SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

The elements in the fourth group of the periodic table like Si and Ge have greater resistance than good
conductors but less than bad conductors. They are known as semiconductors. They behave as bad
conductors at absolute zero temperature in their pure form.
The resistivity of the good conductors increases with temperature, while the resistivity of the
semiconductors decreases on increasing the temperature unto a certain limit. The conductivity of the
semiconductors is changed by making radiation of suitable frequency incident on them.

BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS

Consider that the Si or Ge crystal contains N atoms. Electrons of each atom will have discrete energies in
different orbits. The electron energy will be same if all the atoms are isolated, i.e., separated from each
other by a large distance. However, in a crystal, the atoms are close to each other (2 to 3 Å) and therefore
the electrons interact with each other and also with the neighbouring atomic cores.
1.) When r = d>>a. At this large distance there is no interaction between neighbouring atoms. All the N
atoms have identical energy levels. In the outer shells, N energy levels associated with 3s orbitals are
completely filled with 2N electrons. Out of 3N energy levels associated with 3p orbitals, only N energy
levels are filled with 2N electrons and the remaining levels are empty .

2.)When r= c >>a but c<d As interatomic separation decreases , the valence electrons of the neighbouring
atoms begin to interact, the energies of 3s and 3p levels of each atom get slightly changed (both increase
and decrease)
As N is very very large (= 1023 atoms/cm3), we have enormously large no of energy levels(N of 3s type
and 3N of 3p type)spaced in very small energy range . Such sets of closely spaced energy levels are
called energy bands

3.)When r=b>a As the separation r decreases further, the energy gap between 3s and 3p levels completely
disappears and the upper and lower energy bands merge with each other . We now have a set of
continuously distributed 4N energy levels .

4.) When r = a At this equilibrium separation, the band of 2N filled energy levels get separated from the
band of 2N empty energy levels by energy gap

The highest energy band filled with valence electrons called the valence band at the bottom and the
lowest unfilled allowed energy band next to valence band called conduction band at the top. The gap
between these two bands is called energy gap.

Energy band diagrams in metals, semiconductors and insulators

I- In case of insulator a large band gap Eg exists (Eg > 3 eV). There are no electrons in the conduction
band, and therefore no electrical conduction is possible. Since the energy gap between the conduction
band and the valence band is more, there is no movement of electrons from the valence band to the
conduction band.

II-In case of semiconductors a finite but small band gap (E g < 3 eV) exists. Because of the small band
gap, at room temperature some electrons from valence band can acquire enough energy to cross the
energy gap and enter the conduction band. These electrons (though small in numbers) can move in the
conduction band. Hence, the resistance of semiconductors is not as high as that of the insulators .
The energy band gaps of silicon and germanium are 1.1 eV and 0.7 eV.

III- In case of metal either when the conduction band is partially filled and the balanced band is partially
empty or when the conduction and valance bands overlap. In metals, the conduction band is either
partially filled or the valence band is partially empty. There are electrons that behave as free electrons as
they shift to higher energy levels by acquiring energy above the Fermi level in the conduction band.
There is no forbidden energy gap in the metals. Since there is no forbidden gap, the number of electrons
available for the conduction is more increasing the conductivity of the material. Metals behave as a
conductor because of the movement of the free electrons when a small amount of electric current is
applied.

Fermi level" is the term used to describe the top of the collection of electron energy levels at
absolute zero temperature. The highest energy level that an electron can occupy at the absolute zero
temperature is known as the Fermi Level. The Fermi level lies between the valence band and conduction
band because at absolute zero temperature the electrons are all in the lowest energy state. Due to lack of
sufficient energy at 0 Kelvin, the Fermi level can be considered as the sea of fermions (or electrons)
above which no electrons exist. The Fermi level changes as the solids are warmed and as electrons are
added to or withdrawn from the solid.

Semiconductors are of two types-

(i) intrinsic semiconductor
(ii) extrinsic semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductor - An intrinsic semiconductor is an inborn, naturally occurring, pure, or basic

semiconductor. The best examples of intrinsic semiconductors are crystals of Pure Silicon and Pure
Germanium.
At 0 K, no free electrons are available because all the electrons are involved in bond formation. All the
electrons can’t reach the conduction band and remain in the valence bond.
As there are zero electrons in the conduction band, so no electricity formation (zero conductivity) means
the semiconductor behaves as an insulator at 0 K.
Hole is a electric charge carrier which has positive charge. The electric charge of hole is equal to electric
charge of electron but have opposite polarity. When a small amount of external energy is applied, then
the electrons in the valence band moves in to conduction band and leaves a vacancy in valence band. This
vacancy is called as hole.
Intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor in which ne = nh
Extrinsic semiconductor - An extrinsic semiconductors are those semiconductors that come into
existence when a measured and small amount of chemical impurity is added to intrinsic semiconductors.
It is also known as doped semiconductor or impurity semiconductors. The doping of the semiconductors
increases its conductivity. The process of deliberately adding a desirable impurity is known as doping and
the impurity atoms are called dopants.

Extrinsic semiconductor is of two types n-type semiconductor & p-type semiconductor.

N–type semiconductor is prepared by adding pentavalent impurities like Antimony or Arsenic in pure
semiconductor.
P-type semiconductor is prepared by adding trivalent impurities like Boron, Aluminium, Gallium or
Indium.
P-type semiconductor
When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity (B, Al, In, Ga ) then, the three valence
electrons of the impurity bond with three of the four valence electrons of the semiconductor.
This makes a vacant electron (hole) in the impurity atom. Those impurity atoms having holes are
acceptors, because they can easily accept the bonding electron from the other atom.
Since, there is an increase in the holes of the semiconductor due to the increase in the number of
impurities. Thus, these semiconductors are called p-type semiconductors.

N-type semiconductor
An N-type semiconductor is formed when a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure
germanium or silicon crystal. The addition of pentavalent impurity produces a large no. of free electrons
in the host crystal.
To explain the formation of N-type semiconductor, let us introduce a pentavalent impurity atom into the
lattice of pure silicon crystal. The pentavalent atom has 5 valance electrons, but only 4 form covalent
bonds with the neighbouring atoms. The 5th electron finds no place in the covalent bonding so becomes
free. Since an impurity atom provides one free electron, an enormous increase occurs in the no. of free
electrons. The impure semiconductor so obtained is then called as N - type semiconductor where N
represents negative charge on an electron. Thus the majority carrier in N-type semiconductor are free
electrons. Holes are also present in the N-type semiconductor.

If pentavalent impurities like Arsenic is added to Ge or Si four of the five valence electrons of As atom
are used up in forming covalent bonds and the fifth electron can act as a free electron. The pentavalent
impurity is known as donor impurity. Here electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are
minority charge carriers in the case of N-type semiconductors .

P-N junction diode

The junction diode is obtained by combining P-type semiconductor with an N–type semiconductor. In P-
type semiconductor holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority charge carriers and in N-
type semiconductor electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are minority charge carriers
The processes that follow after the formation of a p-n junction are of two types – diffusion and drift. As,
there is a difference in the concentration of holes and electrons at the two sides of a junction, the holes
from the p-side diffuse to the n-side and the electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side. These give
rise to a diffusion current across the junction.
Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionized donor is left behind on the n-
side, which is immobile. As the process goes on, a layer of positive charge is developed on the n-side of
the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from the p-side to the n-side, and ionized acceptor is left behind
in the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of negative charges in the p-side of the junction. This
region of positive charge and negative charge on either side of the junction is termed as the depletion
region. Due to this positive space charge region on either side of the junction, an electric field direction
from a positive charge towards the negative charge is developed. Due to this electric field, an electron on
the p-side of the junction moves to the n-side of the junction. This motion is termed as the drift. Here, we
see that the direction of drift current is opposite to that of the diffusion current.

Drift current is the current flow in the diode due to the applied electric field. Diffusion current is
the current due to the diffusion of the carriers because of the change in the carrier concentration.
 BIASING OF P-N JUNCTION

Forward Bias
In forward bias the +ve pole of the battery is connected to the P end of the diode and
negative pole to the N end. Here, emf of the battery and p.d across the depletion region oppose each other
which reduces the depletion barrier p.d. and decrease in its width and the resistance across PN junction
diode decreases. . The electrons flow from N-type to P-type in the diode and from positive pole to
negative pole in the battery. The conventional current is in the reverse direction
Reverse Bias
In reverse bias the +ve pole of the battery is connected to the N end of the diode and
negative pole to the P end. Here, emf of the battery and the p.d. across the depletion region are in series
which increases the depletion barrier p.d. and increase in its width so resistance across PN junction diode
becomes very large . No current flows across the junction.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A P-N JUNCTION

KNEE VOLTAGE – It is the forward voltage beyond which the current through the junction starts
increasing rapidly with voltage showing the linear variation. But below it the variation is not linear.

ZENER BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE – When the reverse voltage across p-n junction reaches
sufficiently high value the reverse current suddenly increases to large value. This voltage at which
breakdown of junction diode occurs called zener breakdown voltage.
 P-N JUNCTION DIODE AS A RECTIFIER

Rectifier is a device which is used for converting alternating current into direct current.
P-N junction diode can be used for this purpose. The conventional current flows from P to N in the
forward bias mode, but the current is almost zero in the reverse bias mode. Thus, when alternating
voltage is applied to the diode, current will flow in the circuit only in that half cycle for which the P-N
junction is forward biased. In the next half cycle, there will be no current when the diode becomes
reverse biased. When a resistor is in the circuit, then direct voltage varying with time will be obtained. P-
N junction diode can be used as rectifier in two ways-
(i) Half wave rectifier
(ii) Full wave rectifier.

Half wave rectifier In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input cycle is rectified. When the p-n
junction diode is forward biased, it gives little resistance and when it is reversing biased it provides high
resistance

When the positive half of a.c input signal flows through the primary coil, as induced emf is set up in the
secondary coil due to mutual induction. The direction of induced emf is such that the upper end of
secondary coil becomes positive and lower end becomes negative. Since upper end of secondary coil is
connected to n-region of the junction diode, so the junction diode is forward biased during the positive
half of input a.c. Thus, the junction diode conducts and flow of current starts in the direction shown by
arrows. The output voltage which varies in accordance with input half cycle is obtained across RL.
When negative half cycle of a.c input flows through the primary coil, again induced emf is set up across
the secondary coil due to mutual induction. Now the direction of induced emf is such that upper end of
the secondary coil becomes negative and lower end becomes positive. So the junction diode is reverse
biased. Hence the junction diode does not conduct, and therefore, we get no output across load resistance
during negative half of input a.c.
The process is repeated in the subsequent half cycles.

Full wave rectifier

During the first half cycle the A end of the secondary coil is positive with respect to the B end which
make (PN)1 junction diode forward biased and the (PN)2 junction diode reverse biased. Therefore current
flows in diode (PN)1 and not in diode (PN)2. The direction of current due to diode(PN)1 in load
resistance RL is directed from D to C. During the second half cycle, the A end becomes negative with
respect to the B end which makes the (PN) junction diode reverse biased and the (PN) junction diode
1 2
forward biased. Hence the conventional current flows in the resistor R in the same direction, i.e., from
L
D to C during both the half cycles. Hence, direct varying current flows through the resistor in the same
direction and hence direct varying voltage develops across it during both the half cycles.