UNIT-III EMERGING NANOSCALE SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

NANOSCALE MOSFET
Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistors commonly known as MOSFETs are electronic
devices used to switch or amplify voltages in circuits. It is a voltage controlled device and is
constructed by three terminals.
• Source
• Gate
• Drain
• Body

What is a MOSFET?
• MOSFET stands for Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor, MOSFET was invented to
overcome the disadvantages present in FETs like high drain resistance, moderate input
impedance, and slower operation. So a MOSFET can be called the advanced form of
FET. In some cases, MOSFETs are also be called IGFET (Insulated Gate Field Effect
Transistor). Practically speaking, MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device, meaning by
applying a rated voltage to the gate pin, the MOSFET will start conducting through the
Drain and Source pin.

• The main difference between FET and MOSFET

is that MOSFET has a Metal Oxide Gate electrode
electrically insulated from the main semiconductor
n-channel or p-channel by a thin layer of Silicon
dioxide or glass. The isolation of the controlling
Gate increases the input resistance of the
MOSFET extremely high in the value of the Mega-
ohms (MΩ).
Symbol Of MOSFET
In general, the MOSFET is a four-terminal device with
a Drain (D), Source (S), gate (G) and a Body (B) / Substrate terminals. The body terminal will
always be connected to the source terminal hence, the MOSFET will operate as a three-terminal
device. In the below image, the symbol of N-Channel MOSFET is shown on the left and
the symbol of P-Channel MOSFET is shown on the right.
The most commonly used package for MOSFET is To-220, for a better understanding let’s take
a look at the pinout of the famous IRF540N MOSFET . As you can see the Gate, Drain, and
Source pin are listed below, do remember that the order of these pins will change based on the
manufacturer. The other popular MOSFETs are IRFZ44N, BS170, IRF520, 2N7000, etc

Construction Of MOSFET
 The below image shows the typical internal structure of the MOSFET. Although the
MOSFET is an advanced form of FET and operates with the same three terminals as a FET the
internal structure of the MOSFET is really different from the general FET.

If you look at the structure, you could see that the gate terminal is fixed on the thin metal layer
which is insulated by a layer of Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) from the semiconductor, and you will be
able to see two N-type semiconductors fixed in the channel region where the drain and source
terminals are placed. The channel between the drain and source of the MOSFET is an N-type,
opposite to this, the substrate is implemented as P-type. This helps in biasing MOSFET in both
the polarities, either positive or negative. If the gate terminal of the MOSFET isn’t biased, it will
stay in the non-conductive state, hence the MOSFET is mostly used in designing switches and
logic gates.

Working Principle of MOSFET

In general, the MOSFET works as a switch, the MOSFET controls the voltage and current flow
between the source and drain. The working of the MOSFET depends on the MOS capacitor,
which is the semiconductor surface below the oxide layers between the source and drain
terminal. It can be inverted from p-type to n-type, simply by applying positive or negative gate
voltage respectively. The below image shows the block diagram of the MOSFET.
When a drain-source voltage (VDS) is connected between the drain and source, a
positive voltage is applied to the Drain, and the negative voltage is applied to the Source. Here
the PN junction at the drain is reverse biased and the PN junction at the Source is forward
biased. At this stage, there will not be any current flow between the drain and the source.
If we apply a positive voltage (VGG)
to the gate terminal, due to
electrostatic attraction the minority
charge carriers (electrons) in the P
substrate will start to accumulate on
the gate contact which forms a
conductive bridge between the two
n+ regions. The number of free
electrons accumulated at the gate
contact depends on the strength of
positive voltage applied. The higher
the applied voltage greater the width
of the n-channel formed due to
electron accumulation, this eventually increases the conductivity and the drain current (ID) will
start to flow between the Source and Drain.
When there is no voltage applied to the gate terminal, there will not be any current flow apart
from a small amount of current due to minority charge carriers. The minimum voltage at which
the MOSFET starts conducting is called the threshold voltage.

Advantages of MOSFET
• MOSFETs operate at greater efficiency at lower voltages.
• Absence of gate current results in high input impedance producing high switching speed.
• High Switching Speed : It can change its state rapidly from ON and OFF position.
• Low Power Consumption : Useful for battery operated devices.
• High input impedance : They use minimum input current.
• Low noise : They produce low noise and do not cause much disturbance.
Disadvantages of MOSFET
• MOSFETs are vulnerable to damage by electrostatic charges due to the thin oxide layer.
• Overload voltages make MOSFETs unstable.
• Breakdown: MOSFETS have a very thin layer of gate oxide so on applying high voltage
it can cause to breakdown of entire device.
• Temperature: Some functions of MOSFET are altered because of varying temperatures.
• Voltage capacity: They have a limited voltage capacity.
• Expensive: Complex manufacturing of MOSFETS can lead to high cost of overall
electronic device.
Uses of MOSFET
• Used in digital logic circuits.
• It is used as Amplifiers
• They are used in Integrated circuits due to small size.
• It is also used in Microprocessors
• Used in Power electronics
MOSFET applications
• Radiofrequency applications use MOSFET amplifiers extensively.
• MOSFET behaves as a passive circuit element.
• Power MOSFETs can be used to regulate DC motors.
• MOSFETs are used in the design of the chopper circuit.
• Amplifiers: MOSFETs are used as an amplifiers in order to amplify weak signals.
• Switching power supplies: They are used as switches because they can alter power
supply efficiently.
• Digital logic gates: They are used to build logic gates such as NAND, NOR etc.
• Voltage regulators: They are used as voltage regulators because they can control the
amount of voltage.
• Memory devices: They are used in memory cells.

Difference between MOSFET an Finfet

Aspect MOSFET FinFET
Structure Planar structure Three-dimensional or "fin" structure
Gate Control Voltage-controlled conductivity Voltage-controlled gate width
Leakage Current Relatively higher leakage current Lower leakage current
Power Efficiency Relatively lower power efficiency Improved power efficiency
Speed and Moderate speed Faster switching speed
Performance
Transistor Higher transistor capacitance Reduced transistor capacitance
Capacitance
Scalability Limited scalability in smaller nodes Better scalability in smaller nodes
Integration Limited integration capability Improved integration capability
Manufacturing Relatively simpler manufacturing More complex manufacturing
Process process process
Cost Lower manufacturing cost Higher manufacturing cost
Applications Wide range of applications Similar range of applications as
MOSFET
Future Trends Limited potential for future Further potential for development
improvements

FinFET
FINFET stands for Fin Field Effect Transistor it belongs to the FET family and it is a
type of Multi gate MOSFET that is used in place of a common MOSFET. Unlike regular FETs
which are planar in shape, FINFET is non-planar having a 3D structure. FINFET is built on the
silicon substrate and the gate is surrounded by the channel forming drain and source. The name
FINFET is derived from the fin of fish as the top view of FINFET drain and source appears like
fin. Fin can also be defined as the channel between the drain and the source.
Like MOSFET, FINFET is also built on silicon on an insulator (SOI) It is also a three-terminal
device forming gate, drain, and source, and the fabrication of FINFET is similar to MOSFET.
FINFET and MOSFET work on the same principle.

Why use a FinFET device in place of MOSFET?

As to increase the number of transistors in a chip the size of transistor is to be reduced, the size
of the transistor is reduced by decreasing the channel length between the drain and source, but
as channel length decreases drain and source come close to each other and the problem of
short channel effect arises in common MOSFETs and the leakage current increases between
source and drain.

Working Principle of Finfet

The working principle of a FinFet is similar to that of a conventional MOSFET. The MOSFET can
function in two modes: enhancement mode and deflection mode for both p-channel and n-
channel MOSFETs.
The channel shows maximum conductance when there is no voltage on the gate terminal. As
the voltage changes to positive or negative, the conductivity of the channel reduces.

Fig. : Diagram Depicting Working Principle of FINFET Based on MOORE’S LAW

 In enhancement mode of MOSFET, when there is no voltage on the gate terminal, it does
not conduct. Unlike the depletion mode, in enhancement mode, the device conducts better when
there is more voltage on the gate terminal.
The main aim of the MOSFET is to control the flow of voltage and current between the
source and drain terminals. A high quality capacitor is formed by the gate terminal. The gate is
composed of the silicon oxide layer, the p-body silicon and gate metallization and the p-body
silicon. This capacitor is the most vital part. The semiconductor surface at the below oxide layer
which is located between source and drain terminal. This is inverted from p-type to n-type by
applying a positive or negative gate voltage respectively.
When a small amount of voltage is applied to this structure (the capacitor), keeping gate
terminal positive with respect to source, a depletion region is formed. This depletion region is
formed at the interface between the silicon and the SiO2.
The positive voltage applied attracts electrons from the source terminal, the drain terminal
as well as the n+ source. This forms the electron reach channel. If we apply voltage between
the source and drain terminals, current will flow between source and drain terminals. The
concentration of electrons is controlled by the gate voltage (Vg).

Fig. : Image Showing FIN etch Process

If we apply a negative voltage, a hole channel will be formed under the oxide layer. Now, the
controlling of source to gate voltage is responsible for the conduction of current between
source and the drain. If the gate voltage exceeds a given value, only then does the conduction
begins.

CONSTRUCTION OF FinFET:
The two types of FinFets have different construction. The basic layout and mode of
operation are similar to that of a conventional MOSFET. The only difference is the three
dimensional bar atop the silicon substrate- the fin.
silicon based FinFet
The important characteristics of this FinFet are that the conducting channel is wrapped by a thin
Si fin. This forms the body of the device. The fins are the 3D channel between the source and
the drain terminals. They are built on top if silicon (Si) substrate. The gate terminal is wrapped
around the channel. This allows formation of several gate electrodes so as to reduce leakage
current and enhance the drive current.
1. Substrate:
The base of a FinFET is a lightly p-doped substrate with a hard mask on top. It also has a
patterned resist layer.
2. Fin etch:
The fins are formed in a highly anisotropic etch process. Absence of a stop layer forces the etch
process to be time based. This layer is present in the SOI models.
Advantages of FinFET
• Less power consumption
• Less leakage current
• Short channel effect is less
• Less channel doping
• Higher scalability
• High voltage gain and good subthreshold voltage
Disadvantages of FinFET
• It is difficult to control dynamic threshold voltage.
• Due to 3d structure it has higher internal resistances and capacitances.
• Complex in fabrication and costly.
• Complex to design its structure.
• More Temperature sensitivity.
• More heat dissipation.
• Very high capacitances.
Application Of FinFET
• IOT Devices such as smart wearables and smart gadgets.
• In Artificial and Machine learning devices.
• In Mobile phones, Laptops and smartphones.
• In medical Field.
• In defence and aerospace devices.
• In routers and switching devices.

Tunnel diode

Definition:
A Tunnel diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode in which the electric current decreases as
the voltage increases.
In tunnel diode, electric current is caused by “Tunnelling”. The tunnel diode is used as a very
fast switching device in computers. It is also used in high-frequency oscillators and amplifiers.
Symbol of tunnel diode
The circuit symbol of tunnel diode is shown in the below figure. In tunnel diode, the p-type
semiconductor act as an anode and the n-type semiconductor act as a cathode.

We know that a anode is a positively charged electrode which attracts electrons whereas
cathode is a negatively charged electrode which emits electrons. In tunnel diode, n-type
semiconductor emits or produces electrons so it is referred to as the cathode. On the other hand,
p-type semiconductor attracts electrons emitted from the n-type semiconductor so p-type
semiconductor is referred to as the anode.
Types of Diodes
1. Zener diode
2. Avalanche diode
3. Photodiode
4. Light Emitting Diode
5. Laser diode
6. Tunnel diode
7. Schottky diode
8. Varactor diode
9. P-N junction diode

What is a tunnel diode?

Tunnel diodes are one of the most significant solid-state electronic devices which have made
their appearance in the last decade. Tunnel diode was invented in 1958 by Leo Esaki.
Leo Esaki observed that if a semiconductor diode is heavily doped with impurities, it will exhibit
negative resistance. Negative resistance means the current across the tunnel diode decreases
when the voltage increases. In 1973 Leo Esaki received the Nobel Prize in physics for
discovering the electron tunnelling effect used in these diodes.
A tunnel diode is also known as Esaki diode which is named after Leo Esaki for his work on the
tunneling effect. The operation of tunnel diode depends on the quantum mechanics principle
known as “Tunneling”. In electronics, tunneling means a direct flow of electrons across the small
depletion region from n-side conduction band into the p-side valence band.

The germanium material is commonly used to make the tunnel diodes. They are also made from
other types of materials such as gallium arsenide, gallium antimonide, and silicon.
Width of the depletion region in tunnel diode
The depletion region is a region in a p-n junction diode where mobile charge carriers (free
electrons and holes) are absent. Depletion region acts like a barrier that opposes the flow of
electrons from the n-type semiconductor and holes from the p-type semiconductor.
The width of a depletion region depends on the number of impurities added. Impurities are the
atoms introduced into the p-type and n-type semiconductor to increase electrical conductivity.
If a small number of impurities are added to the p-n junction diode (p-type and n-type
semiconductor), a wide depletion region is formed. On the other hand, if large number of
impurities are added to the p-n junction diode, a narrow depletion region is formed.

In tunnel diode, the p-type and n-type semiconductor is heavily doped which means a large
number of impurities are introduced into the p-type and n-type semiconductor. This heavy doping
process produces an extremely narrow depletion region. The concentration of impurities in
tunnel diode is 1000 times greater than the normal p-n junction diode.
In normal p-n junction diode, the depletion width is large as compared to the tunnel diode. This
wide depletion layer or depletion region in normal diode opposes the flow of current. Hence,
depletion layer acts as a barrier. To overcome this barrier, we need to apply sufficient voltage.
When sufficient voltage is applied, electric current starts flowing through the normal p-n junction
diode.
Electric current in tunnel diode
In tunnel diode, the valence band and conduction band energy levels in the n-type
semiconductor are lower than the valence band and conduction band energy levels in the p-type
semiconductor. Unlike the ordinary p-n junction diode, the difference in energy levels is very high
in tunnel diode. Because of this high difference in energy levels, the conduction band of the n-
type material overlaps with the valence band of the p-type material.

Quantum mechanics says that the electrons will directly penetrate through the depletion layer
or barrier if the depletion width is very small.
The depletion layer of tunnel diode is very small. It is in nanometers. So the electrons can directly
tunnel across the small depletion region from n-side conduction band into the p-side valence
band.
In ordinary diodes, current is produced when the applied voltage is greater than the built-in
voltage of the depletion region. But in tunnel diodes, a small voltage which is less than the built-
in voltage of depletion region is enough to produce electric current.
In tunnel diodes, the electrons need not overcome the opposing force from the depletion layer
to produce electric current. The electrons can directly tunnel from the conduction band of n-
region into the valence band of p-region. Thus, electric current is produced in tunnel diode.
How tunnel diode works?
Step 1: Unbiased tunnel diode
When no voltage is applied to the tunnel diode, it is said
to be an unbiased tunnel diode. In tunnel diode, the
conduction band of the n-type material overlaps with the
valence band of the p-type material because of the heavy
doping.

Because of this overlapping, the conduction band electrons at n-side and valence band holes at
p-side are nearly at the same energy level. So when the temperature increases, some electrons
tunnel from the conduction band of n-region to the valence band of p-region. In a similar way,
holes tunnel from the valence band of p-region to the conduction band of n-region.
However, the net current flow will be zero because an equal number of charge carriers (free
electrons and holes) flow in opposite directions.

Step 2: Small voltage applied to the tunnel diode

When a small voltage is applied to the tunnel diode which
is less than the built-in voltage of the depletion layer, no
forward current flows through the junction.
However, a small number of electrons in the conduction
band of the n-region will tunnel to the empty states of the
valence band in p-region. This will create a small forward
bias tunnel current. Thus, tunnel current starts flowing
with a small application of voltage.

Step 3: Applied voltage is slightly increased

When the voltage applied to the tunnel diode is
slightly increased, a large number of free electrons
at n-side and holes at p-side are generated.
Because of the increase in voltage, the overlapping
of the conduction band and valence band is
increased.
In simple words, the energy level of an n-side
conduction band becomes exactly equal to the
energy level of a p-side valence band. As a result,
maximum tunnel current flows.
Step 4: Applied voltage is further increased
If the applied voltage is further increased, a slight
misalign of the conduction band and valence band
takes place.

Since the conduction band of the n-type material

and the valence band of the p-type material sill
overlap. The electrons tunnel from the conduction
band of n-region to the valence band of p-region
and cause a small current flow. Thus, the tunneling
current starts decreasing.

Step 5: Applied voltage is largely increased

If the applied voltage is largely increased, the tunneling
current drops to zero. At this point, the conduction band
and valence band no longer overlap and the tunnel
diode operates in the same manner as a normal p-n
junction diode.
If this applied voltage is greater than the built-in potential
of the depletion layer, the regular forward current starts
flowing through the tunnel diode.
The portion of the curve in which current decreases as
the voltage increases is the negative resistance region
of the tunnel diode. The negative resistance region is the most important and most widely used
characteristic of the tunnel diode.
A tunnel diode operating in the negative resistance region can be used as an amplifier or an
oscillator.

Advantages of tunnel diodes

• Long life
• High-speed operation
• Low noise
• Low power consumption
Disadvantages of tunnel diodes
• Tunnel diodes cannot be fabricated in large numbers
• Being a two terminal device, the input and output are not isolated from one another.
Applications of tunnel diodes
• Tunnel diodes are used as logic memory storage devices.
• Tunnel diodes are used in relaxation oscillator circuits.
• Tunnel diode is used as an ultra-high-speed switch.
• Tunnel diodes are used in FM receivers.

Tunnel field-effect transistor

The tunnel field-effect transistor (TFET) is an experimental type of transistor. Even
though its structure is very similar to a metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor
(MOSFET), the fundamental switching mechanism differs, making this device a promising
candidate for low power electronics. TFETs switch by modulating quantum tunneling through a
barrier instead of modulating thermionic emission over a barrier as in traditional MOSFETs.
Tunnel field-effect transistors (TFETs)
Tunnel field-effect transistors are a type of transistor that utilize quantum tunneling to
enable ultralow-power operation. In a TFET, the source and drain regions have opposite doping
types, forming a p-i-n structure. When a voltage is applied to the gate, the energy bands in the
channel region are modulated, allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the source
to the conduction band of the drain.
This band-to-band tunneling mechanism allows TFETs to achieve a steep subthreshold
slope, enabling them to be switched on and off with a very small change in gate voltage. As a
result, TFETs have the potential to greatly reduce the power consumption of electronic devices
compared to conventional MOSFETs. However, manufacturing challenges and relatively low on-
state currents have limited their widespread adoption so far.

Gate-all-around transistors

With the state-of-the-art chip nodes

that the leading chip manufacturers are
manufacturing, FinFETs are reaching the
limit of how high fins can go and how many
fins can be placed side by side to boost their
current-carrying capacity without suffering
from electrical challenges.
To further improve the control of the transistor channel, engineers found a way to replace
the vertical fin with a stack of horizontal sheets, creating a new concept called gate-all-around
field-effect transistors, which are shortened to GAA transistors, or GAAFETs.

SPINTRONICS
The term spintronics originally was an acronym for SPIN TRansport electrONICS.
Nowadays this term generally stands for ‘spin-based electronics’ and is more broadly used for
all kinds of spin polarized transport phenomena in metals, semiconductors, and oxide materials.
Every electron has a certain mass, a certain charge and a certain magnetic moment, or
as physicists call it, a spin. The electron is not physically spinning around, but it has a magnetic
north pole and a magnetic south pole. Its spin depends on which pole is pointing up. The spin
of an electron can be either ‘up’ or ‘down’, represented by binary values of 1 or 0.

Just like a magnet with a north and a south pole (left), electrons are surrounded by a magnetic
field (right). This magnetic momentum, or spin, could be used to store information in more
efficient ways

Spintronics offers the potential to address some limitations of traditional, charge-based

computing. In conventional microprocessors, information is only retained when the device is
powered on, which results in a delay in startup and loss of data in working memory if power is
lost.
 Additionally, charge-based microprocessors are not energy efficient because they require
a constant current to maintain the data in working memory. In contrast, spintronics utilizes the
magnetic properties of electrons to store information, allowing data to be retained even when
the device is powered off, which can greatly reduce energy consumption. The field also has the
potential for developing new types of devices such as spin-based transistors and logic gates.

Why Spintronics?
The miniaturization of microelectronic components is a basic necessity for semiconductor
devices. However, over the years of miniaturization, the physical size of semiconductor
electronics will soon approach a fundamental barrier. Therefore, device engineers and physicists
feel that quantum mechanics can help in future miniaturization. After all, electronic spin is a
quantum phenomenon. Spintronics combined with nanotechnology can be a perfect solution for
the future miniaturized devices.
• Semiconductor based spintronics: Despite rapid advancement in metal-based
spintronics, a major focus was to find novel ways to generate and utilize spin-polarization
currents in semiconductors. Doped semiconductor materials display dilute
ferromagnetism, and strong ferromagnetism is essential for achieving spintronics. The
selection of materials for semiconductor spintronics depends on the ability of the material
to provide ferromagnetism at room temperature. Majority of the work is focussed on the
use of GaAs (Gallium Arsenide) and InAs (Indium Arsenide) at semiconductor-
semiconductor or semiconductor-metal interfaces. Spins in semiconductors can be easily
manipulated and controlled. Spintronics based devices can easily integrate with existing
semiconductor technology. Semiconductor spintronics combined with photonics and
magnetics can provide multi-functional devices such as spin-transistors, spin-LEDs,
memory devices, optical switches operating at terahertz frequencies and few other
devices.
Semiconductor-Based Spintronics
The Semiconductor-based spintronics focuses on using the semiconducting materials
such as silicon or organic semiconductors to manipulate electron spin. This field offers
the potential for the combining traditional electronic logic with the spin-based
functionalities.
• Spin Injection and Detection: In semiconductor-based spintronics spins are
manipulated using the various techniques such as spin injection from the ferromagnetic
contact into semiconductor and spin detection by the measuring spin-polarized electron
current.
• Spin Transport: The semiconductor materials can support the transport of the spin-
polarized carriers over longer distances.
• Spintronics in Logic and Memory: The Semiconductor-based spintronics can be
integrated into the conventional semiconductor devices like transistors to create more
energy-efficient logic circuits and non-volatile memory devices.
Spintronic-logic devices
Non-volatile spin-logic devices to enable scaling are being extensively studied. Spin-transfer,
torque-based logic devices that use spins and magnets for information processing have been
proposed.
A generalized circuit theory for spintronic integrated circuits has been proposed so that the
physics of spin transport can be utilized by SPICE developers and subsequently by circuit and
system designers for the exploration of spintronics for “beyond CMOS computing.”
Future of Spintronics
Nanotechnology spin electronics is a fascinating and challenging area in industrial applications
and research. Besides this, the electron spin has untapped potential to be explored and will
significantly impact lives on Earth. The science and technology of Spintronics are still under
exploration because the world is shifting to spin electronics from standard electronics.
New spintronic devices are in progress with their optical, electrical, and revolutionary properties.
For example:
o Spin-based devices such as amplifiers and PN junctions
o Spin-based quantum computation devices
o Spin polarization creation through magnetic and optical injection.
o Spin relaxations in semiconductors and metals.
Advantages of Spintronics
• Lower power consumption due to reduced heat dissipation.
• Faster data processing and switching.
• Compatibility with the existing semiconductor technology.
Disadvantages of Spintronics
• Complex fabrication processes.
• Limited materials suitable for the spintronics.
• Challenges in maintaining spin coherence over longer distances.
Application of Spintronics
o Spintronics is widely used in mass storage devices because of its ability to compress a
massive amount of data in a small area.
o In the medical field, Spintronics is used as a tool to detect cancer.
o Electron spin resonance spectroscopy is widely used in physics and chemistry.
o Spintronics is also used in nuclear magnetic resonance.
o Spin transistors use electron spin to incorporate two-state quantum systems.
o Spintronics is widely used in digital devices, for example, in hard disks.
o On the integration of semiconductor Spintronics with conventional technology, they can
be used as spin polarizers and valves.

What are Carbon Nanomaterials?

Carbon nanomaterials are a class of nanoscale materials composed primarily of carbon
atoms. These materials are different allotropes of carbon, meaning they have distinct physical
structures but are composed of the same element. The most well-known carbon nanomaterials
include carbon nanotubes, graphene, fullerenes, and carbon dots. Each of these allotropes
exhibits unique physical, chemical, and electrical properties that make them highly attractive for
a wide range of applications in nanotechnology.

Types of Carbon Nanomaterials

Carbon nanomaterials can be classified into several categories based on their structure and
dimensionality:
Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical structures made of rolled-up graphene sheets. They can be
single-walled (SWCNTs), with a diameter of around 1 nm, or multi-walled (MWCNTs), with
diameters ranging from a few to several hundred nanometers. CNTs exhibit exceptional
mechanical strength, high electrical and thermal conductivity, and unique optical properties.
Graphene
Graphene is a two-dimensional material consisting of a single layer of carbon atoms arranged
in a hexagonal lattice. It is the thinnest known material and possesses extraordinary properties,
such as high electron mobility, excellent thermal conductivity, and superior mechanical strength.
Graphene has the potential to revolutionize various fields, including electronics, energy storage,
and composite materials.
Fullerenes
Fullerenes are spherical or ellipsoidal molecules composed entirely of carbon atoms. The most
well-known fullerene is C60, also known as buckminsterfullerene, which consists of 60 carbon
atoms arranged in a soccer ball-like structure. Fullerenes have unique electronic and optical
properties and find applications in solar cells, drug delivery, and biomedical imaging.
Carbon Dots
Carbon dots are small, quasi-spherical nanoparticles with diameters typically below 10 nm. They
are composed of sp2-hybridized carbon atoms and exhibit excellent photoluminescence
properties, making them promising candidates for bioimaging, sensing, and optoelectronic
applications.

Synthesis Methods
Various synthesis methods have been developed to produce carbon nanomaterials with
controlled properties and morphologies. Some common synthesis techniques include:
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
Chemical Vapor Deposition is a widely used method for synthesizing carbon nanotubes and
graphene. In this process, a carbon-containing precursor gas, such as methane or ethylene, is
decomposed at high temperatures in the presence of a catalyst, leading to the growth of carbon
nanomaterials on a substrate.
Arc Discharge
Arc discharge is a high-temperature method used to produce carbon nanotubes and fullerenes.
In this technique, a high current is passed between two graphite electrodes in an inert
atmosphere, causing the vaporization of carbon atoms and their subsequent condensation into
nanostructures.
Laser Ablation
Laser ablation involves the use of a high-power laser to vaporize a graphite target in an inert
atmosphere. The vaporized carbon atoms condense and form carbon nanotubes or other
nanostructures, which are collected on a cold substrate.
Hydrothermal and Solvothermal Synthesis
Hydrothermal and solvothermal methods involve the heating of carbon precursors in a sealed
reactor containing water or organic solvents at high temperatures and pressures. These
methods are particularly useful for synthesizing carbon dots and other small carbon
nanoparticles.

Properties and Applications

Carbon nanomaterials exhibit a wide range of exceptional properties that make them highly
attractive for various applications in nanotechnology:
Mechanical Properties
Carbon nanotubes and graphene possess extraordinary mechanical strength and stiffness. They
are among the strongest known materials, with tensile strengths up to 100 times higher than
steel. These properties make them ideal for reinforcing composite materials, creating ultra-
strong fibers, and developing high-performance mechanical devices.
Electrical Properties
Carbon nanomaterials, particularly carbon nanotubes and graphene, exhibit excellent electrical
conductivity. They can carry high current densities and have high electron mobility, making them
promising for applications in nanoelectronics, sensors, and energy storage devices, such
as supercapacitors and batteries.
Thermal Properties
Carbon nanomaterials have high thermal conductivity, which makes them attractive for heat
management applications. They can be used in thermal interface materials, heat sinks, and
thermal management systems for electronic devices.
Optical Properties
Some carbon nanomaterials, such as carbon dots and certain types of carbon nanotubes, exhibit
unique optical properties, including photoluminescence and strong light absorption. These
properties find applications in bioimaging, sensing, solar cells, and optoelectronic devices.
Biomedical Applications
Carbon nanomaterials have shown great potential in biomedical applications due to their
biocompatibility, high surface area, and unique properties. They can be used in drug delivery
systems, biosensors, tissue engineering scaffolds, and medical imaging agents.

Graphene
Graphene is a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice
structure, forming a two-dimensional (2D) material with exceptional mechanical,
electrical, and thermal properties. It is widely studied for its potential use in various fields
such as electronics, energy storage, and biomedicine.
Graphene has emerged as one of the most promising nanomaterials because of its
unique combination of exceptional properties: it is not only the thinnest but also one of the
strongest materials; it conducts heat better than all other materials; it is an excellent conductor
of electricity; it is optically transparent, yet so dense that it is impermeable to gases – not even
helium, the smallest gas atom, can pass through it.

What is graphene – Properties and structure

Graphene is the name for a single layer (monolayer)
sheet of carbon atoms that are bonded together in a repeating
pattern of hexagons. This sheet is only one atom thick.
Monolayers of graphene stacked on top of each other form
graphite. Since a typical carbon atom has a diameter of about
0.33 nanometers, there are about 3 million layers of graphene
in a 1 mm thick sheet of graphite.

Graphene represents a conceptually new class of materials that are only one atom thick, so-
called two-dimensional (2D) materials (they are called 2D because they extend in only two
dimensions: length and width; as the material is only one atom thick, the third dimension, height,
is considered to be zero). And it is only at this single- or few-layer state that graphene’s amazing
properties appear.
Graphene is the basic building block for other graphitic materials like carbon nanotubes:
Graphene sheets are building blocks for other
graphitic materials. Left: Cut and folded into a
spherical shape they make a C60 fullerene
molecule. Middle: rolled up they make a carbon
nanotube. Right: Bonded on top of each other the
make the bulk material graphite.

Graphene properties
Electronic properties of graphene
One of the reasons nanotechnology researchers
working towards molecular electronics are so
excited about graphene is its electronic properties
– it is one of the best electrical conductors on Earth. The unique atomic arrangement of the
carbon atoms in graphene allows its electrons to easily travel at extremely high velocity without
the significant chance of scattering, saving precious energy typically lost in other conductors.
Mechanical properties of graphene
The impressive intrinsic mechanical properties of graphene, its stiffness, strength and
toughness, are one of the reasons that make graphene stand out both as an individual material
and as a reinforcing agent in graphene composites. They are caused by the stability of the
sp2 bonds that form the hexagonal lattice and oppose a variety of in-plane deformations.
Energy storage and solar cells
Graphene-based nanomaterials have many promising applications in energy-related areas. Just
some recent examples: Graphene improves both energy capacity and charge rate in
rechargeable batteries; activated graphene makes superior supercapacitors for energy storage;
graphene electrodes may lead to a promising approach for making solar cells that are
inexpensive, lightweight and flexible; and multifunctional graphene mats are promising
substrates for catalytic systems.
Graphene sensor applications
Functionalized graphene holds exceptional promise for biological and chemical sensors.
Already, researchers have shown that the distinctive 2D structure of graphene oxide (GO),
combined with its superpermeability to water molecules, leads to sensing devices with an
unprecedented speed.
Biomedical uses of graphene
Graphene is only recently finding its way into biomedical applications. Most of the recent work
in this area focuses on using graphene as a biosensor, i.e., as a passive medium, which monitors
some external stimulus, usually by taking advantage of the fact that graphene's resistance
depends strongly on nearby electric fields and signals.
The use of graphene-based materials in pharmaceutical nanotechnology has recently received
more attention due to their unique chemical structure and physicochemical properties—including
an ultra-high surface area, optical, thermal and electrical conductivities, and a good
biocompatibility.
Graphene ink
Graphene has a unique combination of properties that is ideal for next-generation electronics,
including mechanical flexibility, high electrical conductivity, and chemical stability. Numerous
research efforts already have demonstrated the feasibility of fabricating graphene-based
electronics through high-throughput ink printing strategies.
Transistors and memory
Some of the most promising applications of graphene are in electronics (as transistors and
interconnects), detectors (as sensor elements) and thermal management (as lateral heat
spreaders). The first graphene field-effect transistors (FETs) – with both bottom and top gates –
have already been demonstrated. At the same time, for any transistor to be useful for analog
communication or digital applications, the level of the electronic low-frequency noise has to be
decreased to an acceptable level ("Graphene transistors can work without much noise").

Other uses
Radiation shielding
Graphene appears to be a most effective material for electromagnetic interference (EMI)
shielding. Experiments suggests the feasibility of manufacturing an ultrathin, transparent,
weightless, and flexible EMI shield by a single or a few atomic layers of graphene.
Lubrication
Over the last decade, various solid lubricant materials, micro/nano patterns, and surface
treatment processes have been developed for efficient operation and extended lifetime in
MEMS/NEMS applications, and for various fabrication processes such as nanoimprint
lithography and transfer printing. One of the important considerations in applying a solid lubricant
at the micro- and nanoscale is the thickness of the lubricant and the compatibility of the lubricant
deposition process with the target product. Graphene, with its atomically thin and strong
structural with low surface energy, is a good candidate for these applications.
Face masks
Face masks have become an important tool in fighting against the COVID-19 pandemic.
However, improper use or disposal of masks may lead to "secondary transmission". A research
team has successfully produced graphene face masks with an anti-bacterial efficiency of 80%,
which can be enhanced to almost 100% with exposure to sunlight for around 10 minutes.

carbon nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylindrical molecules that consist of rolled-up sheets of single-
layer carbon atoms (graphene). They can be single-walled (SWCNT) with a diameter of less
than 1 nanometer (nm) or multi-walled (MWCNT), consisting of several concentrically interlinked
nanotubes, with diameters reaching more than 100 nm. Their length can reach several
micrometers or even millimeters.

The purple structure is a human hair fragment, with a diameter of about 80 to 100 thousand
nanometers and in the background is a network of single-walled carbon nanotubes
Like their building block graphene (Why not read our extensive tutorial on graphene – which
includes a fantastic infographic), CNTs
are chemically bonded with sp2 bonds,
an extremely strong form of molecular
interaction.
This feature combined with carbon
nanotubes' natural inclination to rope
together via van der Waals forces,
provide the opportunity to develop ultra-
high strength, low-weight materials that
possess highly conductive electrical and
thermal properties. This makes them
highly attractive for numerous
applications.

Schematic of how graphene could roll up to form a carbon nanotube.

Carbon allotropes
Carbon is the fourth-most-abundant element in the universe and, depending on the
arrangements of carbon atoms, takes on a wide variety of forms, called allotropes. Carbon
allotropes exhibit unique properties of strength and electrical conductivity.
Solid carbon at room temperature has two classical structures: diamond and graphite. In 1985
the discovery of the existence of a third and new carbon allotrope containing sixty perfectly
symmetrically arranged carbon atoms (also known as C60, fullerene, or buckyballs) meant a
major breakthrough and opened a novel field of carbon nanochemistry. Then, in 1991, carbon
nanotubes were discovered and graphene in 2004.

General Properties of Carbon Nanotube

1. Carbon nanotubes are stiff. They are as stiff as a diamond (the hardest natural material
in nature).
2. The gravitational weight of the nanotube is very low.
3. The density of the carbon nanotubes is one-fourth of that of steel.
4. Carbon nanotubes are stronger than steel. They exhibit extraordinary mechanical
properties. Carbon nanotubes are ten times stronger than steel.
5. Carbon nanotubes have a high thermal capacity. Generally, it is twenty times stronger
than steel. Therefore, it does not expand on heating like that of steel. Therefore carbon
nanotubes uses in making bridges and aircrafts material.
6. In carbon nanotubes, each carbon atom is surrounded by three other carbon atoms
through covalent bonds. These carbon-carbon covalent bonds form lattices in the shape
of hexagons.
7. The crystalline structure of carbon nanotubes exists in the form of regular hexagons.
8. Carbon nanotubes are elastic.
9. Carbon nanotubes are good conductors of heat.
10. Carbon nanotubes have good electrical conductivity.
11. The young's modulus is high. The young modulus of carbon nanotubes is around 1 terra
pascal which makes carbon nanotubes ten times stronger than steel.
12. Carbon nanotubes are chemically neutral. So, they are chemically stable. Therefore,
carbon nanotubes resist corrosion.
Electrical properties of carbon nanotubes
The rolling-up direction (rolling-up or chiral vector) of the graphene layers determines the
electrical properties of the nanotubes. Chirality describes the angle of the nanotube's hexagonal
carbon-atom lattice.
Armchair nanotubes – so called because of the armchair-like shape of their edges – have
identical chiral indices and are highly desired for their perfect conductivity. They are
unlike zigzag nanotubes, which may be semiconductors. Turning a graphene sheet a mere 30
degrees will change the nanotube it forms from armchair to zigzag or vice versa.
While MWCNTs are always conducting and achieve at least the same level of conductivity as
metals, SWCNTs' conductivity depends on their chiral vector: they can behave like a metal and
be electrically conducting; display the properties of a semi-conductor; or be non-conducting. For
example, a slight change in the pitch of the helicity can transform the tube from a metal into a
large-gap semiconductor.

This illustration shows the interface between a growing carbon nanotube and a cobalt-tungsten
catalyst. The atomic arrangement of the catalyst forces the nanotube to quickly transition from
zigzag (blue) to armchair (red), which ultimately grows a nanotube .

How are carbon nanotubes made?

Three main methods are currently available for the production of CNTs: arc discharge, laser
ablation of graphite, and chemical vapor deposition (CVD).
In the first two processes, graphite is combusted electrically or by means of a laser, and the
CNTs developing in the gaseous phase are separated. All three methods require the use of
metals (e.g. iron, cobalt, nickel) as catalysts.
CVD process
The CVD process currently holds the greatest promise, since it allows the production of larger
quantities of CNTs under more easily controllable conditions and at lower cost. In the CVD
process, manufacturers can combine a metal catalyst (such as iron) with carbon-containing
reaction gases (such as hydrogen or carbon monoxide) to form carbon nanotubes on the catalyst
inside a high-temperature furnace.

Applications of carbon nanotubes and their uses

CNTs are well-suited for virtually any application requiring high strength, durability, electrical
conductivity, thermal conductivity and lightweight properties compared to conventional
materials.
Materials
Carbon nanotube enabled nanocomposites have received much attention as a highly attractive
alternative to conventional composite materials due to their mechanical, electrical, thermal,
barrier and chemical properties such as electrical conductivity, increased tensile strength,
improved heat deflection temperature, or flame retardancy.
Catalysis
What makes carbon nanotubes so attractive for catalysis is their exceptionally high surface area
combined with the ability to attach essentially any chemical species to their sidewalls. Already,
CNTs have been used as catalysts in many relevant chemical processes, however, controlling
their catalytic activity is not easy.
Nano inks
Ink formulations based on CNT dispersions are attractive for printed electronics applications
such as transparent electrodes, RFID tags, thin-film transistors, light-emitting devices, and solar
cells
Electrodes
Carbon nanotubes have been widely used as electrodes for chemical and biological sensing
applications and many other electrochemical studies.
Displays
Given their high electrical conductivity, and the incredible sharpness of their tip (the smaller the
tips' radius of curvature, the more concentrated the electric field, the higher field emission),
carbon nanotubes are considered the most promising material for field emitters and a practical
example are CNTs as electron emitters for field emission displays (FED).
Optoelectronic and photonic applications
While individual nanotubes generate discrete fine peaks in optical absorption and emission,
macroscopic structures consisting of many CNTs gathered together also demonstrate interesting
optical behavior.
Nanomedicine and biotechnology
Carbon nanomaterials such as nanotubes or graphene not only are widely researched for their
potential uses in industrial applications, they also are of great interest to biomedical engineers
working on nanotechnology applications.
There is considerable interest in using CNTs for various biomedical applications. The physical
properties of CNTs, such as mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and optical properties,
could be of great value for creating advanced biomaterials.

What are CNTs Used For?

Nowadays CNTs are in high demand and are utilized across a diverse range of
applications. Research into CNTs is a highly interdisciplinary effort involving diverse fields such
as physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, materials science, and engineering. CNTs can be used
in nanotechnology, automotive parts, electrical circuitry, supercapacitors, photovoltaic
technology - including solar panels, LEDs, sensors, transistors, field emitting devices, fuel cells,
actuators (devices that power physical movement), ceramics, batteries, absorbents, catalysts,
storage devices, polymer- and metal oxide-based nanocomposites. Graphene and fullerenes
can be added to a material or substance to enhance strength. This is useful, for example, in the
manufacture of sportswear, or materials used in the deflection of projectiles including bullet-proof
vests.
CNTs also have important applications in pharmaceuticals, medicine, and agriculture.
Their tubular structure enables them to be filled with substances like pharmaceutical drugs, thus
making them an ideal candidate for drug delivery and other therapeutic applications. This means
CNTs can play a significant role in the treatment of cancer. As well as drug therapy, CNTs also
have potential applications in biosensing, bioimaging, nanorobotics, gene therapy and tissue
regeneration, where, for example, CNTs can play a direct role in the formation of artificial cellular
scaffolding resembling the extracellular matrix (ECM) - the structural architecture of the cell. In
agriculture and the environmental sciences, CNTs have an important part to play in
bioremediation, water purification and wastewater treatment. Here CNTs harbour much potential
to filter pollutants and microorganisms through the mechanisms of absorption, catalysis, and
disinfection.

Novel nanoscale
There is a detonation of interest and investment in the field of nanoscience and
nanotechnology over the last few years. The nanoscience revolution is one of the biggest things
to happen since the beginning of modern science, and it is nowadays at the center of future
technological progress owing to the increasing ability to manipulate the matter on
the nanometer scale. One of the important driving forces for the rapidly developing field
of nanoparticle synthesis is the distinctly different physicochemical properties exhibited by
the nanoparticles compared to their bulk counterparts. It may be due to the surface effect,
small size effect, quantum size effect, and so on which open up new opportunities for the
development of materials with unusual or tailored properties. Like nanomaterials, bulk materials
also exhibit surface dependent properties but these are dominant in the case
of nanoparticles only because they possess a vast surface area per unit volume and a high
proportion of atoms at the surface and near surface layers rather than in the particle interior.
Many properties of the nanoparticles are directly connected to their small size. The small size
leads to many distinct properties, which influence the lattice symmetry and cell parameters.
Hybrid materials represent the best of material properties being combined for the
development for materials with properties otherwise unavailable for application requirements.
Novel Nanoscale Hybrid Materials is a comprehensive resource that contains contributions from
a wide range of noted scientists from various fields, working on the hybridization of
nanomolecules in order to generate new materials with superior properties. The new directions
and developments in design and application of new materials, incorporating organic/inorganic
polymers, biopolymers, and nanoarchitecture approaches.

2 MARKS
1. What is a MOSFET?
MOSFET or Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistors is a voltage-controlled four-
terminal device that is used for switching and amplification purposes.
2. Can MOSFET conduct in both directions?
Yes, MOSFETs are bidirectional.
3. How many types of MOSFETs are there?
MOSFETs are of two classes: Enhancement mode and depletion mode. Each class is
available as n-channel or p-channel; hence overall they tally up to four types of
MOSFETs.
4. What are the operating regions of MOSFET?
 There are three operating regions and they are named as: cut off region, ohmic region
and saturation region.
5. What is the difference between a MOSFET and a BJT?
MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device while a BJT is a current-controlled device.
6. What is a FinFET?
A FinFET is a transistor. Being a transistor, it is an amplifier and a switch. Its applications
include home computers, laptops, tablets, smartphones, wearables, high-end networks,
automotive, and more.
FinFET stands for a fin-shaped field-effect transistor. Fin because it has a fin-shaped
body – the silicon fin that forms the transistor’s main body distinguishes it. Field-effect
because an electric field controls the conductivity of the material.
A FinFET is a non-planar device, i.e., not constrained to a single plane. It is also called
3D for having a third dimension.
7. What are the area where FinFETs are used widely ?
FINFETs are widely used in devices like Mobile phones , laptops , smart devices like
smart watches etc.
8. Why is future of FinFET is not for long time ?
The future of FINFET is not for long time as its size cannot be reduced to less than 7 –
5 nm
9. What is the direction of flow of current in FinFET ?
Current can flow in both the direction , direction depend on the types of FINFET in n-
type it flow from drain to source and source to drain in P-type.
10. What is a transistor?
A transistor is a type of semiconductor device that is used to amplify or switch electronic signals
and electrical power. It is a fundamental building block of modern electronic devices and is
commonly used in devices such as radios, televisions, and computers.
11. How do transistors work?
Transistors work by using a small amount of electrical current to control a larger current. This is
accomplished by using two types of semiconductor material, called "p-type" and "n-type". The
different types of material are arranged in three layers, with the p-type in the middle for a typical
transistor. When voltage is applied to the middle layer (called the "base"), it allows current to
flow from the outer "emitter" layer to the other outer "collector" layer.
12. What are the different types of transistors?
There are two basic types of transistors: Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) and Field Effect
Transistors (FETs). BJTs are controlled by current, while FETs are controlled by voltage. Within
these categories, there are further subdivisions such as NPN and PNP BJTs and N-Channel and
P-Channel MOSFETs.
13. What is a MOSFET transistor?
MOSFET stands for Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor. It is a type of transistor
that uses an electric field to control the electrical behavior of the device. MOSFETs are
particularly useful for their high-speed switching capabilities and are widely used in digital
circuits.
14. What is a transistor used for?
Transistors are used in a wide variety of applications. They can act as amplifiers, taking a small
input signal and making it larger. They can also be used as switches, turning an electrical signal
on or off. You will find transistors in nearly every modern electronic device, from mobile phones
and computers to radios and amplifiers.
15. How are transistors made?
Transistors are made using a complex process called photolithography. This involves creating a
pattern on a silicon wafer using a process similar to photography. The pattern is then used to
guide the placement of the different types of semiconductor material.
16. What does "NPN" or "PNP" mean in terms of a transistor?
"NPN" and "PNP" refer to the arrangement of the different types of semiconductor material in a
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). In an NPN transistor, there's a layer of p-type semiconductor
material sandwiched between two layers of n-type material. In a PNP transistor, the arrangement
is reversed, with a layer of n-type material between two layers of p-type material.
17. How do you know if a transistor is bad or failing?
Typical signs of a failing transistor include a circuit that's not functioning as expected, or a device
that's overheating or not powering on. To confirm, you can use a multimeter to test the transistor.
If the transistor isn't showing the correct voltages or resistances in its different configurations,
it's likely that it's bad.
18. What is transistor biasing?
Transistor biasing is the process of setting a predetermined amount of current or voltage at the
junction of a transistor to allow it to operate in a certain region of its output characteristics. This
allows the transistor to function as an amplifier, a switch, or other device. Different types of
biasing techniques exist, such as fixed bias, collector to base bias, and voltage divider bias.
19. Define spintronics.
Spintronics (spin electronics) is the study of the electron’s intrinsic spin, magnetic moment, and
basic electric charge in solid-state devices.
20. What is a solid-state device?
A solid-state device is an electronic device in which electric current moves through solid
semiconductor materials such as germanium, silicon, gallium arsenide, etc., rather than normal
mechanical moving parts and vacuum tubes.
21. What is spintronics?
Spintronics, or spin electronics, is a branch of physics and nanotechnology that studies the
intrinsic spin of the electron and its associated magnetic moment, in addition to its fundamental
electronic charge, in solid-state devices. It has the potential to revolutionize the fields of
electronics, computer technology, and information storage.
22. What is the importance of electron spin in spintronics?
Electron spin is a fundamental property, much like electric charge. However, unlike charge-
based electronics, spintronics exploits the quantum mechanical spin of electrons to store,
manipulate, and communicate information. This creates new possibilities for enhancing the
efficiency and speed of electronic devices, while reducing power consumption.
23. How does spintronics differ from conventional electronics?
In conventional electronics, the flow of charge (current) is controlled to store and process
information. Spintronics, however, aims to use the spin of electrons, in addition to charge, to
perform these tasks. This offers the potential for more efficient, smaller, faster, and cooler-
running devices with extended battery life.
24. What is a spin valve?
A spin valve is a device that has two ferromagnetic layers separated by a non-magnetic
conducting layer. Changes in the relative alignment of the magnetizations (spin orientations) of
the ferromagnetic layers lead to substantial changes in the electrical resistance of the device.
Spin valves are a fundamental building block in spintronics and are used extensively in hard
drives to read data.
25. What is a spin transistor?
A spin transistor is a theoretical device that would operate on the principle of controlling electron
spin rather than charge. Proposed by physicist Datta and Das in 1990, it would control current
flow through the manipulation of spin orientation, potentially enabling faster and more efficient
electronic devices.
26. What are some applications of spintronics?
The most prominent application of spintronics as of now is in data storage devices such as hard
drives and MRAM (Magnetoresistive Random-Access Memory). However, it also has potential
applications in quantum computing, advanced sensors, and future generation transistors and
processors.
27. What is spin current?
Spin current refers to the flow of electron spin angular momentum. In the same way that an
electric current is a flow of charge, a spin current is a flow of spin. It can occur even in the
absence of an electric charge current, and understanding its properties is essential for the
development of spintronic devices.
28. What are the challenges faced in the development of spintronics?
Despite its great potential, there are several challenges in spintronics, including creating
materials with the desired spin properties, maintaining and manipulating spin states over longer
periods and distances, and developing reliable methods to detect spin currents. Overcoming
these challenges is the focus of ongoing research in the field.
29. What is graphene?
Graphene is a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice structure, forming a
two-dimensional (2D) material. It has exceptional mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties,
and is widely studied for its potential use in various fields such as electronics, energy storage,
and biomedicine.
30. Why is graphene considered a "wonder material"?
Graphene is often referred to as a "wonder material" because of its unique properties. It's
stronger than steel, yet incredibly lightweight and flexible. It's also an excellent conductor of heat
and electricity.
31. How is graphene made?
There are many methods to make graphene. The most common methods include mechanical
exfoliation, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and reduction of graphene oxide.
32. What are the potential applications of graphene?
Graphene has potential applications in many areas due to its unique properties. These include
electronics, medicine, energy storage, water filtration, and materials science.
33. What is graphene mainly used for?
Graphene, due to its unique properties such as high electrical conductivity, strength, and
flexibility, finds application across various fields. In electronics, its excellent electrical
conductivity contributes to the creation of fast, thin, lightweight, and flexible electronic devices.
This same conductivity enables the development of transistors that are faster and consume less
energy than traditional semiconductors. Moreover, graphene can be integrated with plastics and
other materials to formulate composites that are light, strong, and conductive. Such composites
can be used for various applications ranging from aircraft to sports equipment. In energy storage,
graphene's ability to conduct heat and its high surface area make it an ideal material for building
improved energy storage devices, such as batteries and supercapacitors.
34. Why is graphene challenging to use in electronics?
One of the main challenges of using graphene in electronics is its zero-bandgap electronic
structure. This makes it impossible to switch off graphene-based transistors, which limits their
application in the semiconductor industry. Efforts are underway to overcome this limitation
through doping or functionalizing the graphene, or by exploring other types of 2D carbon
allotropes with different properties.
35. How expensive is graphene?
There is no simple answer to that question – it depends. Graphene prices vary very widely based
on quality, number of layers, purity, functionalization, powder/dispersion, substrate etc. The fact
that prices are usually quoted in grams tells you how expensive it still is. For instance, for Grade
AO-1 graphene nanopowder with 1.6 nm flakes you can expect to pay around $300 per gram,
single layer graphene oxide goes for about $140-$150 per gram, and graphene nanoplatelets
with a thickness of 8-15nm can be had for $1 - $15 per gram.
36. What are Carbon Nanotubes?
Carbon Nanotubes, or CNTs, are cylindrical nanostructures composed entirely of carbon atoms.
These tubes have extraordinary mechanical, electrical, thermal, optical, and chemical
properties, which makes them suitable for various applications in nanotechnology, electronics,
optics, and other fields of materials science.
37. How are Carbon Nanotubes Made?
Carbon Nanotubes are generally produced using three methods: Arc Discharge, Laser Ablation,
and Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD). Among these, CVD is the most popular due to its lower
cost and higher scalability.
38. What are the Types of Carbon Nanotubes?
Carbon Nanotubes come in two main types: Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNTs) and
Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNTs). The SWCNTs have a single layer of carbon atoms,
while MWCNTs consist of multiple concentric layers of carbon atoms.
39. What are the Properties of Carbon Nanotubes?
Carbon Nanotubes possess unique properties. They are incredibly lightweight yet stronger than
steel, have high thermal conductivity, excellent electrical conductivity, and exhibit unique optical
properties. These attributes make them suitable for various technological applications.
40. What are the Applications of Carbon Nanotubes?
Carbon Nanotubes have diverse applications in many fields, including electronics, materials
science, and nanotechnology. They are used in making transistors, batteries, energy storage
devices, sensors, and even medical devices. In materials science, they are used for
strengthening composite materials.
41. Can Carbon Nanotubes Conduct Electricity?
Yes, Carbon Nanotubes are excellent conductors of electricity. They can carry a high current
density without being damaged, making them useful in various electronics applications.
42. What elements are in carbon nanotubes?
The CNTs contained several elements, including Hg, Pb, F, Cl, and halogens. While CNTs are
known to be produced from coal fires of varying ranks, this seems to be the first report of
naturally occurring CNTs.
43. What are carbon nanotubes and their types?
Three types of CNTs are armchair carbon nanotubes, zigzag carbon nanotubes, and chiral
carbon nanotubes. The difference in these types of carbon nanotubes are created depending
on how the graphite is “rolled up” during its creation process.
44. How are nanotubes made?
Techniques have been developed to produce carbon nanotubes in sizable quantities, including
arc discharge, laser ablation, high-pressure carbon monoxide disproportionation, and chemical
vapor deposition (CVD). Most of these processes take place in a vacuum or with process gases.
45. Are carbon nanotubes the same as graphene?
Carbon nanotubes and graphene are two of the most recently discovered forms of carbon. The
main difference is, the Graphene is a single thin layer 2D film, while the carbon nanotubes in a
thin film rolled like a 3D tube or cylinder.
46. What are the devices on the nanoscale?
Nanoscale devices are devices that are one hundred to ten thousand times smaller than human
cells and that can manipulate matter on atomic or molecular scales. Examples of nanoscale
devices are synthetic molecular motors such as rotaxanes, graphene-based transistors and
nanoelectromechanical oscillators.
47. What are novel electronic devices?
Novel devices for molecular electronics are manufactured by sandwiching self-assembled
monolayers (SAM) of conducting molecules with graphene protection layers between planar
metal source/drain electrodes.
48. What are substances at the nanoscale?
Nanoscale materials are a broadly defined set of substances that have at least one critical
dimension less than 100 nanometers and possess unique optical, magnetic, or electrical
properties. Ultrafine particulate matter is a well-known example of nanoscale particles found in
the environment.
49. What technology is conducted at the nanoscale?
Nanotechnology refers to the branch of science and engineering devoted to designing,
producing, and using structures, devices, and systems by manipulating atoms and molecules at
nanoscale, i.e. having one or more dimensions of the order of 100 nanometres (100 millionth of
a millimetre) or less.
50. What is the range of nanoscale?
Approximately 1 to 1000 nm
Nanoscale: Approximately 1 to 1000 nm size range. Nanoscience: The science and study of
matter at the nanoscale that deals with understanding their size and structure-dependent
properties and compares the emergence of individual atoms or molecules or bulk material
related differences.
51. What are the uses of nanoscale?
Nanoscale additives in polymer composite materials are being used in baseball bats, tennis
rackets, bicycles, motorcycle helmets, automobile parts, luggage, and power tool housings,
making them lightweight, stiff, durable, and resilient.
52. What are the properties of nanoscale?
At the nanoscale, properties such as melting point, fluorescence, electrical conductivity,
magnetic permeability, and chemical reactivity can change as a function of the size of the
particle. Nanoscale gold illustrates the unique properties that occur at the nanoscale.
53. How do you measure nanoscale?
Below are listed some of the techniques for analysis at different ranges, properties, and
conditions on the nanoscale.
1. Atomic force microscopy. ...
2. Scanning tunneling microscopy. ...
3. Scanning electron microscopy. ...
4. Microspectroscopy methods.

54. What are nanoscale materials used for?

Applications Nanomaterial used
Electronics, ICT and photonics Carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, graphene
Pharmaceuticals and medicine Nanomedicines and carriers
(nanobiotechnology)
Cosmetics and personal care Titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, fullerenes,
gold
Catalysts and lubricants Cerium oxide, platinum, molybdenum
trioxide
55. What is the nanoscale effect?
The nanoscale effect enables the unique magnetic, optical, thermal and electrical properties of
nanostructured materials and has attracted extensive investigation for applications in catalysis,
biomedicine, sensors, and energy storage and conversion.
 56. What is the advantage of making materials at the nanoscale?
Advantages of Nano Materials: Improved Mechanical Properties: Nano materials can exhibit
improved mechanical properties, such as increased strength and hardness, making them ideal
for structural applications and reinforcing other materials.
57. What are the features of nanoscale?
• Smallness: physical size. ...
• Smallness: surface versus bulk forces. ...
• Smallness: surface versus bulk atom properties. ...
• Chemical bonding in nanostructures. ...
• Self-assembly. ...
• Quantum confinement and tunneling. ...
• Wave-particle duality. ...
• Relativistic phenomena at the nano-scale.

58. What are the novel applications of nanoparticles?

Nanostructured materials and nanoparticles available applications include catalysis,
sensors, environmental remediation, medicine, varistors, solar cells, rubber, concrete,
foods, cosmetics and personal care products to name just few.