pipe. The lard, when being
drawn into the kettle below, should be passed through several
thicknesses of cheese cloth in order to catch any small pieces of
scrap or tissue.
Settling.—After the lard is lowered into the settling kettle, allow it to
stand two to three hours, then siphon to a third kettle, as
considerable scrap will have gone through into the lard from the
cooking kettle, strain it through a double thickness of cheese cloth
stretched over a frame. In the third kettle a scum will arise on it,
which should be immediately skimmed off, and about ten pounds of
fine salt added to a 5,000-pound batch, to aid in settling. If
convenient, it is advisable to allow the lard to settle in this kettle for
twelve hours before drawing it off, although this length of time is not
necessary, but a perfect settlement of the impurities is necessary to
make the best lard.
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