Grade 9-10 Physics Notes

Gr9 Unit 1 - Motion

Distance, displacement
-> Distance is the length of the total path traveled by an object. S.I UNIT - meters
The distance of a body can never be negative or 0. This is because the distance is the length of the total path that
is being covered by an object.
Distance is a scalar quantity meaning that it only provides the magnitude -> the magnitude in this situation would
be the length of the total path covered.
-> Displacement is the shortest distance from the initial position of an object to its final position. It is basically
the change in position. S.I UNIT - meters
Displacement can be calculated as Xf - XI -> This can also be written as Final position - initial position = change
in position or displacement.
Displacement is a vector quantity as it provides us with the magnitude and the direction.
The displacement of an object can be 0 and negative.
-> The displacement of an object can be 0. For example a person goes for a jog and runs a total of 5 km and they
complete that 5km and come to their initial position (where they started the jog) This would signify that the
displacement of the body is 0 because there is no change in between the initial and final position of the person.
Whereas the distance traveled would still be 5km.
-> The displacement of a particular object can be negative because for example if we set up a numberline on a
path and observe the path of a man who goes 2 m towards his carr and then forgets his ball in the garage. To get
the ball he will have to travel 5m. Considering his initial position is 0. On the numberline he first moves 2m
towards the right and then from there he moves 5 meters towards the left to get to the garage. This would mean
that he is traveling -3 meters. (the negative sign shows he is moving towards the left because the negative
numbers are on the left slide of the number line.

Speed, velocity, acceleration

-> Speed is a measure of how fast or slow a particular object is moving. It is the distance traveled by an object
per unit time. S.I unit - m/s
Speed is a scalar quantity as it only shows us the magnitude and not the direction.
Formula for Average speed = distance traveled / time
-> Velocity is the same as speed but is a measure of how fast or slow an object is moving in a particular direction.
SI. UNIT - m/s
Velocity is a vector quantity as it shows the magnitude and the direction of the object in motion.
Velocity can be defined as the change of position over time. This means that the formula for
Velocity = displacement/ time
-> Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity per unit time. SI.unit - m/s2
Acceleration is a vector quantity because it is measuring the rate of change of velocity and since velocity is a
vector quantity so is acceleration.
Acceleration = v -u / t -> Final velocity - Initial velocity/ time
Free fall or Acceleration due to gravity
->Deceleration/Negative acceleration/ Retardation is the same as acceleration but with a negative sign. It is the
rate of decrease of velocity per unit time. It's the opposite of acceleration.

Motion Graphs
It is a visual representation of an object's motion over time. There are two different types of motion graphs we
will be looking at: distance/displacement time graph and speed/velocity time graph.
Before that let's see graphs for uniform speed, non uniform speed and a stationary object ( same for velocity,
distance, displacement)
 Distance/Displacement Time Graphs -> aka Position time graphs
-In these graphs the time, since it is an independent variable, is always on the x-axis. Whereas the distance or the
displacement is always on the y-axis.
- By calculating the slope of a distance-time graph we can calculate the speed of the object in motion.
- By calculating the slope of a displacement -time graph we can calculate the velocity of the object in motion.
Speed/Velocity-Time graphs
-The time, since it is an independent variable, is always on the x-axis. Whereas the speed or velocity are on the
y-axis.
- by calculating the slope of a velocity time graph we would be able to get the acceleration of the object in
motion.
-To calculate the distance traveled by an object in a speed/velocity time graph we calcu;ate the area under the
graph.

Equations of motion ( can be used for anything with constant acceleration)

1. v = u + at
2. s = ut + ½ at2
3. V2 - u2 = 2as
Derivation of formula 1 Derivation of Formula 2

Forces -> A force is a push or pull on an object that causes the object to accelerate, decelerate, change its direction,
shape or size. S.I unit - Newton (N)
There are 2 main types of forces -> Balanced and Unbalanced forces.
A balanced force is a force where the opposite forces acting on the body are equal. Then the effect of the equal
and opposite forces cancels out. The net force on the body is 0 ( no net force )
IIf the forces are balanced that doesn’t mean that the object has to stay at rest the object can also be in motion at
a constant speed.
An unbalanced force is a force where the opposite forces are unequal which causes an object to accelerate,
decelerate, change its direction, shape or size. (Net force causes the body to move)
If net force is greater than the other force there is an unbalance which causes the motion of an object to accelerate
or decelerate.
Friction : It’s the force that opposes the motion of an object.

On a
microscopic level we see that no surface is fully flat. Every surface has bumps and irregularities. Over here in the
first picture we have a carrom kept on top of a carrom board. To our eyes we see that these are 2 flat surfaces.
But at a microscopic level we see that the carrom and the carrom both are not flat, they each have mumps and
irregularities. This means that when you apply a force on a carrom it stops because of all the irregularities it has
to pass. This is how friction is caused.
If we take the same example and put powder on the carrom
board then there will be less friction, allowing the carrom to
travel further even if the same amount of force is applied. The
powder particles are very small and they slide inside the
irregularities and smoothen the surfaces out. This means that
the carrom can slide on the surface easily with less friction.
The force of friction can be classified as a contact force.
Factors affecting frictional force include: mass, the material of the surface/the nature of the surface. Static
friction is the force that prevents two stationary surfaces from sliding past each other. When you try to push or
pull an object on a surface, static friction comes into play, resisting the motion until a certain force threshold is
reached. Sliding friction is the force that opposes the motion of surfaces sliding past each other.

Newton's Laws Of Motion

Newton’s 1st Law of Motion states that An object at rest stays at rest or an object in motion stays in
motion unless acted upon by an external unbalanced force.
Newton’s 2nd law of Motion -> Force = mass x acceleration
Acceleration is proportional to the force applied to an object.
The constant of proportionality is mass. -> Mass is not the same as weight. Weight =
mass x acceleration due to gravity. Weight is a force.
Newton’s 3rd law of Motion states that to every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction - meaning that for every force that is acting on an object there is another equal
force acting on the same object in the opposite direction
An example of Newton's third law -> for example I am pushing a block on a slab of
ice. I am exerting a force on that block but that block is exerting an equal and an
opposite direction force on my hand.

How to calculate net force : In this picture we are able to see a sailboat
and the arrows indicate 2 forces acting on the sailboat each in different
directions. This means that we calculate the difference in between the
two forces. Bigger force - smaller force = net force Similarly if the
forces are acting in the same direction then we would add the forces
together to get the net force .

Momentum is how hard it is to stop a moving object. It is scientifically defined as the product of mass and
velocity. From this definition the formula of momentum = mass x velocity
The symbol for momentum is p. Si. unit - kg x m/s
Connection of Newton's 2nd law “ F = m x a” with Momentum
We can derive the formula for the rate of change of momentum from Newton's second law -> as shown in the
picture. The rate of change of momentum is equal to the net force applied on an object. For example we take our
knuckles and land our entire body onto a hard floor. It will hurt. But if we land with our knuckles on a bean bag
then it wouldn’t hurt. When we land on the floor the rate of change of momentum is very fast which means that
the force that is acting on the knuckles as you land on the ground will also be super high because higher the rate
of change of momentum, higher the net
force. Whereas for the bean bag as we fall
on the bean bag the momentum of our
body or the knuckles on the bean bag is
coming to a stop very slowly. This means
that the rate of change of momentum is
decreasing slowly which means that by
that time the net force acting on the
knuckles is also very less.

How to calculate change in momentum ->

Pf - Pi = mv - mu

F=mxa
F = Pf - Pi / t -> this formula for
this particular question gives us the
force exerted by the wall onto the
clay.

Conservation of Momentum
The law of conservation of
momentum states that the total
initial momentum of 2 or more
bodies = to the total final
momentum of the 2 or more bodies
provided there are no external
forces.
Total initial momentum = Total
final momentum
In these pictures we have 2 carroms. In the first picture
we see a black coin moving towards the blue coin ( before
collision) In the second picture we see that the black coin
pushes the blue coin( after collision) . We will first
calculate the momentum of each of these coins before
collision which will be known as the total initial
momentum. Total Initial momentum = m1u1 + m2u2
Total Final momentum = m1v1 + m2v2
The law says that the total initial momentum = the total final momentum
Conservation of momentum -> m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Let’s calculate the Conservation of momentum of coins :
10 x 6 + 15 x 0 = 10 x 0 + 15 x v
60 = 15v
v=4
If we solve the equations on both sides then we get
60 = 60
Connection of Newton’s 3rd law to conservation of momentum - Let's take the example above to connect
Newton's 3rd law of motion and conservation of momentum. Newton's 3rd law states that to every action there is
an equal and opposite reaction. In this case we apply a force on the black coin which causes it to gain velocity
and collide with the blue coin. When this collision happens the black coin applies a force on the blue coin which
causes the blue coin to gain velocity. During the collision the blue coin also applies the same amount of force in
the opposite direction towards the black coin which causes the black coin to stop. Over here we see that the
momentum is being transferred from the black to the blue coin. In the end momentum is being conserved.

Derivation of conservation of
momentum from newton's third law
of motion

Impulse is the change in momentum

It is defined as the effect of force overtime to bring a change in
momentum
SI.UNIT - Ns or Kg m/s ( Newton's second or Kg meter/ second)
The formula for impulse can be derived from the formula of force
which is
F=mxa
F = m x (v-u/t)
F =mv - mu/ t
Ft = mv - mu

Collisions
Inelastic collision - In an inelastic collision momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not conserved. Some of the initial
kinetic energy is transformed into other forms such as deformation or heat, during the collision. In an inelastic collision
when 2 or more objects collide they end up sticking to each other.
Elastic collision - In an elastic collision both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved. This means that they collide but
don’t stick together. The 2 or more objects collide and then bounce back making them act like elastic.
Momentum & Collisions -> Road accidents

What is gravity?
-> It is the force of attraction acting in between 2 bodies of matter due to their masses.

Universal Law of gravitation:

G = 6.67 x 10-11 (approximate value)
Connection of the law of gravitation to newtons 3d law -> Newton's
third law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction. So if we compare the gravitational force between two objects
such as a person on earth and the earth itself. We would be able to see
that the person is applying a force on the earth and the earth is applying
the same force on that person in the opposite direction.
Why aren't random objects attracted to each other?
The reason for this is that the gravitational force between the two
objects is negligible or very less and is overpowered by the other forces
that are present such as the force of friction.
-> If the gravitational force in between 2 objects doubles then the force in between the objects will be ¼ of the original
force.
->If the gravitational force in between 2 objects triples then the force in between the objects will be 1/9 of the original force.
->If the distance in between 2 objects halves then the force in between the 2 objects will be (d/2)2
The 4 fundamental forces of the universe - Strong nuclear force, Weak nuclear force, Gravitational force and
Electromagnetic force.
- Strong nuclear force is the force that holds neutrons and protons together in the nucleus of the atom.
- Gravitational force is the force of attraction in between 2 bodies of matter due to their masses.
- Electrostatic force is the force caused by the charge in particles such as negative charge in electrons and positive charge in
protons.

Moment and Centre of Mass

Moment(torque) - It is the turning effect of force. It depends upon two things -> the external force that is applied and the
distance of the applied force from the center of mass of the particular object.
Moment = force x perpendicular distance
Si.unit : Nm -> Newton meter
The force that is applied to create a moment has to be a perpendicular force because applying a perpendicular force on an
object creates a torque.
Centre of mass -> it is the point where all the mass of an object is concentrated. Meaning that if you apply force on the
center of mass of an object then there will be no torque. If we apply force on some other part of an object we will see that
the object will turn.

Torque( turning effect of force) = 0 because the perpendicular distance is 0 which causes the effect of the force to be 0.
In the second picture let's assume that the distance of the force from the center of mass is 8m and the force applied is 10N.
This means that the moment = 80Nm

Free fall and acceleration due to gravity

Acceleration due to gravity on earth = 9.8m/s2 -> This
basically means that if there is a free falling body after every
second the velocity of that body will increase by 9.8 m/s fr
every second until it reaches the ground.
Would a brick fall faster or a feather on earth?
On the earth we have air. If we drop a brick and a feather from
the same height we would be able to see that the brick falls
faster in comparison to the father. The brick would fall straight
up onto the ground whereas the feather would float around and
then fall down. This happens because of the air on earth. The air opposes the motion of an object passing through it, it's just
like the frictional force but for the air and is known as the air resistance. On earth air resistance is present because of air and
when a heavy object with a higher weight such as a brick falls through the air, it is able to provide a higher net force against
the air resistance and fall faster to the ground. Whereas for the feather since it doesn't weigh a lot and is unable to provide a
net force on the air resistance which causes it to fall slower towards the ground.
On the moon, since there is no air, both of the objects, despite their different weights, will fall at the same rate. It is only the
air or the air resistance that causes objects to fall at a different rate.
Calculations on free falling of bodies -> using equations of motion because these equations of motion can be used if the
acceleration is constant.
If something is getting dropped from a particular height then its initial velocity = 0.
If an object is at its maximum height iit’s initial velocity = 0

Mass and Weight

The mass of a boody is the quantity of matter(a substance made up of different particles that occupies physical space) in a
body. Si.unit of mass - kg. The weight is the force with which it is attracted towards the center of the earth. Weight = mass
x acceleration due to gravity. Weight is a force due to gravity on an object meaning that for example if you are on earth and
your mass is 70 kg that means that your weight on earth would be 686N.From earth you traveled to the moon, your mass
will stay the same. we look at the moon's acceleration due to gravity and it is 1.6 which means that your weight on the
moon will be 112N.
The earth is not a perfect sphere; this means that if you go to certain parts of the earth such as the equator or the different
poles then our weight slightly changes.

Pressure
-> It is the force exerted on an object per unit area. S.i unit - Pascals (Pa)
Pressure = Force/Area -> the force is always perpendicular to the object it is acting on -> it is also known as thrust.
As the area in which a particular force is applied increases the pressure decreases. This shows that area and pressure both
have an inversely proportional relationship. If the area on which the force applied is concentrated then the pressure will be
more. Whereas if the area on which the force applied is a large area the force gets divided and the force applied on the initial
particular point will be significantly less.
Case 1 Case 2

In the picture above the amount of force applied to cut through the piece of paper is the same for case 1 and case 2. In case 1
we are able to see that this force is being applied by a thumb and in case 2 it is being applied by a thin and pointy needle. In
what case would the paper tear?
Since the amount of force applied is the same the paper would tear in case 2. This is because the force that we are applying
on the needle is concentrated at one point which is the tip of the needle right above the paper. Since all the force is
concentrated it will be easier for the pin to pierce through the paper because more pressure will be created. Whereas for cas
1, our thumb is very broad in comparison to the needle. This causes the force to get divided and the pressure to decrease.
Calculation/example of pressure
Pressure in liquids
->As we go deeper into liquids the pressure increases. This is because as the depth increases there is more and more weight
that the water has to carry.
-> In the picture we are able to see that the water at the bottom of the bottle is escaping faster than the water at the top of the
bottle. The particular reason for this is that as we go deeper into liquids the pressure increases because of the weight of the
water that is acting on the water at the bottom. The other main reason is that the
water at the bottom (water everywhere else) applies a force horizontally towards the
walls of the plastic bottle because as the pressure increases at the bottom the water
tends to flow more so it applies a force on the walls of the plastic bottle.

To make it easier to understand, let's think of water in the bottle as balloons.

-> We can see that each of the
balloons is exerting a force
downward which is its weight in
the balloon below it.
-> The balloon at the bottom is
more deformed which shows that
as the depth increases the
pressure is als increasing.
-> we can als see that each of the
layers of balloons is also applying a force horizontally to the walls of the
container and to their balloons - this force is increasing as it goes down
row by row.
-> The bottom balloons exert an upward force to support the weight of
the stacked balloons above them.
Buoyant force & Archimedes Principle
Buoyant force is the upward force a fluid exerts on an object. The buoyant force is the force that makes an object float in
water.
Archimedes principle of flotation
The buoyant force acting on a submerged object in a fluid = the weight of the displaced liquid
Whenever an object is submerged in water it displaces the same amount of water and the weight of that water = the buoyant
force acting on the object submerged in water.
Let's take an example of a ship. A ship is so heavy then why is it able to float on water? The reason for that is because the
base of the ship or the outer part of the base is made of metal and inside it is just empty space and not filled with heavy
metal. When the ship is submerged in water since the base occupies a lot of space, it has a lot of volume. When it is in water
the water needs to make space for the ship which causes the water to displace. Since the base occupies a lot of space it
displaces a lot of water and according to the archimedes principle - since it displaces a lot of water the weight of the water
will be more and that same amount as the weight of the displaced water will be the buoyant force that is being exerted on the
ship to help it stay afloat.

In this case over here there is a gold chain submerged in water. For it to occupy space the water
has to displace. So the weight of the water that is displaced will be equal to the buoyant force that
is being applied by the water to keep the gold chain afloat.
We know that the gold chain will sink because its own weight is pushing it down and its own
weight is more than the weight of the water it displaces. Meaning that the buoyant force will be
less than the weight and the gold chain will end up sinking.

Density & Condition for floating

Density -> It is the mass of an object per unit volume
Density = mass/ volume
Condition for floating
-> The object submerged in water (or any fluid) should be able to displace a
heavier amount of water in comparison to its own weight. Which can only happen if per centimeter cube the object is lighter
than the liquid.
->The density of the object submerged in water (or any fluid) should be less than the density of water (or any fluid).

-> An object will float in a fluid if its density is less than that the density of the fluid
-> An object will also float in a fluid if its density is equal to the density of the fluid
-> An object will sink in a fluid if its density is more than the density of the fluid
Coming back to the ship example we see that ships are also made of metal but how do they float? This is because the ship is
not completely made of metal. It has a lot
of empty space in it. It occupies a lot of
volume. When we divide the mass of the
ship by the volume we will see that the
density of the ship will be less than the
density of water.
Calculating the mass of an object floating
in water

First we calculate the density of the object

=0.75 g/cm3
Since the density of water is given = 1
g/cm3
This object will float in water because its density is less than that of the water.
-> Whenever objects are floating in water the displaced fluid should have the same mass as that of the object. This
happens because the object that is floating in the fluid is stationary and the forces acting on it are equal and
balanced.

First we calculate the density of the object = 5g/cm3

Since the density of water is given = 1 g/cm3
This object will sink in water because its density is more than that of the water.
-> Whenever an object sinks in water, that means that the weight of the object is more than the buoyant force.
-> To calculate the mass of the displaced liquid we will first get to know that the mass is less than the mass of the
object. The volume of the displaced liquid will be the same as the object. We know the density of water which is
1g/cm3 and then we can calculate the mass from the equation.
Relative Density -> specific gravity
Relative density is the ratio of density of an object/ density of water
-> it has no units because it is a ratio and the units cancel out.

Hooke’s Law
A spring is a solid that has elastic properties. Every spring has an elastic limit meaning that if it is stretched or compressed
beyond a particular point it will break or deform.
There are 2 types of deformation -> elastic and inelastic aka plastic
-> Elastic deformation is when the unbalanced force that causes the deformation is removed and the spring returns to its
original position
-> Inelastic deformation is when the unbalanced force that causes the deformation is removed and the spring does not return
to its original position
Every spring has an initial length or equilibrium length. If we apply a force and cause the spring to stretch. The point at
which the initial length ends to the end of the extended part. Or what we can do is to calculate the length when the spring is
at the equilibrium position and minus it out of the entire final position when the force is added to the spring.
Hooke's law states that the force needed to stretch or compress a spring is directly proportional to the extension of the
spring.
Spring constant is a value that tells us the stiffness of a spring.
F=-𝑘𝒙
F -> force
𝑘 -> spring constant
𝒙 or e -> extension
Why is there a - sign in this equation?
.

Work
Work - The force(push or pull) that causes an object to move or displace
Work = Force x displacement S.I Unit = N/m -> Joule
W=FXS
Work is a scalar quantity. It is a scalar quantity because it depends on the net distance and whenever we answer a question
related to work we never mention the direction because it is a quantity that only tells us the magnitude. It’s like math, like
when you have 2 negative symbols they make positive, over here since force and displacement are both vector quantities
they make a scalar quantity.
Positive work is done when the displacement of the object is in the same direction as the force that has been applied.
Whereas, Negative work is done when the displacement is in the opposite direction of the force that has been applied to that
object.
Whenever the displacement and force is in the same direction and when positive work is done the speed usually increases of
the objects.
Whenever the displacement and force are in opposite direction the work done is negative and that cause a body to stop or
come to rest.
Let’s take an example of positive work done -> A girl has to pull the sofa to the side of the room and right now it is in the
center of the room. She pulls the sofa towards her with a force of 30N and displaces it by 2m. This is positive work because
she is pulling the sofa towards herself and it is displacing in the direction she is pulling it in. Work = 30N x 2m
Work = 60J
Now let’s take an example of negative work done -> We have spiderman and he has been assigned to stop a car on the road.
He goes in front of the car and applies a force of 60N and as he is stopping the car it displaces 0.5m with him and comes to
a halt. Suppose the spider man is applying a force on the right direction to stop the car and as he applies the force the car
moves forward with him eventually coming to a stop because it cannot instantly stop. The displacement of the car is in the
opposite direction to the force that the spiderman applied to stop that car. So the displacement will be -0.5m. This shows that
the spiderman did negative work on the car.
Work = 60N x -0.5 m
Work -= -30J
Work done on lifting/falling things -> mass x acceleration due to gravity x height -> m x g x h

The work done on lifting things is negative because

here we are calculating the work done by the women and the displacement of the barbell is opposite to the force she is
applying.

Energy & Power

It is the ability to do work. It is just the force that causes things to move. S.I unit - Joule
-> Moving objects have the capacity to do work therefore they have energy -> This energy can be classified as kinetic
energy - It is the energy of an object due to its motion. It can also be the capacity of a moving object or a moving thing to do
work.
When a moving body is brought to rest by an opposing force the kinetic energy is lost being used to do work in overcoming
the resistance of the opposing force.
Kinetic energy = ½ x mass x velocity2
K.E = ½ mv2
-> the faster an object moves the more kinetic energy it has.
Potential energy - It is the stored energy in an object due to its position, configuration or the forces acting on it.
It depends upon position, configuration and the force acting on it.
Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object because of its position in a gravitational field.
It is the capacity of gravity to do work.
GPE = mass x height x acceleration due to gravity
Acceleration due to gravity on earth = 9.8 m/s2
Law of conservation of energy - Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed iit can only be converted from one
form to another.
Power = The rate at which work is done.
Power = Work/Time -> S.I UNIT -. Watt(W)
Efficiency
Gr9 Unit 2 - Heat and Energy

States and properties of matter

There are 3 different states of matter -> Solid, Liquid and Gas

Each particle in every state of matter has kinetic energy because the particles move.
Solids
->Solids have a fixed volume.
-> Solids are in definite shape.
-> The intermolecular force of attraction between the particles in a solid is strong which holds the particles close together in
a fixed position.
-> The particles in a solid are closely packed because of the strong intermolecular force.
-> The particles in a solid vibrate in their mean position meaning that they move back and forth around a fixed point without
leaving that fixed point.
-> most solids have a high density
Liquids
-> Liquids do not have a fixed shape as they molecules can flow.
-> Liquids have a fixed volume.
-> The intermolecular forces in between liquid particles are weak in comparison to solids and their weak intermolecular
force is the reason they are able to flow.
-> liquids have less density than solids but more than gasses.
Gasses
-> Gases do no have a fixed shape
-> Gases do not have a fixed volume.
-> The intermolecular force in between gas particles is very very weak and that is why they are able to move around freely
-> gasses have very minimal density.
The potential energy in solids is very high because in solids the potential energy or the stored energy in an object can be
determined by the bonds between the molecules. Since the bonds in between each particle in a solid stays together and
closely packed they can be described as having a strong intermolecular force of attraction. Let’s think of the potential energy
in between solid particles as threads -> These threads are so small and strong that they are joining every particle and
keeping them intact so that it doesn't
get away. Because of the thread
solid particles cannot move away
and only vibrate in their mean
positions.
Whereas the kinetic energy in solids
is very low because the particles in a
solid are not free to move around
they can only vibrate in their mean
positions.
->Liquids have moderate potential
energy and higher kinetic energy in
comparison to solids. This is
because the particles in a liquid are
free to move around and the intermolecular force of attraction is moderate. The kinetic energy is more than that of solids
because the particles in liquids can flow easily causing motion.
-> Gases have very low potential energy because they have weak intermolecular forces and because of those weak
intermolecular forces the gasses particles are free to move around and the gas particles have constant motion.

Kinetic theory
-> The kinetic theory of matter states that all matter is made up of small particles which are constantly moving.
-> The particles in matter all have random motion (Brownian Motion) and have intermolecular space in between them.
If all matter is made up of particles which are constantly moving then why are solid particles not moving?
The particles in solids don't constantly move in a random motion because the intermolecular forces in between each particle
in a solid is very strong which causes them to stay intact. Particles in a solid vibrate about their mean position meaning that
they move back and forth.
-> The kinetic theory also states that the energy level of particles depends upon the temperature possessed by the particles. If
the temperature possessed by the particles of the matter is higher then they will have more kinetic energy because when the
temperature increases the particles gain more energy and start moving very fast in random motion which means that they
have more kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy of particles + the bond of the potential energy in between particles = Internal Energy

Thermal energy
Thermal energy is the sum of the kinetic energy of all the particles. -> there are 3 types of kinetic energy in between
particles -> Vibrational kinetic energy, Rotational kinetic energy and Translational kinetic energy.
-> Translational kinetic energy is the kinetic energy an object has when it is moving in a straight line.
It is the energy an object has due to the motion of its particles.

Temperature
is the measure of the avg kinetic energy of the particles inside a particular object or substance.
If the average kinetic energy of the particles is higher that means that the temperature is also very high whereas if the
average kinetic energy of the particles is low then the temperature is also low.

Scales of temperature
There are three main scales of temperature -> Celsius, Farenheit, Kelvin.
0 kelvin is a temperature at which the particles stop moving meaning that the temperature is so low that there is 0 movement
in the particles and they stop moving.
0 kelvin is the lowest temperature that can be reached because at 0 kelvin the motion of the particles is 0 and there is no
lower temperature than that because then the motion of the
particles will become negative which is not possible.

Degree Celsius to Kelvin -> add 273 K

Degree Fahrenheit
to Kelvin -> multiply by 9/5
What is the difference between thermal energy and
temperature?
Thermal energy is the sum of all the kinetic energy meaning
that every particle inside a particular object has some
movement and it may be vibrational, rotational or
translational and to calculate the thermal energy we add all
of the kinetic energy together. Temperature is the measure of
the average kinetic energy of these particles. This basically
means that for example we have a half filled glass and the
thermal energy = 200 and the number of particles = 100 then
the average kinetic energy of each particle would be 2.

Heat
Heat is the amount of thermal energy transferred in between two objects with different temperatures. Let's take an example
->
For example we have 2 glasses of water. The first one is at room temperature which is 26 degrees celsius and the other is 40
degrees celsius. After 10 mins we look at the temperature of the two waters and see that the temperature of the first glass is
now 26 degrees celsius and the temperature of the second glass is now also 26 degrees celsius. We can say that this
happened because there was a transfer of heat energy from the higher temperature water to the lower temperature water.
Since the lower temperature water only increased by 2 degrees celsius we can understand that most of the heat particles got
diffused into the air because the 2 waters are kept in a room and air is the most amount of matter there which means that as
the particles transfer from the higher temperature water to the lower temperature then some of the particles get diffused and
move away into the air whereas some particles that have high kinetic energy transfer heat.

Another simplified example of heat transfer can be putting a hot pizza on a plate. When we take the pizza out of the oven
and put it onto the plate we see that the plate also gets heated up. This is because the temperature of the pizza is higher than
the temperature of the plate. We see that there is a heat transfer from the pizza to the plate. When we put the pizza on the
plate the particles on the surface of the 2 objects will come into contact. The faster particles from the pizza will collide with
the slower particles of the plate. As there is a collision the faster particles lose their energy and the slower particles gain
energy causing the transfer of heat. After a while when every particle has the same kinetic energy we say that there is no net
transfer of energy and thermal equilibrium has been achieved.
Thermal equilibrium is achieved when there is no net transfer of thermal energy in between 2 bodies.
Specific heat and Specific heat Capacity
Specific heat = Q = mc T🔺
🔺
Specific heat capacity ( c ) is the amount of heat required to increase 1 degree celsius of 1 unit mass of a substance
C = q/m T
q is the heat required

🔺
m is the mass of the substance which is this case will always be 1
T is the change in temperature
final temperature- initial temperature

Latent heat
Latent heat is the amount of thermal energy required to break bonds in between particles when there is a state change of a
substance and the temperature has to remain constant.
Latent heat of fusion is the amount of thermal energy required to break bonds in between particles when there is a state
change from solid to liquid without the change in temperature. SI. UNIT - J/Kg
Latent heat is the energy that is absorbed or released during a phase transition,
while the temperature remains constant. The latent heat of fusion is the amount
of heat energy needed to change a unit mass of a solid to a liquid without a
change in temperature
Example - >When a solid melts, the latent heat of fusion is used to increase the
internal energy of the solid, which causes the atoms to vibrate and break the
solid's structure.
Latent heat of vaporization is the amount of thermal energy required to break
bonds in between particles when there is a state change from liquid to gaseous state.

Conduction, Convection and Radiation

Conduction is the transfer of heat when objects are in direct contact.
Let’s take an example of a pot of steel kept on a gas with water inside it. When we turn on the fire and provide heat to the
base of the steel pot we see that the steel pot starts heating up. On a molecular level the particles of the fire have very high
kinetic energy meaning that they move very fast and because of this fast movement they will collide with the particles of the
steel pot. In turn the fire particles will lose energy as they come in contact with the slower moving particles because there is
a transfer of energy from faster moving particles to slower moving particles which causes the base of the steel pot to also
heat up.
Convection is the transfer of heat energy within fluids through the movement of particles in the fluid.
Let's take a similar example to understand convection. Let's say we have taken a pot of steel, kept it lit with fire from below
to provide heat and filled it with water. As the steel comes in contact with the particles of fire it will start heating up due to
direct contact. Since the water at the base is in contact with the base of the steel pot the water will also heat up. The water
that is at the base of the heats up and gains more energy and becomes hotter which causes the density of the water at the
bottom to decrease. Since it is unable to handle the weight of the water above it, it rises to the top and the water that is more
dense takes its place at the bottom. The colder water which is more dense goes to the bottom because of the influence of
gravity. When it goes to the bottom it also gets heated up and goes back up and other denser particles take its place. This
process is known as convection.
Radiation is the transfer of heat from one body to another without the use of any medium.
An example of radiation can be when you go to the beach and step on the sand during the afternoon you’ll see that the sand
is very hot. The particular reason for that is because the sun emits radiation that heats up the surface of the sand but since
sand is a poor conductor the heat doesn't spread out evenly and that's why only the surface of the sand heats up.

Why are buildings painted white in hot countries?

Buildings are painted white in hot countries because white is a color that reflects back heat and it absorbs very less amount
of heat. Whereas black is a color that absorbs heat. A white object reflects back all the wavelengths of light and that light
doesn't get converted into heat energy. If an object is painted Black then it absorbs all the heat because all the wavelengths
of light get absorbed and then converted into heat.

Why are pan handles often made of plastic but the base of the pan is made of copper?
The pan handle of a pan is often made of plastic because plastic is not a good conductor of heat, meaning that it doesn't
allow for the heat to pass through it because of direct contact. When we heat up the base of a copper pan we see that because
of direct contact or conduction it gets heated up due to conduction and since the sides and the handle is all joined together
because of direct contact it gets heated too. If you dont cover the handle of a copper pan then you are likely to get burned
because the direct contact of the copper handle with your hand will cause a transfer of heat and can cause burns.

Why is the heating element of a kettle at the bottom?

The heating element of a kettle is at the bottom because of convection and conduction . Let’s take an example of water in a
metal kettle. Let's say we fill a kettle with water and turn on the heat below. The heating element will heat up the metal
because of direct contact. Then the metal since it is in direct contact with the water it will heat up the water at the bottom.
The water that is at the base of the heats up and gains more energy and becomes hotter which causes the density of the water
at the bottom to decrease. Since it is unable to handle the weight of the water above it, it rises to the top and the water that is
more dense takes its place at the bottom. The colder water which is more dense goes to the bottom because of the influence
of gravity. When it goes to the bottom it also gets heated up and goes back up and other denser particles take its place.

Thermal Expansion and its applications

Thermal expansion is when heat is provided to a particular object which causes an increase in temperature and the object
expands.
What happens in thermal expansion on a molecular level?
On a molecular level, when heat is provided there is an increase in temperature meaning that the kinetic energy of the
particles also increases. Since these particles move in random directions they tend to take up more space which causes the
metal or any other material to expand subsequently.

Examples of Thermal Expansion:

Thermometer - In a mercury thermometer we see that when we keep the thermometer in a hot liquid the temperature
increases. The temperature increases because the mercury in the thermometer expands causing the rise in temperature which
can be seen on the scale of the thermometer. Whereas, if we put the thermometer into cold water we will see that the
temperature decreases because the mercury in the thermometer contracts.

Another example of thermal expansion is putting very hot water in a plastic bottle. When you have a bottle with hot water it
tends to expand since it's a plastic water bottle. If you don’t drink the water and let it cool down by itself then the bottle
contracts and it gets squeezed.

Factors affecting thermal expansion

- Temperature
- The type of metal ( only metals thermally expand)

GR9 Unit 3 - Waves

What is a Wave?
->A wave is a disturbance that travels through a medium and transfers energy from one point to another without transferring
matter.
A wave can be classified as a disturbance because when it propagates through a medium it temporarily displaces the
particles of that medium. After the wave has passed through the medium the particles go back to their original position and
there is no permanent displacement. This means that the particles in waves oscillate about their mean position.
There are also 2 types of waves such as mechanical waves and non-mechanical waves.
-> Mechanical waves are waves that need a medium to travel.
-> Non-mechanical waves are waves that don’t need a medium to travel; they can travel through vacuum. (electromagnetic
waves)
There are 2 types of waves ( in terms of particle movement) -> Transverse Waves and Longitudinal Waves

Transverse Waves

Transverse waves -> It is a wave in which the oscillation of the particles of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave.
Different parts of a Transverse wave

Longitudinal Waves
-> It is a wave in which the oscillation of the particles of the medium is parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave.

Example of A longitudinal Wave

Let’s say that we have a speaker. We know that a speaker moves in and out. When the speaker moves in and out it creates a
disturbance in the particles of the air. It causes the air particles to gain energy and oscillate. As the particles oscillate they
move back and forth about their mean position and as they do that they provide energy to the particles present in front of
them. This causes the first particle to lose energy and the other particle in front to gain energy and oscillate. This process
continues and creates longitudinal waves which have compressions and rarefaction
Wave Properties
Amplitude - Is the height of the wave or it is also known as the highest displacement of the wave from the equilibrium
position.
Wavelength - It is the distance between one point on one oscillation and the same point on the other oscillation.
Frequency - It is the number of oscillations or waves that pass a point in one second. SI. UNIT - Hertz(Hz)
F = 1/ time period
Time period - The period is the time it takes for one full wave or one full oscillation to pass a given point.
T = 1/frequency
If the frequency of a wave is 5 Hz (5 waves per second), the period would be:
T = ⅕ = 0.2 seconds.
This means each wave takes 0.2 seconds to pass
Wave speed - Wave speed is how fast the wave travels through a medium.
If the frequency increases (waves are closer together), the wavelength decreases (shorter waves).
If the wavelength increases (waves are farther apart), the frequency decreases.

Wave equation
-> to calculate a waves wavelength, frequency and wave speed
V = wave speed
F = frequency
𝝀 = wave length
Wave speed = frequency x wavelength
V=fx 𝝀

Sound Waves
Let’s take an example of a speaker. On top of a speaker is a
diaphragm that moves in and out. This basically means that
the diaphragm oscillates back and forth. When the
diaphragm comes in contact with the air molecules which
then causes the air particles in front of the diaphragm to
oscillate back and forth. As these particles oscillate they
collide with the air particles in front of them which causes
those particles to oscillate back and forth and this continues
until the air molecules in front of your ear start to oscillate
and it is picked up by your eardrum.
Since these air particles are moving they have kinetic energy
this basically means that they can transfer energy into our
eardrum which is then perceived as sound.
-> require a medium to travel.
Period of a sound waves is the time it takes
for an air molecule to fully move back and
forth( cycle)
-> If we decrease the period of a sound wave,
the time it takes for the air molecules to move
back and forth the pitch changes. The lesser
time it takes the higher note we perceive.
We humans can hear frequencies from 20hz
up to 20,000hz.
The speed of sound in air = 343 m/s
Reflection
Reflection is a phenomena in which a wave hits a reflective surface and bounces back
into the same medium but the direction of the wave changes.

Laws of reflection
1. Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
2. The incoming light ray (incident ray), the reflected light ray, and the normal to
the surface all lie in the same flat, two-dimensional plane.

Refraction
Refraction is the phenomenon in which a wave passes from an optically denser medium
to an optically rarer medium or vice versa, this causes the speed and the direction of the
wave to change.
If a wave travels from an optically denser medium to an optically rarer medium the speed of the wave increases and the
refracted ray moves farther away from the normal. Wavelength increases.
If a wave travels from an optically rarer medium to an optically denser medium the speed if the wave decreases and the
refracted ray moves closer to the normal. Wavelength
decreases.

Gr 10 Unit 1 - Electricity
If we look at things from a molecular point of view we see that
everything is made of up atoms. Initially we thought that atoms were
the smallest part of an element and cannot be broken down further.
Later on we found out that atoms also contain subatomic particles.
The atom contains protons( particles with positive charge), electrons (
particles with negative charge) and neutrons which have no charge.

Static electricity
What is static electricity?
It is the transfer of electrons from one material to another through
induction/ conduction/ friction,
Static electricity is a stationary electric charge that builds up on the
surface of a material.
Insulators are materials that don’t allow electrons to flow through
them easily. Insulators can be easily charged by friction because when
electrons get transferred from one material to another through friction
the insulator is able to hold onto the charges and not let them get
flown through like conductors.
Electric charge(q) is a property possessed by protons and electrons which causes them to attract or repel each other. This
force is also known as the electrostatic force.
There are 2 types of electric charge -> positive charge (protons) and negative charge(electrons).
Like charges repel; Unlike charges attract
Proton and electron -> attract - because they are positive and negative charges and are unlike.
Electron and electron -> Repel - because they are like charges.
Neutron and Neutron -> Won’t attract or repel.
Unit of charge - Coulombs
current -> Current is a flow of charged particles, how much charge is moving
through an electrical conductor or space. It is commonly known as the rate of
flow of electric charge.
The direction of the flow of the current is opposite to the direction of flow of
electrons. The direction of current is from the positive to negative terminal of a
battery, Whereas the direction of flow of electrons is from the negative to positive
terminal.
The general formula for current is -:
I(current) = q(charge)/t(time)
S.I UNIT = Amperes (A)
To understand current I believe we need to understand the term electric fields.
What is an electric field? An electric field is a field that surrounds electrically
charged particles. If we place a bar magnet on the ground we will see that it creates a magnetic field around it. We know that
the magnetic field lines go from the north to the south pole of the bar magnet. Similarly we have electric field lines for
protons and electrons in an electric field. Over Here the electric field is started from the proton and collapses the electron.
Because of this we are able to understand why unlike charges attract and like charges repel.
The electric field lines for a proton are outwards meaning that the electrostatic force in between the two
The field lines represent in what direction the force is applied meaning that if we place any particle in the field we would be
able to see the movement of the particle if it is an electron or proton.
What is Voltage?
Let’s take an example - When we attach a battery to a metal wire the battery creates a difference in potential in the electrons
of the wire and that causes the generation of an electric field. Since the positive terminal of the battery is the higher
potential of an electric field the electrons connected to that particular area of the wire tend to have a higher potential than
the ones near the negative terminal. Because of that potential difference
there is a movement of electrons in the wire. To sum up voltage is the
potential difference between 2 points in an electric field it can also be
written as Voltage is the pressure from an electrical circuit's power
source that pushes charged electrons (current) through a conducting
loop.
S.I UNIT = Volts (v)
To solve questions voltage can also be expressed as Joules/coulomb

Ohm’s Law
V = IR
Voltage = Current x Resistance
Voltage(V) is the pressure from an electrical circuit's power source that pushes charged electrons (current) through a
conducting loop.
Current(I) is the flow or the movement of charged particles past a particular point per unit time.
Resistance (Ω) is the obstruction to the flow of the current provided by the material.
Ohm's law states that the current is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance.
An ohmic conductor is a conductor that obeys the ohm's law. Whereas a non-ohmic conductor is a conductor that does not
obey the ohm's law.
Ohmic materials maintain a constant resistance regardless of the current or voltage unless that voltage causes the material to
get burnt up.

Resistivity and Conductivity

Resistivity is the property of a material to oppose the flow of current. It is denoted by the symbol ρ)
Some of the main factors that affect the resistivity/resistance of a conducting wire is the

The picture above shows the formula of resistance which is

Resistance = resistivity x (length/area)
This formula tells us that the resistance is inversely proportional to the area and directly proportional to the length. The
resistivity is also directly proportional to the resistance as the resistivity increases so does the resistance.
The formula for resistivity is
Resistivity = Resistance x area/length
-> Material : the material affects the resistance of the conducting wire because each material has a different resistivity which
causes some materials to oppose the flow of current less and some to oppose the flow of current more.
-> Thickness : the thickness of the wire affects the resistance of the conducting wire because as the thickness of the wire
increases there is more space for the electrons to flow through. The thickness can also be written as a cross-sectional area.
Inversely proportional relationship between thickness and resistance.
-> Length : the length of the wire affects the resistance if the conducting wire because as the length of the wire increases the
electrons end up colliding with a lot of ions as they pass through which causes resistance. Directly proportional relationship
in between length and resistance.
-> Temperature: the temperature of the wire affects the resistance of the wire because as the temperature increases so does
the resistance. This happens because as the temperature of the conducting wire increases the ions of the wire tend to oscillate
very fast in random directions, which causes them to collide with the free electrons. Directly proportional relationship
between Temperature and Resistance.
Conductivity is the measure of the capability of a material to allow for the electric current to pass through it. Materials with
high electrical conductivity, like copper and other metals, allow electrons to pass through them easily.
Series and Parallel Circuits
A series circuit is a circuit in which all the electrical components of the circuit are
arranged in a singular path. In a series circuit the current overall stays the same meaning
the same amount of current flows through each component of the circuit.
But in a series circuit as current passes through each resistor there is a voltage drop.
Let’s take an example to understand this:
Let's say we have a circuit with 3 different resistors each labeled as R1, R2, and R3. The
total voltage is being considered as Vt meaning Total Voltage. Since we know that the
same amount of current flows through every resistor and as that current passes through
there is a voltage drop across each resistor this is because when current passes through a
resistor, the resistor's resistance converts some of the electrical energy into heat, light, or
other forms of energy. Voltage for R1 -> V1, R2 -> V2 etc. This
results in a voltage drop across each of the resistors. In a series
circuit the sum of the voltage across each resistor is equal to the
total voltage. This means that Vt = V1 + V2+ V3
In a series circuit the total resistance is the sum of all the
individual resistance
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3

A parallel circuit is a circuit in which there are multiple paths for

electric current to flow. The voltage across a parallel circuit stays the same
meaning that Vt = V1= V2…. There are no voltage drops. The resistance in a
parallel circuit is reciprocated meaning that if the resistance is 2 ohms then it
will be ½ ohms.
Let’s take an example:
Over here we have a parallel circuit. In this circuit the current has multiple paths
to flow. Since we know that the voltage stays the same so V = 3V. To calculate
resistance we need to reciprocate the value for the 2 resistors and add them
together. 1/Rp = 1/20 ohms + 1/60 ohms
1/Rp = 1/15 ohms.
Rp = 15 ohms
Since we know the vales of these 2 we can now use ohms law
and solve the question.
V=IXR
3V = 1 X 15 ohms
I = 3/15
I = 0.2 A
Electrical Power -> It is the rate at which electrical energy is produced or consumed in a given time in a circuit.
S.I UNIT - Watts(W)
10 W = 10J/S -> this basically means that 10J of energy is being produced/consumed per second..
P = V X I = I2 X R = V2/R
Power = voltage x current.
Every appliance has a power rating or wattage, higher the power rating the more electrical energy is produced/consumed.

Heating Effect of Current

The heating effect of current or joule heating is because of collisions in between atoms and electrons. We know that on an
atomic level, in a wire there are atoms present all over and since there is an electric current flowing through the wire there
are collisions in between the atoms and the electrons. These electrons don’t travel in a straight line instead when they
encounter an atom they bounce off each atom. When they bounce off of each atom there is a transfer of energy from the
electrons to the atoms. As a result the atoms start vibrating and they start heating up. Since there are so many collisions
taking place in the wire the atoms start vibrating a lot and the wire tends to get heated up.
Amount of heat generated = Voltage x current x times
H=VIT
This formula expresses that if there is more current more heat will be generated because the number of collisions will be
more and the energy transferred from the electrons to the atoms will also be more due to more collisions. As a result this will
cause atoms to vibrate and the material gets heated up.
The original formula for Joule’s law is
H = I2 x R X T
The rate at which heat is produced in a conductor is directly proportional to the square of the current and the resistance of
the conductor.

Magnets and Magnetic fields.

A magnet has a north and a south pole.
There are 2 types of magnets -> bar magnet and horseshoe magnet.
Every magnet creates its own magnetic field which goes from its north
pole to its south pole like in the picture. The magnets form in a closed loop
because magnets cannot have 1 pole because even if you break it from the
middle to separate the north and the south ends there still is a north and
south pole formed on the now 2 pieces of the magnets. Magnets are dipoles
meaning they have 2 poles north and south.
-> The magnetic field lines form a closed loop because they go from north
to the south pole outside the magnet and inside the magnet they go from
the south to the north pole.
-> The magnetic field strength depends upon the degree of closeness in
between the magnetic field lines. Close lines = more strength. Farther lines
= less strength.
-> Magnetic field lines never intersect because a compass needle at the
point of intersection can’t point in two directions.
In around 1820 we found out that a current in a wire causes a compass
needle to deflect. This created a new branch for physics known as
Electromagnetism. It is a branch of physics that deals with the
interactions between charged particles and magnets or magnetic fields.
-> The experiment conducted in 1820 showed us that if you run a
current through a wire a magnetic field is generated.
The magnetic field everywhere around a straight wire carrying current
would be in concentric circles like in the picture
The factors that affect the field
-> Current - Higher the strength of the current higher the deflection of
the needle which means that the magnetic field also increases. This is
essentially because the current is generating the magnetic field and if the
strength of the current increases so does the magnetic field.
-> Distance of compass from the field - As the distance of the compass
from the current carrying wire increases the strength of the magnetic
field weakens.
A permanent magnet is a type of magnet that retains its magnetic properties indefinitely, even after removing the external
magnetic field
Temporary magnets are made out of soft metals that retain their magnetism only when they are near a permanent magnetic
field or an electrical current. In the presence of a magnetic field, they become magnetized
A solenoid is a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron and when we provide current it generates a magnetic field. A
solenoid is a temporary magnet because it has a soft iron. The solenoid is an electromagnet. A soft iron is an iron that is very
easy to magnetize and very easy to de-magnetize. On the other hand a hard iron is a metal that is very difficult to magnetize
and very difficult to de magnetize.
-> The direction of the magnetic field tells us in what direction the north pole of a magnet would experience a force.
Hard iron is used for permanent magnetic and Soft iron is used for temporary magnets.
A current carrying conductor generates its magnetic field and pushuse on the other magnet. We know that Newton's third
law states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction so if the current carrying conductor is pushing on the magnet
the magnet is also pushing on the current carrying conductor. The current carrying conductor produces its own magnetic
field and a magnet will produce its own magnetic field.
Let’s consider this to be a horseshoe magnet. In between
the north and south poles the magnetic field lines go from
north to south and the lines are equidistant meaning that
magnetic field is uniform in this region. In the experiment
if we put a current carrying wire in between the horseshoe
magnet and attach a battery to generate current we will see
that the current carrying wire acts like a magnet and gets
influenced by the external magnetic field.
If we increase the current there will be more force
meaning that the strength of the force or magnetic field
will increase.This is because the current carrying wire is considered to be a temporary magnet. Another factor is that the
maximum force applied by the external magnetic field onto the magnet would be the most when the current carrying
conductor is perpendicular to the external magnetic field.If we make the wire parallel to the magnetic field the force
becomes 0.
We know that an electric conductor creates its own magnetic field and if we put it in an external magnetic field, the
external magnetic field will apply a force on that electric conductor and that electric conductor will also apply a force
of the external magnetic field.
When a conductor is stationary but the magnetic field around it changes, the conductor induces an electromotive
force. The current will flow in a direction that creates its own magnetic field to oppose the change in the external
magnetic field.

Electric motors
The main purpose of an electric motor is to convert electricity into mechanical energy mainly as a form of rotational motion.
The armature is a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core and when we put in an external magnetic field and pass a
current through it, it acts as a temporary magnet. Since it is present in a magnetic field that magnetic field will apply a force
on the 2 sides of the armature.

We can get to know where the force is applied using

Fleming’s left hand rule where the thumb indicates the
force, the index represents the direction of the magnetic
field and the middle finger represents the direction of
the current. The wire near the south pole shows that the
force being applied is upwards because the current is
going into the screen and the magnetic field is from
north to south. The wire near the south pole shows that
the force is being applied downwards because the
direction of the current is outwards and the magnetic
field is still from north to south. Because of this the coil
will start spinning in the clockwise direction. But after
reaching a specific point the coil will turn back into an
anticlockwise rotation because the forces acting on
these wires are still the same and since it is not even
completing one entire rotation we need to fix it because it is not a good motor. In order to complete an entire rotation the
forces need to be changed and to do that we have to reverse the current. We will reverse the current by attaching split rings
to the armature. The split rings will act as a commutator ( a device that helps in reversing the flow of current).

Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction is when the changing of magnetic fields is what produces
electric current.
If we have a coil of wire in which we generate a current of 1A. The current won't
automatically go from 0-1, it will increase gradually from 0.1A to 0.2A and etc. This
increase from 0 - 1 happens in a matter of milliseconds which causes the bulb to glow
for only that much time because there is a change in magnetic field. Even when we
turn off the switch the magnetic field will decrease and for that time the bulb will
glow because the magnetic field is changing. At 1A no more magnetic field will be
produced which means no more induced current and no more glowing of the bulb.
We can also move the coil in this situation.

Similarly if we have a magnet next to a loop of wire connected to a bulb as we move

the magnet around we will see that the bulb glows. This is because when we
move the magnet closer to the loop of wire the strength of the magnetic field is
increasing. As we are taking it farther the magnetic field strength is decreasing.
We can also move the coil in this situation.

Right hand generator rule to figure out the direction of current when any
conductor or wire is moved in a magnetic field. Same as Fleming's left hand rule
but on the right hand.

AC and DC generators
There are two types of currents -> DC AND AC
DC > Direct current is basically means that the current flows in one direction
Batteries usually provide direct current.
AC -> Alternating current basically means that the direction of the current keeps switching, going back and forth.
IF at first the current is traveling from right to left it will then travel from left to right back and then continue this
pattern.
. iF we have a circuit with an attached bulb and alternating current we see that In an alternating current the
electrons flow then come to a stop and then flow in the opposite direction. During the time when the electrons
stop the bulb dims it doesn’t turn off fully because the electrons flow in teh opposite direction very quickly and
this causes the lights to flickr.
A generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy, Whereas a motor converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
Frequency is the number of cycles per second -> meaning that if the current flows from right to left and left to
right back that is considered 1 cycle. In a cycle the electrons change direction 2 times.
If the indian standard for alternating current is 100 times/sec then the frequency would be 100/2 = 50hz meaning
that in total there are 50 cycles per sec.

An alternating current generator uses slip rings instead of split

rings
In an ac generator when the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic
field the direction of the current reverses this causes the direction
of the current to change in the external circuit as well.
Whenever we want to transmit electricity from power sources to
our houses we use alternating current. We know that power
sources are usually far away from our houses which means that
the current has to travel a long distance. If we make the wires that
connect the power source and our houses carry a lot of current we
will see that the wires will start heating up and a lot of the energy
will be wasted/lost in the form of heat. This will be very inefficient. This is why we choose alternating current to
go through the transmission wires. We send very low current through the transmission wires and the heat loss
inturn is also very low. But with such low current how will we be able to power our homes? Then there are
transformers. A transformer takes the low amount of current and increases it and gives you a high current.
Transformers only work on alternating current.

Safety method (overloading, fuse, short circuit)

Gr10 Unit 2 - What is an atom?
An atom is the basic building block of chemistry. It contains subatomic particles. Everything around us is made of atoms,

Structure of an atom (the outside part is called an orbit or shell)

The subatomic particles in an atom are Protons, Neutrons and Electrons.
->Protons are subatomic particles with positive charge.
-> Neutrons are subatomic particles with no charge.
-> Electrons are subatomic particles with negative charge.
The mass of protons and neutrons = 1 amu ( atomic mass unit) also
represented by u
Mass of an electron = negligible -> very low
In comparison to the mass of protons and neutrons the mass of an electron
is 0.0005 u.
The entire mass of an atom is concentrated at the center or the nucleus of
the atom.
Protons + neutrons = nucleons
Atomic number(Z) - the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
To be a neutral atom there needs to be the same amount of protons and electrons in an atom. So if we take the Helium atom
we know that it has 2 protons and since it is a neutral atom it also has 2 electrons.
Mass number (A) - the sum of protons and neutrons.
The force between neutrons and protons is known as the strong nuclear force and it is the force that holds them together.

There are different types of atoms which are known as

elements on the periodic table. Each element has unique
physical and chemical properties. Some commonly known elements are -> Carbon, gold, oxygen.

What are Isotopes?

An isotope is an atom of the same element with a different number of neutrons. For example if we take the carbon atom,
there are only 2 isotopes of carbon meaning that there are 2 carbon atoms
each with a different number of neutrons. The number of protons in the
carbon atom or the atomic no. = 6
In isotope 1 the no. of neutrons = 6
Isotope 2 the no. of neutrons = 7
Atomic no stays the same.
Isotope 1 126C -> 12 is the mass number and 6 is the atomic number; this
isotope is also written as C-12.
Isotope 2 136C -> 13 is the mass number and 6 is the atomic number; this
isotope is also written as C-13.
Since the number of neutrons in each of the carbon atoms is different that
means that the mass number which is (Mass no = # of protons + # of
neutrons ) will be different because the number of neutrons is more.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the process in which the nucleus of an atom disintegrates by emitting out radiation and energy to become a
stable nucleus. S.I UNIT - Becquerel (Bq)
Radioactivity is the process in which an unstable nucleus spontaneously changes into a new more stable nucleus and in
doing so it emits out high energy, ionizing radiation.
-> the nucleus of an atom is unstable because there is a disbalance of the number of neutrons and protons meaning that there
are more/less neutrons or more/less protons. To become stable the particles get pushed out of the nucleus to make the
number of protons and neutrons equal.
Let's take an example
C- 14 also known as carbon 14 is an atom with an unstable nucleus and it spontaneously (all by itself, without requiring us
to do anything) emits out high energy particles and becomes stable.
The unstable nucleus is known as the Parent nucleus and then spontaneously changes into a more stable nucleus known as
the daughter nucleus.
Radioactivity is dangerous because when an unstable nucleus disintegrates, it emits out high energy particles, these particles
can enter into our cell's atoms and remove electrons from atoms which can destroy bonds which can damage the cells and
mutate the DNA.
A use of these particles is that we can target them at cancer cells and destroy those cancer cells
-> Ionizing radiation is a process where electrons are removed from the atom through radiation.
Why is a heavy nucleus unstable?
In a nucleus there are 2 forces acting in it. The strong nuclear force is the force that binds protons and neutrons together and
the electric force of repulsion that is in between all the protons in the nucleus. In a light nucleus the strong nuclear force
usually over powers the electric force of repulsion because of 2 reasons it is the strongest force of nature and the electric
force of repulsion is only between charged particles so since neutrons have no charge they do not participate but both
protons and neutrons participate in the strong nuclear attraction.
The main disadvantage of the strong nuclear force is that in comparison to electric force of repulsion it is short ranged
whereas the electric force is long ranged. If we look at a single proton we will see that all the other protons present in the
nucleus will be repelling that proton because the electric force is long ranged.
As the nucleus of an atom gets heavier the strong nuclear force is unable to reach all the particles and since there are a lot of
protons as well the protons repel each other -> the electric force usually overpowers the strong nuclear force.

-> there are 3 types of radiation decays -> ɑ( alpha) decay, β(beta)decay, Ɣ(gamma) decay.
Alpha decay is the spitting out of a Helium nucleus -> 2 protons and 2 neutrons -> 24He
A helium nucleus is emitted out because it is a very stable nucleus.
Examples:

In these cases the parent nucleus are U-238 and Am-241 which have alpha decayed and their daughter nucleuses are now
Th-234 and Np-237. On each side of the equation the number of protons and neutrons has to stay the same.
Ɑ particles-> least penetrating power (Penetrating power is the ability of a radiation to pass through a substance.)
They can even be stopped by a piece of paper.
-> The mass of alpha particles is massive. In total they have 4 amu.
-> the alpha particles have very less speed.
->When alpha particles pass through matter the electrons of the matter get removed which means they have high ionization
power - this is why they cannot move long distances.
Beta decay is the decay that involves the conversion of a subatomic particle into another within the nucleus which causes the
emission of an electron or a positron.
A positron is a positively charged particle which has a mass equivalent to an electron.
There are 2 types of beta decay
-> Beta-minus Decay β-
-> Beta-plus Decay β+
In beta minus decay a neutron gets converted into a
proton and emits out an electron ( the beta minus
particle) and a tiny particle called the antineutrino.
Some atoms have too many neutrons compared to
protons, which makes them unstable. By changing
one of those neutrons into a proton, the nucleus
becomes more stable.
The atomic number increases by one because there
is a conversion from neutrons to protons. On the
contrary, the mass number stays the same.
What is a neutrino and antineutrino?
A neutrino is a very tiny particle with very little
(negligible) mass. Neutrinos are hard to detect
because they can pass through almost anything
without interacting with it.
Anti neutrino is the opposite of a neutrino, it is a
very tiny particle with negligible mass and is found
in beta minus decay whereas neutrinos are seen in
beta-plus decay.
(BOTH NEUTRINOS AND ANTINEUTRINOS
HAVE NO CHARGE)
In beta plus decay a proton gets converted into a
neutron within the nucleus and emits out a positron
and a neutrino. A positron is a positively charged particle which has a mass equivalent to an electron.
The atomic number in a beta plus decay decreases by one but the mass no stays the same.
β particles -> more penetrating than alpha but less than gamma
For gamma radiation to occur the parent nucleus has to undergo either beta decay or alpha decay and when the daughter
nucleus is present, the daughter nucleus can be excited.
Usually electrons occupy the lowest energy level known as the ground state and if we apply energy to them we can make the
electrons jump to a higher energy level this basically means that the electrons get excited. Since electrons don’t stay excited
for a long time they don't tend to stay in that state for a long time so they go back to the ground level and the energy that is
released when the electron de-excites, energy is released as a photon of light.
Similarly the protons and neutrons of the daughter nucleus can be in the higher energy level meaning that the nucleus is
excited. When the nucleus de-excites energy is released as a photon of light and this is known as gamma radiation.
Gamma rays cannot be seen by the human eye. It is highest of all the m

magnetic waves meaning that it has the highest energy photons.

In a gamma decay the element doesn't change and the mass number and atomic number doesn't change.
Ɣ -> The most penetrating power.

Half-life is the time taken for 50% decay

Nuclear Fusion

It is a nuclear reaction in which small nuclei combine to make larger nucleus.

-> we only get energy in nuclear fusion if the product is more stable in comparison to the reactants. This energy can be
released as a photon of light (gamma decay) or it can be a regular alpha or beta decay.

Nuclear Fission

It is a nuclear reaction in which a large nucleus breaks down into smaller nuclei.