INDEX

Sr. No Programs Date Signature

1. Familiarisation with networking components

And devices LAN adapter, Hub, Switches,
Routers etc.

2. Familiarization with Transmission media

And tools: Co- axial cable, UTP cable,
Crimping tool, Connectors etc.

3. Preparing the UTP cable for cross and

Direct connection using crimping tool.

4. Configuring of TCP/IP protocols in

Windows/LINUX

5. Configuration of TELNET protocols

On router for remote access.
 Program 1
Aim:-Familiarization with networking components and devices LAN
adapters, hubs, switches, routers etc.

 What is a Network?
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share
resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic
communications. The computers on a network may be linked through cables,
telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

Networking Components:-
Computer networks components comprise both Hardware
parts as well as the software parts required for installing computer networks, both at
organizations and at home. The hardware components are the server, client, peer,
transmission medium, and connecting devices. The software components are operating
system and protocols.

Diagram: Components of Network.

Hardware Components:-
Servers:−Servers are high-configuration computers that manage the resources of the
network. The network operating system is typically installed in the server and so they
give user accesses to the network resources. Servers can be of various kinds: file
servers, database servers, print servers etc.
Clients: − Clients are computers that request and receive service from the servers to
access and use the network resources.
 Peers:- Peers are computers that provide as well as receive services from other peers
in a work group network.
Transmission Media:- Transmission media are the channels through which data is
transferred from one device to another in a network. Transmission media may be
guided media like coaxial cable, fiber optic cables etc; or maybe unguided media like
microwaves, infra-red wave etc.
Networking Devices:- Connecting devices act as middleware between networks or
computers, by binding the network media together. Some of the common connecting
devices are:
1. Routers
2. Hub
3. Switch
4. Bridge
5. Repeater
6. Gateway

 Software Components:-
 Operating System − Network Operating Systems is typically installed in the
server and facilitate workstations in a network to share files, database,
applications, printers etc.
 Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by each computer for
data communication. Protocol suite is a set of related protocols that are laid down
for computer networks. The two popular protocol suites are−
 OSI Model ( Open System Interconnections)
 TCP / IP Model.

 LAN Adapter:-
A LAN adapter is an expansion board that is used to connect a computer or computing
device to a network. LAN adapter is the most common and generic alternate name for a
Network Interface Card(NIC). Similar products, such as
Wireless USB LAN Adapter rare referred to as LAN adapters.

LAN ADAPTER

 Functions of LAN Adapter:-

The computer and the card must communicate with
each other so that they can proceed to exchange information. In this way, the
computer allocates part of its memory to cards that have DMA (Direct memory
access).The card interface indicates that another computer is requesting data from the
computer. The computer bus transfers the data from the computer memory to the
network card.
 Networking Devices

 Router:-
Routers are networking devices operating at layer 3 or a network layer of the
OSI model. They are responsible for receiving, analyzing, and forwarding data packets
among the connected computer networks. When a data
packet arrives, the router inspects the destination
address, consults its routing tables to decide the optimal
route and then transfers the packet along this route.

 How a router works:-

A router examines a packet header's destination IP address and
compares it against a routing table to determine the packet's best next hop. Routing
tables list directions for forwarding data to particular network destinations, sometimes
in the context of other variables, like cost. They amount to an algorithmic set of rules
that calculate the best way to transmit traffic toward any given IP address. A routing
table often specifies a default route, which the router uses whenever it fails to find a
better forwarding option for a given packet. For example, the typical home office
router directs all outbound traffic along a single default route to its internet service
provider (ISP) Routing tables can be static -- i.e., manually configured -- or dynamic.
Dynamic routers automatically updated their routing tables based on network activity,
exchanging information with other devices via routing protocols.

 Hub:-
A Network Hub is one of the most commonly used networking devices can be easily found
on any small networks such as home or office. Hub
operates at the physical layer of OSI model. It is the
simplest networking device hence has low cost.
Basically, a hub is a repeater with multiple ports. The
function of a hub in networking is similar to the
repeater. It transfers data in the form of binary bits and
uses for broadcasting data.

 Working of Hubs:-When a host sends frames, the hub forwards the frames in all
the ports. Hubs do not separate the type of the frame, for example, whether the frame
unicast should be either multicast or
broadcast. Hubs forward all the frames
into all the ports. Although a hub sends
the frames to all the ports, a computer
accepts the ones, whose MAC match
matches the destination MAC address
field. The rest of the frames are discarded
after receiving the required information.
 Switch:-
A switch is a Networking device in a computer network that connects other
devices together. Multiple data cables are plugged into a switch to enable
communication between
different networked
devices. Switches manage
the flow of data across a
network by transmitting a
received network packet
only to the one or more
devices for which the
packet is intended.

Diagram- Switch

 Working of Switch:-Whenever a host sends a frame to any other host, then the
source host is stored with the port in the address table of the MAC address switch. A
switch always stores the address of the source in the table. Unless a host does send
some data, its MAC address and port number will not be stored in the table of the
switch. Unless a host does send some data, its MAC address and port number will not
be stored in the table of the switch. When you initialize the switch, the switch does
not contain any information about any host and its address. In such a situation, when a
host frame sends, its MAC address is stored in the table but due to no destination
information, the switch sends the frame to all the hosts .When you initialize the
switch,the switch does not contain any information about any host and its address. In
such a situation, when a host frame sends, its MAC address is stored in the table but
due to no destination information, the switch sends the frame to all the hosts. As soon
as the second host sends some data, its address also gets stored in the table. As soon as
the second host sends some data, its address also gets stored in the table. Whenever a
host sends the frames, the switch stores it if its address is not already present in the
table. Thus a switch
creates its table.
When all the hosts'
addresses and port
numbers come in the
switch, the switch
delivers the frame to
all hosts only,
delivering the same
host to the host for
which the data has
been sent.
 Bridge:-
Bridge is termed as a network device which is helpful in filtering the data
load of the traffic by dividing it into segments or packets. They are used to lower the
load of traffic on the LAN and other networks. Bridges are passive devices, because
there is no interaction between
bridged and the paths of bridging.
Bridges operate on the second
layer of the OSI model that is the
data link layer.

Diagram: Working of Switch

 Working of Bridge:-
When various network segments are established at the data
link layer of the OSI model, we refer to it as bridge. However when the packets
ofdata are transferred along a network , without locating the network addresses this
process is termed as bridging. The process of bridging is helpful in locating the
addresses of unknown addresses to which it is viable to send data. In bridging the
data packets contain a header or a packet header which holds the address to the
intended device. Bridge can remember and recall the address of the devices for
further transmission. There are two kinds of bridging modes, the transparent bridging
and the source routing bridging. When the process of bridging occurs, it makes a
bridging table along side where it stores the MAC addresses of the various
terminals. Thistable helps the bridges to send the data packet to the exact location
next time. However when a specific address does not meet the contents of the
bridging table, the data packet is forwarded further ahead to every attached terminal
in LAN except from the computer it is connected to. This type of bridging is called
transparent bridging. When the source computer presents pathway information
within the packet, this typeof bridging is known as source route bridging. It is most
commonly used in used on Token Ring networks.

 Repeater:-
A repeater is a network device that retransmits a received signal with more power
and to an extended geographical or topological network boundary than what would be
capable with the original signal repeater is implemented in computer networks to expand
the coverage area of the network, re propagate a weak or broken signal and or service
remote nodes. Repeaters amplify the received/input signal to a higher frequency domain
so that it is reusable, scalable.
 Diagram: Repeater

 Working of Repeater:-
When an electrical signal is transmitted via a channel, it gets
attenuated depending upon the nature of the channel or the technology. This poses a
limitation upon the length of the LAN or coverage area of cellular networks. This
problem is alleviated by installing repeaters at certain intervals.

Repeaters amplifies the

attenuated signal and then
retransmits it. Digital
repeaters can even
reconstruct signals distorted
by transmission loss. So,
repeaters are popularly
incorporated to connect
between two LANs thus
forming a large single LAN

Diagram: Working of Repeater

 Gateway:-
The link between two computers to connect to internet or another
network is called gateway. The gateway works like a portal among two programs by
means of communications between protocol
and permit them to share data on same
computers or among different computers.
Gateways are also known as protocol
converter that can perform at any OSI
model layer. The task of a gateway is very
complex.
 Working of Gateway:-
A gateway is a network point that works as an access to another
network. Generally in intranet a node can be either a gateway node or the nodes that join
the network are gateways. In large organization where the computers control the traffic
between organization networks are gateway nodes. Like that the computers used by ISP to
connect different user with each other at a time to the internet are gateway nodes. In a
project of any business company computer server work as a gateway nodes and it may be
proxy server or firewall some time. A
gateway may connected to a router because
a router exactly known where to through a
given packet of data that appears at the
gateway then a switch finalize the actual in
and out path of the gateway for the specified
packet .A gateway is a compulsory features
of routes even though other devices can
perform as a gateway. The operating system
mostly used this term and internet
connection sharing act as a gateway and
creating a connection among internal
network.

Diagram: Working of Gateways

 Program 2

Crimping Tools, Connectors etc.

Transmission Medium:
A communication channel that is used to carry the data from one transmitter to the receiver
through the electromagnetic signals .The main function of this is to carry the data in the bits form
through the Local Area Network(LAN).In data communication, it works like a physical path
between the sender & receiver .For instance ,in a copper cable network the bits in the form of
electrical signals whereas in a fiber network ,the bits are available in the form of light pulses.
The quality as well as characteristics of data transmission ,can be determined from the
characteristics of medium &signal. The properties of different transmission media are delay,
bandwidth, maintenance, cost and easy installation.

Bounded/Guided Transmission Media:

This kind of transmission media is also known as wired otherwise bounded media. In this type
,the signals can be transmitted directly & restricted in a thin path through physical links.
The types of Bounded /Guided transmission are discussed below.
Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted pair
cable. It has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an
insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a
combination of the two. The outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the
whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.
Applications:
1. Coaxial cable was widely used for both analog and digital data transmission.
2. It has higher bandwidth.
3. Inexpensive when compared to fiber optical cables.

4. It uses for longer distances at higher data rates.

5. Excellent noise immunity.
6. Used in LAN and Television distribution.
Disadvantage :
1. Single cable failure can fail the entire network.

2. Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pairs.

3.If the shield is imperfect ,it can lead to grounded loop.

Fibre Optic Cable:

A fiber optic cable is a network cable that contains strands of glass fibers inside an insulated
casing. They're designed for long-distance, high-performance data networking, and
telecommunications. Compared to wired cables, fiber optic cables provide higher bandwidth
and transmit data over longer distances. Fiber optic cables support much of the world's
internet, cable television, and telephone systems.
Advantages of Fiber Optic Cables:
1.The loss of signal in optical fiber is less than that in copper wire.
2.Opticalfibers usually have a longer life cycle for over 100 years.

Disadvantage:
1.It is expensive.
2.Difficult to install.

Twisted pair cable:

A twisted pair cable is a type of cable made by putting two separate insulated wires together in a
twisted pattern and running them parallel to each other. This type of cable is widely used in
different kinds of data and voice infrastructures.
Twisted pair is of two types:
1.Shielded Twisted Pair(STP)
2.Unshielded Twisted Pair(UTP)

Shielded Twisted Pair:

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cables additionally have an overall conducting metallic shields
covering four twisted pair wires. There may be another conducting metallic shields covering
individual twisted pairs also. These metallic shields blocks out electromagnetic interference to
prevent unwanted noise from the communication circuit.

Advantage of Shielded Twisted Pair:

1.The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.

2.An installation of STP is easy.

3.It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.

4.It has a higher attenuation.

5.It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages:

1.It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

2.It has a higher attenuation rate.

Unshielded Twisted Pair(UTP):

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. It is most common type when
compared with shielded twisted pair cable which consists of two conductors usually copper, each
with its own colour plastic insulator.

Categories:

Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.

Category 2: It can support up to 4Mbps.

Category 3: It can support up to 16Mbps.

Category 4: It can support up to 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance

communication.

Category 5: It can support up to 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

1. It is cheap.

2. Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.

3.It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

1. This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
Unbounded/Unguided Transmission Media:

Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This
type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally
broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of
receiving them.

Types of unguided Transmission media:

 Radio Transmission:

Its frequency is between 10Khz to 1Ghz. It is simple to install and has high attenuation. These waves
are used for multicast communication.

Types of propagation:
1. Troposphere
2. Ionosphere
Microwaves:
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the
height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile
phone communication and television distribution.
Infrared:
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through
obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It
is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Crimping tool:
A crimping tool is a device used to conjoin two pieces of metal by deforming one or both of
them to hold each other. The result of the tool's work is called a crimp. An example of crimping
is affixing a connector to the end of a cable. For instance, network cables and phone cables are
created using a crimping tool (shown below) to join RJ-45 and RJ-11 connectors to both ends of
phone or Cat 5 cable.

Connector:
A device that terminates a segment of cabling or provides a point of entry for networking devices
such as computers, hubs, and routers. Connectors can be distinguished according to their
physical appearance and mating properties, such as jacks and plugs (male connectors) or sockets
and ports (female connectors).
 Program 3
Aim: Preparing the UTP cable for cross and direct connection using Crimping Tools.

Requirements:
Crimping tools, UTP Cable, RJ-45 connector, Cable tester.

Procedure:

Crimping Tools:
A crimping tool is a device used to conjoin two pieces of metal by deforming one or both of
them to hold each other. The result of the tool's work is called a crimp. An example of crimping
is affixing a connector to the end of a cable. For instance, network cables and phone cables are
created using a crimping tool (shown below) to join RJ-45 and RJ-11 connectors to both ends of
phone or Cat 5 cable.

UTP Cables:
UTP stands for Unshielded Twisted Pair cable. UTP cable is a 100 ohm copper cable that
consists of 2 to 1800 unshielded twisted pairs surrounded by an outer jacket. They have no
metallic shield. This makes the cable small in diameter but unprotected against electrical
interference. The twist helps to improve its immunity to electrical noise and EMI.
RJ-45 Connector:
RJ-45 connector is a tool that we put on the end of the UTP cable. With this we can plug the
cable in the LAN port.

Cable test:
A cable tester is a electronic device used to verify the electrical connections in a signal cable or other wired
assembly. Basic cable testers are continuity tester that verify the existence of a conductive path between
ends of the cable, and verify the correct wiring of connectors on the cable.
Straight cable:
A straight-through cable is a type of twisted pair cable that is used in local area networks to
connect a computer to a network hub such as a router. This type of cable is also sometimes called
a patch cable and is an alternative to wireless connections where one or more computers access a
router through a wireless signal. On a straight-through cable, the wired pins match. Straight-
through cable use one wiring standard: both ends use T568A wiring standard or both ends use
T568B wiring standard. The following figure shows a straight-through cable of which both ends
are wired as the T568B standard.

Cross cable:
An Ethernet crossover cable is a type of Ethernet cable used to connect computing devices
together directly. Unlike straight-through cable, crossover cables use two different wiring
standards: one end uses the T568A wiring standard, and the other end uses the T568B wiring
standard. The internal wiring of Ethernet crossover cables reverses the transmit and receive
signals. It is most often used to connect two devices of the same type: e.g. two computers
(via network interface controller) or two switches to each other.

Making Straight UTP Cable:

- Peel the end of the UTP cable , approximately 2 cm.

- Open the cable strands , align and follow the arrangement as standard cable image shown

below .

- Once the order is according to the standard , cut and flatten the ends of the cable,

- Put the cable is straight and aligned into the RJ - 45 connector , and make sure all cables are

in correct position as follows:

Orange White on no 1

Orange on no 2

Green White on no 3

Blue on no 4

Blue White on no 5

Green on no 6
White Brown on no 7

Brown on no 8

- Make crimping using crimp tools , press crimping tool and make sure all the pins ( brass )

on the RJ - 45 connector has " bite " of each cable . usually when done will sound "click ".

Once finished at the end of this one , do it again at the other end cable.

The final step is to check the cable that you created earlier using the LAN tester , enter each

end of the cable ( RJ- 45 ) to each LAN port available on the tester , turn and make sure all of

the LEDs light up according to the order of the wires we created.

Creating Cross UTP Cable:-

Creating a cross cable has almost the same steps with straight cable , the difference lies only

in the colour sequence from both ends of the cable . Unlike the straight cable that has the same

colour sequence at both ends of the cable , the cross cable has a different colour sequences at
both ends of the cable.

The first ends is same with straight cable :

Orange White on no. 1

Orange on no. 2

Green White on no. 3

Blue on no. 4

Blue White on no. 5

Green on no. 6 .

White chocolate on no. 7

Brown on no. 8

For the second end of the cable, the colour composition is different from the first . The colour

arrangement is as follows

Green White on no. 1

Green on no. 2
Orange White on no. 3

Blue on no. 4

Blue White on no. 5

Orange on no. 6

White chocolate no.7

Brown on no.8
 Program 4

Aim :- Configuration of TCP/IP protocols in Window/LINUX.

Open command prompt then type ipcongif /all and press enter.
After pressing Enter