ATOMS

Atom models
• J. J. Thomson : discovered electrons , plum pudding model.

• Rutherford : nuclear model (planetary model) of atom

• Bohr Atom model

• Wave mechanical model….

Geiger – Marsden Experiment ( α-particle scattering expt)
▪ In this experiment, a collimated beam of
5.5 MeV alpha particles from a Bi-214
radioactive source is directed at a gold foil
of thickness 2.1 × 10⁻⁷ m.
▪ The scattered alpha particles are detected
using a rotatable setup that includes a zinc
sulfide screen and a microscope.
▪ When the alpha particles hit the screen,
they produce brief light flashes
(scintillations), which can be observed
through the microscope.
Geiger – Marsden Experiment ( α-particle scattering expt)

Schematic diagram of the experiment

Observations of Geiger – Marsden Experiment
Observations:
• Most alpha particles passed through without deflection.
• About 0.14% scattered by more than 1°.
• Roughly 1 in 8000 deflected by more than 90°.

Conclusions :
• The large majority of alpha particles experienced no
collisions as they went undeflected.
• Significant deflections indicate that mass and positive
charge in the atom is concentrated in a small volume.
• Proposed that atoms consist of a dense nucleus
surrounded by electrons.
Trajectory of alpha particle

• Trajectory is determined by the impact parameter

Impact parameter (b)
• It is the perpendicular distance between the initial velocity vector of  - particle
and the centre of the nucleus.

• Smaller the impact parameter more will be the angle of scattering.

• When impact parameter = 0, scattering angle = 180O
Distance of closest approach
• It is the shortest distance between the centre of nucleus and the point from
where alpha particle get rebounded.

• Distance of closest approach

Rutherford’s atom model
• Central positively charged Nucleus –mass of atom concentrated

• Negatively charged electrons move around

the nucleus in spherical orbits

• Coulomb force between nucleus and

electron provides centripetal force for the
revolution of electron
Rutherford’s Model - Electron Orbits – Energy of electron
• Electrostatic force of attraction between nucleus and electron
provides the necessary centripetal force
𝑚 𝑣2 1 𝑒2
=
𝑟 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟 2

1
• Kinetic energy 𝐾 = 𝑚 𝑣2
2 𝟏 𝒆𝟐
Potential energy 𝑼=−
𝟒 𝝅 𝝐𝑶 𝒓

1 1 𝑒2 U=-2K
𝐾=
2 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟
Total Energy E = K + U = K – 2 K
𝑬 = −𝑲 = 𝑼Τ𝟐
𝟏 𝒆𝟐
𝑲=
𝟖 𝝅 𝜺𝑶 𝒓
𝟏 𝒆𝟐
𝑬=−
𝟖 𝝅 𝜺𝑶 𝒓
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model
• Can’t explain stability of atoms and emission of line spectra
• Accelerated charges emit radiation. Due to radiation, electron
would lose energy and its orbit would decrease until it spiraled
into the nucleus, destroying the atom – can’t explain why atom is stable.
• A continuous spectrum of light energy was expected as the electron is under
continuous acceleration when it moves in circular path and will emit radiations of all
frequencies.
Bohr atom model
Postulates
• Electron moves in circular orbits around nucleus under influence of the
attractive electric field and when electrons are in these orbits, they don’t
radiate : non – radiating (stationary) orbits
• All orbits are not allowed. Angular momentum
of electron in those orbits has to be quantized
– stationary or stable states.
L=mvr=nh/2
Bohr’s quantization condition
• When electron jumps from one stationary state to other, energy
ℎν = 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 is emitted or absorbed.
 Bohr atom model
• Electrostatic force of attraction between nucleus
and electron provides the necessary centripetal force.

𝑚 𝑣2 1 𝑒2 1 𝑒2
= 𝑟=
𝑟 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟 2 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑚 𝑣 2

Bohr’s quantisation condition 𝑚 𝑣 𝑟 = 𝑛 ℎ Τ2 𝜋 𝑟 = 𝑛 ℎ Τ2 𝜋 𝑚 𝑣

𝑛ℎ 1 𝑒2
=
2𝜋𝑚𝑣 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑚 𝑣 2

𝒆𝟐 𝒄
Orbital velocity of electron 𝒗= =
𝟐 𝝐𝑶 𝒏 𝒉 𝟏𝟑𝟕 𝒏
𝟏
𝒗𝜶 : closer the electron to nucleus, more the orbital speed
𝒏
n = 1, 2 , 3… principal quantum number (no. of orbit)
Bohr atom model
Orbital radius
𝑟 = 𝑛 ℎ Τ2 𝜋 𝑚 𝑣

𝑛ℎ
𝑟=
𝑒2
2𝜋𝑚( )
2 𝜖𝑂 𝑛 ℎ

𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝝐𝑶
𝒓=
𝝅 𝒎 𝒆𝟐

𝒓 = 𝒏𝟐 𝒂𝑶

ℎ 2 𝜖𝑂
𝑎𝑂 = = 0.53 𝐴𝑂 radius of first orbit ( Bohr radius)
𝜋 𝑚 𝑒2
Bohr atom model
Time period of revolution

2𝜋𝑟 2 𝜋 𝑛2 𝑎𝑜
𝑇= = 𝑐
𝑣 ൗ137 𝑛

𝟐𝟕𝟒 𝝅 𝒂𝒐 𝒏𝟑
𝑻=
𝒄

𝑻 = 𝒏𝟑 𝑻𝑶

𝑇𝑂 = 0.152 × 10−15 𝑠 time period when electron is in first orbit

Bohr atom model
Energy of electrons
1 𝑒2
• Total energy E = K + U = −
8 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟

𝑛 2 ℎ 2 𝜖𝑂
𝑟=
𝜋 𝑚 𝑒2

1 𝑒2
𝐸=−
8 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 (𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜖𝑂 )
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2

13.6
𝐸 = − 2 𝑒𝑉
𝑛
Bohr atom
model
Spectra of hydrogen
• Energy is emitted in the form of radiation when an electron makes a
transition from a higher energy level Ei to a lower energy level Ef , i.e.
h = Ei – Ef

• Frequency of light emitted

• Wavelength of light emitted

Rydberg constant RH = 1.097 x 107 m-1

Spectral series of hydrogen
• Lyman – UV (n = 1)
• Balmer – Visible (n=2)
Hα : n= 3
Hβ : n= 4
Hγ : n = 5
Hδ : n = 6
• Paschen – IR (n=3)
• Brackett – IR (n=4)
• Pfund – IR (n=5)
de Broglie’s explanation of Bohr’s quantitation rule
• Electron moving around the nucleus can be considered as a
stationary matter wave of wavelength  = h / m v

• A stationary wave does not transmit energy.

• For standing waves to be formed, circumference of orbit

should occupy integer number of wavelengths, else
waves can cancel each other.

2 π r = n λ= n h / mv

mvr=nh/2
de Broglie’s explanation of Bohr’s quantitation rule
Drawbacks of Bohr Model

• Only applicable for H atom

• Could not explain about fine structure of spectrum
• Could not explain why certain electron transitions are more favored
(more intensity for certain transitions)