UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

KNS 3143
ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

PROJECT DRAINAGE DESIGN - DARUL

TITLE
HANA HOUSING PHASE 2
DATE OF
31st DECEMBER 2024
SUBMISSION

LECTURER DR. NORAZLINA BT BATENI

GROUP GROUP 8

1. JESSE LIEW JIA HUI (86527)

2. HESTA BONG WEN TZE (86491)
GROUP 3. MUHAMMAD RAFI BIN JOHAN (86699)
MEMBERS 4. SITI NORHALIZA BINTI SUMADI (87003)
5. FAIZATUL FARAHANA BINTI FADILLAH
(87132)
 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
KNS3143 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY
PROJECT DRAINAGE DESIGN

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION & THEORY 2

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY 4
1.2 OBJECTIVES 5
1.3 STUDY AREA 5
1.4 SCOPE OF WORK 7
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY 7
2.1 STORMWATER MANAGEMENT 10
2.2 STORMWATER ENGINEERING DESIGN - CODES, STANDARDS AND
REGULATIONS 10
2.3 HYDROLOGY DESIGN 11
2.3.1 HYDROLOGY DESIGN - QUANTITY DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS 12
2.3.2 HYDROLOGY DESIGN - AVERAGE RECURRENCE INTERVAL 13
2.3.3 HYDROLOGY DESIGN - TIME OF CONCENTRATION (TC) 14
2.3.4 HYDROLOGY DESIGN - DESIGN RAINFALL (IDF) 16
2.3.5 HYDROLOGY DESIGN - PEAK DISCHARGE ESTIMATION 19
CHAPTER 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 23
3.1 RECOMMENDATIONS 24
CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION 26
REFERENCES 30
APPENDIX 32

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KNS3143 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY
PROJECT DRAINAGE DESIGN

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION & THEORY

Floods have become a recurring and severe problem in Malaysia, exacerbated by

rapid urbanization, climate change, and inadequately designed drainage systems.
Efficient project drainage design is essential in mitigating these impacts and ensuring
sustainable urban development. Urban stormwater management in Malaysia has evolved
significantly, driven by adopting frameworks like the Urban Stormwater Management
Manual for Malaysia (MSMA) and Sarawak Urban Stormwater Management (SUStoM)
guidelines. These policies emphasize sustainable and eco-friendly drainage approaches
to reduce urban flooding risks, improve water quality, and promote environmental
sustainability.

A key focus of contemporary drainage design lies in integrating low-impact

development (LID) techniques, such as bio-retention systems, vegetated swales, and
infiltration trenches. These systems aim to manage stormwater at its source,
complementing traditional drainage infrastructure. Recent studies highlight the
application of green infrastructure (GI) to optimize urban drainage, addressing both
flood control and water quality (Chow et al., 2016). Moreover, research underscores the
necessity of data-driven designs informed by hydrological models, climate change
predictions, and urban planning frameworks (Zakaria et al., 2012). These advancements
signify a shift towards innovative flood mitigation strategies tailored to Malaysia's
diverse urban and rural landscapes.

A pivotal aspect of project drainage design is the integration of hydrological and

hydraulic analyses. This involves estimating peak runoff using empirical formulas, such
as the Rational Method, which remains widely employed in Malaysia (Zakaria et al.,
2012):

𝑄= 𝐶• 𝑖• 𝐴

Where the equations represent;

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𝑄 = 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑚 /𝑠)

𝐶 = 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

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𝑖 = 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚𝑚/ℎ𝑟)

𝐴 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (ℎ𝑎)

Additionally, accurate determination of the time of concentration (Tc) ensures effective

stormwater management:

𝑇𝑐 = 𝑡𝑑 + 𝑡𝑜

Where;

𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑡𝑑 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝐿/𝑉, 𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑡𝑜 = 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝐿 = 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑚

𝑉 = 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑚/𝑠

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1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

The escalating challenges posed by urbanization and climate change call for the
immediate implementation of efficient and sustainable drainage systems for stormwater
management. The initial step in this drainage design project is performing a thorough
analysis of the current site characteristics and relevant criteria. This evaluation not only
illustrates present dynamics but also guides sustainable actions in accordance with
Sustainable Stormwater Management (SUStoM) standards. When more adverse weather
pushes the boundaries of what seem to be conventional drainage and sewage systems, it
is crucial to design proper stormwater management systems. Excessive surface water
runoff contributes to sewer overloads and facilitates the influx of contaminants into our
rivers and streams.

Innovative flood water drainage systems can mitigate the impacts of climate
change, enabling us to adapt and implement sustainable modifications to the
infrastructure of our urban areas. In this project, the conventional drainage system is
engineered to mitigate flash floods and to provide a more efficient disposal of
stormwater runoff. Designing drainage systems based on standards like SUStOM and
MSMA is crucial for reasons such as public safety and environmental protection. Such
standards ensure the system can handle extreme weather conditions, minimizing the risk
of floods and damage to infrastructure. Furthermore, with SUStoM’s emphasis in
low-impact development (LID), it offers a more cost-effective approach that leads to
cleaner waterways especially in a coastal area such as Kuching.

Besides SUStoM and MSMA, the Hydrological Procedure No. 26 - Estimation

of construction Rainstorm (HP26) is also used as a guide in drainage design. While
HP26 does not specifically concentrate on drainage, it provides the requisite data and
guidelines for engineers to assess rainfall intensity and depth. This information is
essential for designing drainage systems that effectively manage stormwater runoff,
thereby preventing flooding and ensuring the safety and functionality of the
development.

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1.2 OBJECTIVES
1. To estimate the peak runoff (flood flow) and assess the hydrological and
hydraulic characteristics of the study area to ensure the design accommodates
stormwater effectively.
2. To evaluate the capacity and performance of the existing drainage network in the
study area and identify deficiencies or areas for improvement.
3. To apply hydrological modeling techniques, such as the Rational Method and
Manning’s Equation, ensuring a comprehensive and data-driven design process.

1.3 STUDY AREA

Figure 1. Location of Darul Hana Housing Phase 2

The Darul Hana Housing Project, under which this study is initiated, is a
state-funded project that began in December 2017 to relocate villagers to make way for
further development of the city. The area is a significant development with a crucial
focus on a well-designed drainage system as the area faces potential flooding from

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heavy rainfall. As the housing area is located near the Sarawak River, it posed a risk of
flooding in the event of heavy rainfall. Stormwater runoff in the Darul Hana Housing
Project in Kuching was designed to be efficiently handled through an extensive drainage
system. An integrated design is the foundation, where the drainage system is made a part
of an overall sewerage system. Thus, this study will assess the effectiveness of the
drainage system in managing stormwater through on-site observations and
measurements, including the determination of peak runoff, time of concentration, and
current drainage capacity. This study will also address possible problems that could
impede the effectiveness of the system.

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Figure 2. Layout using AutoCAD of Darul Hana Housing Phase 2

1.4 SCOPE OF WORK

The scope of work of this study includes:

● Site visits to collect data on the drainage system which include visual
inspections, flow measurements, and condition assessments.
● Defining the study area boundaries, including all impacted areas within the
development due to the drainage system.
● Examining the hydrological elements of the studied area, including rainfall
intensity, catchment area attributes, and peak runoff estimation.
● Calculating runoff volumes and peak flow rates with suitable hydrological
methods, such as the Rational Method.
● Identifying pipe sizes, channel dimensions, and structural parameters.
● Assessing the current drainage systems in and near the development area and
evaluating how current development affects nearby hydrology.
● Preparing a comprehensive report which includes the methodology of study, data
analysis and a proposed recommendation.

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY

The methodology describes detailed procedures that were meticulously followed

to execute the study focused on drainage design. These included a comprehensive data
collection process, a thorough hydrological and hydraulic properties analysis, and a
detailed evaluation of the drainage network system within the designated study area.

The data-collecting procedure for drainage design begins with carefully selecting
the study location, as site factors considerably impact hydrological and hydraulic
analysis. In addition to addressing current drainage issues like insufficient flow capacity
or frequent flooding, the chosen location must reflect typical conditions, considering
factors like rainfall intensity and land use (Manoj Nallanathel, 2013). Site visits are

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conducted to evaluate acquired data, assess existing drainage structures, and observe
physical conditions such as vegetation, and water flow obstacles while collecting critical
data like soil type and runoff coefficients (Alvin & Mardyanto, 2018). In addition to
conducting measurements of the drainage's width and depth, these visits also collect
photographic data for future reference.

Figure 3. Site visit and data collection

The Rational Method or other suitable models were used to calculate peak
discharge as the initial step in the hydrological analysis. The catchment area size, runoff
coefficients, and rainfall intensity have to be integrated for this calculation. The
Manning equation was used in the hydraulic analysis to determine the proposed drainage

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system's dimensions, ensuring adequate flow velocity and capacity while meeting design
requirements and reducing runoff risk (Suprapto et al., 2018).

Field data and design estimates were compared to assess the current drainage
system. The ability of existing structures to manage peak runoff under design storm
conditions was used to evaluate their sufficiency. Any errors or inefficiencies that have
been identified provide enhanced solutions. The results were combined to suggest a
drainage plan that successfully meets the requirements of the study area. To ensure that
the proposed design would work in a variety of situations, it was verified using
specialized software such as AutoCAD Civil 3D (Milicevic et al., 2017). The suggested
method met design standards by integrating field data, design calculations, and software
validation, giving a long-term solution to manage runoff and reduce flooding problems.

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Figure 4. Site Overview

2.1 STORMWATER MANAGEMENT

The past concept of stormwater systems in Malaysia has been characterized by

quick disposal, localized, reactive, and single-functional drainage. Maintenance of
proper drainage systems is crucial in order to allow for the capture and removal of
stormwater to discourage extensive flooding in urban areas. Stormwater management
can be defined broadly as the determination of rational and efficient approaches to the
disposal of stormwater and equal emphasis is placed on the need to support the needs of
the human population and the need to protect the environment. The key principles to
proper stormwater management is that the system effectively mimics the natural
hydrological cycle, mitigates the volume of stormwater runoff and mitigates flood risk
by efficiently regulating the amount and flow rate of stormwater. In the efforts of
managing stormwater, there are several countries besides Malaysia that have developed
their own stormwater management manuals and guidelines to address the specific
challenges and regulations within their jurisdictions. For example, the Sustainable
Drainage Systems (SuDS) Manual is used in the United Kingdom, Water Sensitive
Urban Design (WSUD) Guidelines in Australia, the Sponge City Initiative in China and
EPA Stormwater Management Manuals in the United States. Despite having different
terms and under different jurisdictions, the primary objective of these manuals is to offer
guidance and the optimal approaches for the design, execution, and upkeep of efficient
stormwater management systems.

2.2 STORMWATER ENGINEERING DESIGN - CODES, STANDARDS AND

REGULATIONS

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The stormwater engineering design encompasses the planning and

implementation of stormwater management systems for the proposed Darul Hana
project. This includes the development of drainage infrastructure and the integration of
stormwater management facilities, such as on-site detention ponds, dry detention ponds,
and wet detention ponds. The design and assessment of the existing and future land use
within the project area are guided by relevant manuals, standards, and design guidelines
specific to stormwater engineering.

a) Sarawak Urban Stormwater Management (SUStoM) Guideline, Department of

Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia, 1st Edition (2016) and 2nd Edition (2017) and 3rd
Edition 2022,

b) Urban Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia/ Manual Saliran Mesra Alam
Malaysia, Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia, 2000 (MSMA 1) and 2012
(MSMA 2)

c) Guideline for Road Drainage Design, Vol. 4 – Surface Drainage, Road Engineering
Association of Malaysia. (REAM – GL 3/2002)

d) Hydrological Procedure (HP 26)-Estimation of Design Rainstorm in Sabah and

Sarawak, Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia, (Revised and Updated 2018)

e) Hourly and High & Low Tide Tables (Including Standard Ports of Sabah, Published
by The Director of Marine Sarawak, Malaysia.

f) Development Control Standards Manual, State Planning Authority, Ministry of

Planning and Resource Management, 1999

2.3 HYDROLOGY DESIGN

The design of a drainage system primarily involves two key parameters:
estimating peak runoff (peak flood flow) and designing appropriate structures to manage
it effectively. These processes are referred to as the hydrological and hydraulic activities
during the design stages. The factors influencing the magnitude of flood flows within a
catchment include the catchment area, rainfall characteristics, topography, vegetation,

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soil type, catchment shape, available storage in lakes and swamps, and the level of
urbanization.
Hydrology design primarily aims to determine the volume of water to be
captured or stored by stormwater engineering structures, such as detention ponds,
infiltration basins, and drainage networks, which serve as hydraulic components.

2.3.1 HYDROLOGY DESIGN - QUANTITY DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS

The quantity design consists of the type of development and the quantity design
storms for minor and major storms from 5 to 10 ARIs years for minor systems and from
20 to 100 years for major systems.

Table 1. Quantity Design Storm ARI’s

In the Darul Hana Housing Phase 2, the requirements of SUStoM published by

the Department of Irrigation and Drainage Sarawak have been adopted as the basis for
the development of the stormwater drainage design.

The DID Standard establishes two basic flood protection criteria as follows:

i) Minor Storm - There should be no inconvenience or nuisance flooding resulting from

a storm of 1 in a 10-year design return period for medium-density residential areas, and
commercial and industrial areas.

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ii) Major Storm - Flooding resulting from a major storm of 1 in a 100-year design return
period should not cause significant damage to residential, commercial or industrial
properties and the flood levels resulting from this major storm should not exceed
building floor levels.

These essential criteria have been adopted in the determination of the site
platform levels and stormwater drainage system. The first criterion is considered to be
the ‘minor” flow condition and has been interpreted to mean that all roads, car parks and
open space shall be free from inundation under the 10-year flood event as appropriate to
the land use of the development.

2.3.2 HYDROLOGY DESIGN - AVERAGE RECURRENCE INTERVAL

The design ARI (Average Recurrence Interval) of a stormwater engineering

facility is determined based on the balance between economic considerations and the
level of protection (risk) the facility provides. The ARIs to be applied for designing
minor and major stormwater quantity systems are outlined in Table 1.1 of Chapter 1 in
MSMA. It is assumed that the design flow corresponding to a particular ARI is derived
from a design storm rainfall of the same ARI. The design rainfall intensity (expressed in
mm/hr) is a function of the rainfall duration (minutes or hours) and the ARI (months or
years). It is highly recommended that the performance of the designed drainage system
be evaluated for a range of ARIs and storm durations to ensure that the system operates
effectively under varied conditions.

The selection of ARI for a project depends on the type of system being designed and the
level of protection required:

i) Minor Stormwater Systems - Designed for frequent, smaller rainfall events (e.g., 5–10
years ARI). These systems include roadside drains, small culverts, and urban gutters.

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ii) Major Stormwater Systems - Designed for less frequent but more intense rainfall
events (e.g., 50–100 years ARI). These systems include detention basins, floodways, and
large culverts.

The Darul Hana Housing Phase 2 project is primarily a residential development

requiring efficient yet cost-effective stormwater drainage systems. A 10-year ARI was
selected for the design, as reflected in the Rational Method formula (𝑄10=𝐶⋅𝑖⋅𝐴), where
𝑄10 represents the peak discharge for a 10-year ARI rainfall event. Minor stormwater
systems, such as roadside drains, small culverts, and urban gutters influence the decision
to use a 10-year ARItters. These are typically designed for more frequent rainfall events
with ARIs of 5 to 10 years. This level of design is sufficient for residential areas to
handle regular stormwater runoff without significant flooding.

A 10-year ARI provides an economical solution for residential developments.

Designing for higher ARIs (e.g., 50 or 100 years) would increase costs significantly,
which may not be justifiable for minor drainage systems.

The MSMA (Manual Saliran Mesra Alam) recommends a 10-year ARI for minor
stormwater systems in residential areas. This ensures compliance with Malaysian
drainage standards while maintaining reliability and safety.

2.3.3 HYDROLOGY DESIGN - TIME OF CONCENTRATION (TC)

The time of concentration also known as Tc in hydrology denotes the duration
required for runoff to travel from the furthest point in a watershed to its outlet. The TC is
one of the crucial parameters for numerous hydrological models which includes the
Rational Method which is utilised for the estimation of peak flow rates. Tc helps in
determining the most suitable design storm duration as a shorter Tc typically requires a
storm of higher magnitude. This directly affects the dimensions of drainage structures
such as pipes, channels and detention ponds because a larger Tc would require a larger
structure to hold the runoff as compared to a shorter Tc. Additionally, Tc is crucial for

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flood risk assessment, as shorter values are linked to higher peak flows and increased
flooding potential.

Several factors that affect Tc include the watershed area and shape, slope, land
use, and flow path features. It implies that large watersheds with uniform slopes have
longer Tcs than small watersheds with steep slopes and impervious covers that increase
Tc and runoff. Some ways of estimating Tc include arithmetic estimates like – the
Kirpich equation NRCS velocity method, Kinematic wave, and hydraulic modeling.
Hence, Tc is an essential subject in hydrology used to determine the efficiency of
drainage systems, the design of stormwater management systems, and their reliability.

The Time of Concentration (𝑡𝑐) represents the time it takes for water from the
most distant point in a catchment area to reach the outlet. It is a critical parameter in
hydrological design as it determines the rainfall intensity (𝑖) to be used in the Rational
Method for estimating peak discharge. For the Darul Hana Housing Phase 2 project, the
Time of Concentration was calculated using the following equation:

𝑇𝑐 = 𝑡𝑑 + 𝑡𝑜

Where:

𝑡𝑜 = 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠)

𝑡𝑑 = 𝑆𝑢𝑏 − 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠)

An example of calculating The Time of Concentration (𝑡𝑐)

𝑇𝑐 = 𝑡𝑑 + 𝑡𝑜

𝑇𝑐 = 17 + 0

𝑇𝑐 = 17 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠

Application in the Rational Method:

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Once 𝑡𝑐​is determined, it is used to identify the corresponding rainfall intensity (𝑖) from
the IDF curve. For example:

If 𝑡𝑐 = 17 minutes, the rainfall intensity (𝑖) for a 10-year ARI may be derived as 171.35
mm/hr

This intensity is then applied in the formula:

𝑄10 = 𝐶 × 𝑖 × 𝐴

2.3.4 HYDROLOGY DESIGN - DESIGN RAINFALL (IDF)

Design rainfall is critical in hydrological engineering, particularly for determining
stormwater system capacities and evaluating their effectiveness under varying storm
conditions. The intensity of the design rainfall is obtained from
Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves, which relate the rainfall intensity to storm
duration and the Average Recurrence Interval (ARI).

The equation for Design Rainfall Intensity is:

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖 (𝑚𝑚/ℎ𝑟) 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎:

𝑘
λ𝑇
𝑖= η
(𝑑+θ)

𝑖 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚𝑚/ℎ𝑟)

𝑇 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 (𝐴𝑅𝐼), 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 0. 5 𝑡𝑜 100 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝑑 = 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠), 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 0. 0833 (5 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 72 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
λ, 𝑘, θ, η = 𝐹𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

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Figure 5. List of Derived IDF Parameters of High ARI for Sarawak.

The selection of Kuching Saberkas IDF parameters for the Darul Hana Project Phase 2 is
justified based on the following reasons:

The Darul Hana Project Phase 2 is situated in the Kuching region, making the
Kuching Saberkas station (ID: 1810131RF) the most geographically relevant rain gauge
station. This ensures that the rainfall intensity data used in the design accurately reflects
local meteorological conditions.

The derived IDF parameters for the Kuching Saberkas station are:

λ = 68. 1837
𝑘 = 0. 1913
θ = 0. 2946
η = 0. 6837

An example of the calculation of Rainfall Intensity i:

𝑘
λ𝑇
𝑖= η
(𝑑+θ)

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0.1913
68.1837(100)
𝑖= 0.6837
(24+0.2946)

𝑖 = 17. 216 𝑚𝑚/ℎ𝑟

These parameters are well-suited for calculating the design rainfall intensity for
this region, particularly for high ARI applications, ensuring the drainage system is
robust against severe rainfall events. The Darul Hana Project involves urban
infrastructure where flooding could have significant social and economic impacts. High
ARI designs are necessary to ensure adequate protection against rare, high-intensity
storms. The parameters from Kuching Saberkas station provide reliable data for high
ARI scenarios, such as 50-year or 100-year ARIs.

According to the Manual Saliran Mesra Alam (MSMA), IDF parameters should
be sourced from the nearest relevant station to the project site. Kuching Saberkas
satisfies this criterion as it represents the most appropriate station for the hydrological
and meteorological characteristics of the Darul Hana area. The selection of this station
ensures that the stormwater system design is tailored to the specific rainfall patterns of
the Kuching region, improving the accuracy and reliability of the hydrological
modeling. The IDF parameters from Kuching Saberkas can be adjusted using Climate
Change Factors (CCF) to future-proof the design against evolving rainfall trends,
ensuring long-term system resilience. The primary objectives of the Darul Hana Project
Phase 2 include effective stormwater management and flood mitigation. Using IDF data
from Kuching Saberkas ensures that these objectives are met with a scientifically sound
and location-specific approach.

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2.3.5 HYDROLOGY DESIGN - PEAK DISCHARGE ESTIMATION

Peak discharge estimation refers to determining the maximum flow rate (or
discharge) of water runoff at a specific point within a drainage system during a rainfall
event. This estimation is crucial for designing effective stormwater management
systems, as it helps predict the highest volume of water that needs to be accommodated
by the infrastructure.

𝑄= 𝐶×𝑖×𝐴

3
𝑄 = 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑚 /𝑠), 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑚

𝐶 = 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓

𝑖 = 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚𝑚/ℎ𝑟), 𝐼𝐷𝐹 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑅𝐼

𝐴 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (ℎ𝑎), 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓

Table 2. Recommended Runoff Coefficients for Various Landuses (MSMA)

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The runoff coefficient represents the fraction of rainfall directly contributing to

surface runoff. It is a dimensionless value that depends on the land use, imperviousness,
soil type, and current moisture conditions of the catchment. For instance, areas with
impervious surfaces, such as roads or rooftops have higher C values (e.g., 0.9–0.95),
while vegetated or permeable surfaces have lower values (e.g., 0.3–0.5). Accurate
selection of C values is crucial and can be guided by tables, such as Table 2.5 from
MSMA, which lists typical C values for various land uses.

This parameter represents the average rainfall intensity (mm/hr) during the
concentration (𝑡𝑐), which is the time it takes for runoff to travel from the furthest point
of the catchment to the outlet. Rainfall intensity values are derived from
Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves, which are site-specific and developed using
historical rainfall data. For a 10-year ARI, i10 corresponds to the intensity of rainfall
expected with a return period of 10 years for a specific storm duration (tc).

Application to the Darul Hana Housing Phase 2 Project:

The Darul Hana Housing Phase 2 project, the peak discharge 𝑄10 was calculated using

data derived from the site-specific conditions and MSMA guidelines. The calculation is
as follows:

The runoff coefficient was determined to be 𝐶 = 0.29, reflecting the catchment area's
land use characteristics. This value accounts for impervious surfaces like roads and
buildings and pervious surfaces like landscaped areas.

The rainfall intensity for a 10-year ARI was obtained from the IDF curve for the
Kuching Saberkas station. The value used in this calculation was 𝑖 = 171.35 mm/hr,
corresponding to the calculated concentration time (𝑡𝑐).

The contributing catchment area was identified as 𝐴 = 1.0ha from the drainage layout of
the project.

Using these inputs, the Rational Method formula becomes:

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𝑄10 = 𝐶 × 𝑖 × 𝐴

1
𝑄10 = 0. 29 × 171. 35 × 360

3
= 0. 14𝑚 /𝑠

3
The calculated peak discharge for the catchment area is 𝑄10 = 0. 14𝑚 /𝑠. This

value represents the maximum runoff flow that the drainage system must handle during
a 10-year ARI rainfall event. The result is used as a critical input in designing the
stormwater drainage system, ensuring it can manage peak flows effectively and mitigate
potential flooding risks.

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Table 3. Drain indicator for Darul Hana Housing

Indicator Drainage Description Dimension (m)

Main Drain The large buried pipe that Depth=1.20

_______________ moves all of the house's Width=1.45
sewage to the municipal
sewer line

A Residential A smaller drainage channel Depth=0.35

_______________ Drain that collects rainwater from Width=0.13
individual houses

Secondary Drain A smaller drainage channel Depth=1.42

that collects rainwater from Width=1.80
_______________ a residential drain
Depth=1.02
Width=1.48

Secondary Drain 2 A smaller drainage channel Depth=0.65

_______________ that collects rainwater from Width=0.7
individual houses

Natural drainage The flow of water by Depth=1.40

gravity in channels formed Width=4.50
_______________ by the earth's surface
topography before human
intervention

_______________ Detention Pond A large depression in the Depth = 2.8

ground that temporarily Width = 6
stores stormwater runoff

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CHAPTER 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Designing drainage systems in accordance with standards such as SUStoM and
MSMA is essential for public safety and environmental preservation. These criteria
guarantee the system's capability to withstand severe weather conditions, hence reducing
the likelihood of flooding and infrastructure damage. In this study, the focus is mainly to
determine whether the drainage design is efficient and suitable to last up to 10 years
with minimal maintenance.

The design of a 500 mm-wide channel with a slope of 1:500 is essential for
maintaining efficient water flow and minimizing sediment deposition. The channel
width is selected based on expected peak flow, similar to how river width is measured to
calculate water discharge rates. This ensures the channel can handle variable flow
conditions without compromising efficiency (Scherelis et al., 2023). This gradient
ensures water is conveyed at a velocity sufficient to prevent blockages while avoiding
erosion. The channel's dimensions were determined based on expected peak flow and
site conditions, balancing functionality and cost-effectiveness. The slope also addresses
sediment transport dynamics, as it plays a critical role in debris flow management and
hydroplaning prevention, aligning with insights from related research (Zhao et al., 2022;
Cavdar & Uyumaz, 2022).

Rainfall intensities of different durations and Average Recurrence Intervals

(ARIs) were calculated in this study using IDF parameters obtained from the Kuching

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Saberkas station, such as 𝜆 = 63.1837, 𝑘 = 0.1913, 𝜃 = 0.2946, and 𝜂 = 0.6837. The

station's rainfall intensity data highlights the importance of
Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves in designing resilient drainage systems,
particularly the 17.216 mm/hr for a 24-hour, 100-year ARI event. The
Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) analysis is crucial for drainage design because it
establishes a mathematical relationship between rainfall intensity, storm duration, and
occurrence frequency. This relationship is important for predicting peak rainfall
intensities, which then informs the design of drainage systems to properly manage
extreme weather occurrences. This data allows for the customization of infrastructure to
withstand high-intensity storms, especially when integrated with climate change factors
(CCFs) to adapt to shifting weather patterns.

IDF curves are essential for urban infrastructure design, particularly for
stormwater management systems (Sørup et al., 2022). Integrating
Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves and runoff coefficients into the Rational
Method is crucial for designing effective drainage systems. This approach ensures that
peak discharge (Q) calculations account for the maximum expected flow, thereby
enhancing the system's reliability and safety. A factor of safety is critical in drainage
design to ensure systems can manage flows exceeding calculated peaks, addressing
uncertainties in rainfall patterns and climate change impacts (Osetinsky-Tzidaki & Fredj,
2022). The implementation of a well-designed drainage system, adhering to MSMA and
SUStoM standards, can significantly mitigate urban flooding, ensuring infrastructure
safety and promoting sustainable development. This approach integrates hydrological
analyses and climate change adaptations, demonstrating its effectiveness over a decade.

3.1 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the discussion of key factors involved in the drainage design in Darul
Hana Housing, the following recommendations can be made to ensure that a proper
drainage system which is effective, strong, and sustainable is developed. In the design of
drainage systems, the first parameter that is determined is the peak flow expected as per

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PROJECT DRAINAGE DESIGN

design storm flows. It is important that the peak flow rates are calculated correctly in
order to ensure that the drainage system can effectively handle extreme weather. IDF
curves, catchment area estimates and runoff coefficients should be retrieved in recent
ones by the designers (Koutsoyiannis, 2003) as it is crucial in predicting the run-off
from the stormwater as wells as in designing the drainage systems.

Next, the sizing of pipes, channels and other drainage components should be
designed uniformly. The design should guarantee that all system components are
adequately sized to safely transport stormwater without overflows or obstructions. It is
recommended to use hydraulic modeling tools that can stimulate flow conditions. With
the aid of these hydraulic modeling, the flow velocities and water depths can be
determined more accurately. Moreover, it is also recommended to consider potential
future alterations in the catchment region, including urbanisation or the development of
new impermeable surfaces. Anticipating predicted runoff increases will improve the
drainage system's ability to handle future storm events without requiring major
redesigns.

The application of proper hydraulic grade analysis also helps in ensuring the
system operates efficiently and prevents problems such as surcharging or backwater. To
address this, Chow et al. (1988) suggest that designers adopt hydraulic models, which
integrate fluctuation of flow rates in the design process. This preventative approach will
mitigate the risk of overflow, reduce the likelihood of flooding, and avert backwater
effects that may lead to water intrusion in undesirable locations.

The incorporation of Factor of Safety (FS) in the design drain is something must
always kept in mind in designing the drainage . Such uncertainty could result from
change in rainfall intensity, inaccuracy in computation, or changes in land use (Chow et
al., 1988). Usually, the FS value of 1.2 to 1.5 is added to the design flow rate so as to
incorporate additional protection layers. When considering pipe sizes and the
dimensions of the drain channels it is important that the designers take this factor into
consideration just in case there will be cases where the drainage system will be exposed
to such harsh conditions.

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Also, the application of a FS in designing makes it easier to handle changes in

climate patterns and the built environment. Because of the unpredictability with regards
to future rainfall intensities and also land use changes, a good implementation of a FS
will guarantee that the drainage systems are efficient and ready to provide optimum
service for many years to come.

Last but not least, environmental sustainability should be a crucial aspect of

drainage systems. Green infrastructure practitioners for wastewater management should
incorporate techniques such as permeable pavements, rain gardens, and vegetated swales
depending on a designer’s perspective (Fletcher et al., 2014). Such solutions are useful
in preventing the formation and exacerbation of the proposed nutrient and sediment
loads, water runoff, pollution control, and local ecosystems by enhancing infiltration and
evapotranspiration.

Lastly, such recommendations enhance the capability of drainage systems in

tackling storm water, controlling flood prevalence and positively impacting the well
being of the built environment.

CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION

In conclusion, designing a drainage system requires hydrological calculations,

hydraulic analysis, and careful consideration of factors like the runoff coefficient, IDF
curves, and time of concentration. It is possible for engineers to develop models for
stormwater discharge, flood controls and the conservation of the environment through
accurate estimation of peak flow rates and the determination of pipe sizes alongside
channel dimensions. Incorporating a safety factor, selecting appropriate slopes, and
focussing on sustainability improve the resilience and longevity of drainage
infrastructure.

Table 4. Group reflection

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NAME REFLECTION

Jesse Liew Jia Hui Last semester I learned how to calculate how much water
is required for an area and for this semester I gained new
knowledge on how water is discharged out from a location.
From the start how the water comes about till how water is
being discharged from a specific location into the river.
Disrupting flow of water would cause problems to the
nearby residents as water has energy and that energy cant
be obstructed. Besides that climate change is also a factor
to consider when designing for drainage as it would cause
floods. I find this interesting as the more time passes the
more our climate deteriorates due to pollution and that is
something to consider in our design so that the design
would withstand the test of time.

Faizatul Farahana binti

This hydrology mini-project taught me a lot about
Fadillah
designing and analyzing drainage systems. By using the
Rational Method, I learned how factors like rainfall, runoff
coefficients, and catchment areas impact peak discharge.
The Manning Equation helped me understand how slope,
roughness, and drainage dimension affect flow in open
channels. By referring to guidelines like HP26 and
MASMA showed me why following industry standards is
crucial for reliable and sustainable designs. Calculating the
Factor of Safety emphasized the importance of building
resilience to handle uncertainties like extreme weather
phenomena. Overall, this project improved my technical
skills and gave me a deeper understanding of hydrological
design.

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Hesta Bong Wen Tze Altogether, this research has supplied sufficient
(86491) information about the layout of drainage systems and their
inference. This revealed that when the Rational Method
and Manning’s equation is applied; it affects the peak
discharge and the drainage features observed. Furthermore,
guidelines such as HP26, MSMA and SUStoM highlighted
the critical importance of adhering to industry standards
for ensuring reliable and sustainable drainage designs.
Thus, by adopting hydrological principles and integrating
sustainable practices, we can develop better drainage
systems that protect communities, preserve the
environment, and promote a more resilient future.

Siti Norhaliza Binti

In the study, I have learned the importance of analyzing
Sumadi (87003)
rainfall patterns, runoff, and soil characteristics to design
efficient drainage systems. Understanding how to calculate
using the Rational Method and select suitable materials
helped me grasp the technical and practical aspects of
preventing water-related issues. A key takeaway was
determining the appropriate size of drainage structures to
handle peak flows effectively while minimizing the risk of
flooding. This experience reinforced the value of
integrating hydrological data into design processes to
ensure functionality and sustainability in managing water
resources.

Muhammad Rafi Bin

This research has provided comprehensive insights into the
Johan (86699)
design and assessment of drainage systems, focusing on
the application of hydrological principles and
industry-standard methodologies. The use of the Rational

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PROJECT DRAINAGE DESIGN

Method, combined with site-specific IDF curves and

Manning’s equation, proved instrumental in estimating
peak discharge and evaluating drainage system capacity.
These techniques highlighted how factors such as land use,
time of concentration, and runoff coefficients directly
influence runoff behavior and the performance of
stormwater systems.

Moreover, industry guidelines such as MSMA, specifically

the HP26 framework, underscored the critical importance
of adhering to standardized practices. The MSMA's
emphasis on sustainability, precision, and localized data
application ensured that the drainage designs were both
effective and resilient. This integration of best practices
allows for stormwater systems that are capable of
managing urban runoff while minimizing environmental
and social risks.

In conclusion, by applying the principles of hydrology and

aligning them with the sustainable practices advocated in
the MSMA, we can design more reliable, efficient, and
future-ready drainage systems. Such designs not only
reduce flood risks and infrastructure stress but also
contribute to the overall sustainability and resilience of
urban and rural communities.

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REFERENCES

Alvin, E. F., & Mardyanto, M. A. (2017). Drainage system evaluation and control of

inundation in campus and housing areas of ITS, Surabaya. Sustinere: Journal of

Environment and Sustainability, 1(2), 74–83.

https://doi.org/10.22515/sustinere.jes.v1i2.18

CAVDAR, S., & UYUMAZ, A. (2022). Hydrological Considerations in Designing

Roadways: Avoiding Hydroplaning. Teknik Dergi.

https://doi.org/10.18400/tekderg.989134

Chow, V. T., Maidment, D. R., & Mays, L. W. (1988). Applied Hydrology. McGraw-Hill

Fletcher, T. D., Shuster, W. D., & Montalto, F. A. (2014). "Sustainable Urban Drainage

Haris, H., Chow, M. F., Usman, F., Sidek, L. M., Roseli, Z. A., & Norlida, M. D. (2016).

Urban Stormwater Management Model and Tools for Designing Stormwater

Management of Green Infrastructure Practices. IOP Conference Series: Earth

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PROJECT DRAINAGE DESIGN

and Environmental Science, 32, 012022.

https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/32/1/012022

Koutsoyiannis, D. (2003). "Review of the Rainfall-Runoff Relationship." Hydrological

Sciences Journal, 48(5), 539-554.

Manoj Nallanathel. (2013). Design of Storm Water Drains by Rational Method - an

Approach to Storm Water Management for Environmental Protection.

Milicevic, D., Mitic, M., & Bjeletic-Antic, D. (2017). Methodology of sensitive

planning and design of stormwater drainage system on urban watersheds.

Tehnika, 72(2), 303–308. https://doi.org/10.5937/tehnika1702303m

Osetinsky-Tzidaki, I., & Fredj, E. (2022). The 50- and 100-year Exceedance

Probabilities as New and Convenient Statistics for a Frequency Analysis of

Extreme Events: An Example of Extreme Precipitation in Israel. Water, 15(1),

44. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15010044

Scherelis, V., Doering, M., & Laube, P. (2023). HydroWidth: A small‐scale approach to

calculate river width and its variability. Transactions in GIS, 27(5), 1503–1525.

https://doi.org/10.1111/tgis.13083

Suprapto, M., Mutaqin, A. Y., & Prilbista, A. S. (2018). ANALISIS SISTEM

DRAINASE UNTUK PENANGANAN GENANGAN DI KECAMATAN

MAGETAN BAGIAN UTARA. Matriks Teknik Sipil, 6(1).

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Zakaria, N. A., Ab Ghani, A., Abdullah, R., Mohd. Sidek, L., & Ainan, A. (2003).

Bio‐ecological drainage system (BIOECODS) for water quantity and quality

control. International Journal of River Basin Management, 1(3), 237–251.

https://doi.org/10.1080/15715124.2003.9635210

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Zhao, T., Zhou, G. G. D., Sun, Q., Crosta, G. B., & Song, D. (2022). Slope erosion

induced by surges of debris flow: insights from field experiments. Landslides.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-022-01914-7

APPENDIX

Appendix A: Group photo taken in the study area Darul Hana Phase 2

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Appendix B: Excel link to excel calculations

https://unimas-my.sharepoint.com/:x:/g/personal/86527_siswa_unimas_my/EQUnI2fOV
aVKtllWHHbZK8EBHuKZ1nXVY-v_SH996kIlJA?e=fHK2o3

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