Balochistan Textbook Board, Quetta

for Class 6th

Publisher:
Kalat Publishers, Quetta

Balochistan Textbook Board, Quetta

Prof. Muhammad Hashim Khan Tareen
All rights (Copy Right etc.) are reserved with Balochistan Textbook Board, Quetta.
Approved by the Provincial Education Department the Government of Balochistan Quetta.
According to the National Curriculum 2006 under the National Textbook and learning Materials Policy 2007.
N.O.C. No. dated Office of the Director Bureau of Curriculum & Extension Centre,
Balochistan, Quetta. This book has been published by Balochistan Textbook Board under a print licence
arrangement for free distribution in all Government Schools in Balochistan. No part of this book can be copied in
any form especially guides, help books etc., without the written permission of
the Balochistan Textbook Board, Quetta.

Authors: Professor Raghib Saeed, Professor Mahmood Iqbal

Imran Al-Hussaini Ayubi
Editor: Dr. Muhammad Ashfaq Ahmad
Translation: Dr. Muhammad Ashfaq Ahmad
Language Expert:
Supervision: Abdul Shakoor (Subject Specialist)

INTERNAL REVIEW COMMITTEE

1. Prof. Muhammad Naeem
Govt. Science College, Quetta
2. Mr. Muhammad Tariq Bhatti
Associate Professor, Govt. Science College, Quetta
3. Mr. Asmatullah Khilji
Senior Subject Specialist, BEAC, Quetta
4. Mr. Muhammad Hassan Sarparah
Subject Specialist (Language Expert), Balochistan Textbook Board, Quetta
5. Mr. Muhammad Nadeem Khan
Subject Specialist (Coordinator), Balochistan Textbook Board, Quetta

Layout Design: Composing:

Muhammad Abbas Rafique Toqeer Ahmad
Printers: Prepared By:
Kalat Publishers, Quetta Kalat Publishers, Quetta
Supervision: Abdul Shakoor (Subject Specialist)
 Table of Contents

Chapter Contents Page No.

01 Cellular Organization of Plants and Animals 1

1.1 Cell
1.2 Microscope
1.3 Animal and Plant Cells
1.4 Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms
1.5 Tissues
1.6 Organs
1.7 Organ Systems
Key Points
Exercise
02 Sense Organs 22
2.1 Nose
2.2 Structure and Functions of Tongue
2.3 Ear
2.4 Eye
2.5 Skin
Key Points
Exercise
03 Photosynthesis and Respiration in Plants 35
3.1 Internal Structure of Leaf
3.2 Photosynthesis
3.3 Importance of Photosynthesis
3.4 Factors affecting Photosynthesis
3.5 Respiration in Plants
Key Points
Exercise
04 Environment and Interactions 50
4.1 Components of Environment
4.2 Abiotic Components of Environment
4.3 Comparison of Factors Making Desert and Rain Forest Environment
4.4 Abiotic Factors Affecting the Food Production Ability of Plants
4.5 Dependence of Living Things on one another for Food, Shelter and
Protection
Key Points
Exercise
05 Atoms, Molecules, Mixtures and Compounds 67
5.1 Atoms and Molecules
Chapter Contents Page No.

5.2 Types of Matter: Element, Compound, Mixture

5.3 Classification of Elements
5.4 Compounds
5.5 Mixtures
5.6 Uses of Compounds and Mixtures
5.7 Separating Components of Mixtures
5.8 Safety Measures to Conduct Science Experiments
Key Points
Exercise
06 Air 87
6.1 Importance of Air
6.2 Components of Air
6.3 Properties of Gases present in the Air
6.4 Uses of Gases and its Relation with the Composition of Air
Key Points
Exercise
07 Solutions and Suspensions 99
7.1 Solution and its Components
7.2 Particle Model of Solutions
7.3 Water as Universal Solvent
7.4 Aqueous, Dilute and Concentrated Solutions
7.5 Unsaturated and Saturated Solution
7.6 Solubility
7.7 Suspension
Key Points
Exercise
08 Energy and its Forms 111
8.1 Energy
8.2 Forms of Energy
8.3 Difference Between Kinetic and Potential Energy
8.4 Conversion of Different Forms of Energy
8.5 Dissipation of Energy in the Environment
8.6 Energy Converters
8.7 Renewable Energy Sources
8.8 Energy Stored in Human Body
Key Points
Exercise
09 Forces and Machines 126
9.1 Wheel and Axle
Chapter Contents Page No.

9.2 Pulley
9.3 Types of Pulley
9.4 Uses of Pulley in Daily Life
9.5 Gears
9.6 Uses of Gears in Daily Life
9.7 Transfer of Motion from one Pulley or Gear System to another
Key Points
Exercise
10 Properties of Light 141
10.1 Transmission, Absorption and Reflection
10.2 Laws of Reflection
10.3 Types of Reflecting Surfaces
10.4 Regular and Diffused Reflection
10.5 Image Formation by a Plane Mirror
10.6 Pinhole Camera
10.7 Use of Reflecting Surfaces in Different Devices
10.8 Kaleidoscope
10.9 Types of Mirrors
10.10 Image Formation in Concave Mirror
10.11 Image Formation in Convex Mirror
Key Points
Exercise
11 Investigating Sound 160
11.1 What is Sound? How is it Produced?
11.2 How does Sound Travel?
11.3 Sound Needs Medium to Travel
11.4 Speed of Sound in Different Mediums
11.5 How does Human Ear Receive Sound?
Key Points
Exercise
12 Space and Satellites 168
12.1 Satellites
12.2 Natural Satellites
12.3 Artificial Satellites
12.4 Key Milestones in Space Technology
Key Points
Exercise
Glossary 181
Index 184
 General Science 6

Chapter Cellular Organization of

1 Plants and Animals

After studying this chapter, students will be able to:

· Define cell.
· Describe different parts of a light microscope and its working.
· Identify different kinds of cells using a microscope.
· Draw, label and describe the basic structure of an animal cell and a
plant cell.
· Compare and contrast an animal cell with a plant cell.
· State the function of each part of the cell to indicate how the cell
supports life.
· Differentiate between unicellular and multicellular organisms.
· Distinguish between tissues and organs.
· Recognize root and shoot systems in plants.
· State the functions of the major systems of the human body.
· Describe the cellular hierarchy from cell to organ systems in animals
and plants.

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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

Introduction
In this chapter, we will study the physical features of living things
(animals and plants), structure and functions of their different parts.
Familiarization with the basic structural and functional units of living bodies
(cells) will be developed and their importance in the life of animals and plants
will also be discussed.

1.1 CELL
If we look at the structure or composition of houses, we will observe that
these are made of bricks or cement blocks. Bricks are cemented to construct
walls and rooms of our houses. We can say that brick is the basic structural unit
of our houses. Similarly the basic structural as well as functional unit of living
bodies (animals and plants) is called cell. The cell of living things is so small live
unit that we need a microscope to see it. The body of a mature animal or a plant
consists of numerous cells.

Cells in the layer of onion Bricks cemented in a wall

Figure 1.1 Concept of Cell

Interesting Information

· The concept of the word cell has been taken

from cells of honey comb.
· Human body consists of nearly 5 to 50 trillion
cells.

Cells in honey comb

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 General Science 6

Cells in living bodies have different shapes and size and they perform
different functions. Figure 1.2 elaborates the shape and size of different type of
cells in human body.

Figure 1.2 Different types of cells in a human body

Nerve Cells Skin Cells

Nerve cells transmit messages in Skin cells cover the body and
the body. make a protective layer.
Muscle Cells Red Blood Cells
Muscle cells contract and relax to Red blood cells transport
produce movement in the body. oxygen in the whole body.

Bone Cells White Blood Cells

Bone cells provide support to the White blood cells kill disease
body. causing germs.

1.2 MICROSCOPE
Microscope is an instrument which
enables us to see those objects which are not
visible by naked eye. Tiny objects like cells
appear magnified under the microscope.
Convex lens or magnifying glass is an example
of the simple microscope. In modern era many
Figure 1.3 Magnifying glass
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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

types of microscopes have been made. The microscope which is used in our
school laboratory is called light microscope or compound microscope.

Do you know?
In 1665, an English scientist Robert Hook examined thin slices of cork with the help of his so-
called microscope. He observed tiny box like structures in the thin slice of a cork and named
them as cells. Later on the Biologists concluded after microscopic studies of different living
things that the bodies of all the animals and plants are made up of cells.

1.2.1 Light Microscope or Compound Microscope and its Parts

In light microscope, with the help of light and lenses, a magnified image
of tiny objects is observed. Light microscope is also known as compound
microscope.

Eye piece

Course adjustment Body tube

screw

Fine adjustment Nose piece

screw
Arm
Objective lens

Clips Stage

Diaphragm

Mirror
Base

Figure 1.4 Light microscope

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1.2.2 Parts of a Light Microscope and their Functions

The following are important parts of a light microscope.
1. Eye Piece
The lens fixed on the upper end of the body tube is called 'eye piece'. With
the help of eye piece, we can see and study the specimen kept on the
s t a g e .
2. Body Tube
It is a tube which has lenses fixed on its upper and lower ends.
3. Course Adjustment Screw
Course adjustment screw is used to move the lenses up and down. They
are focused at a point where the specimen under observation can be
seen clearly.
4. Fine Adjustment Screw
Fine adjustment screw is used to see the image of the specimen more
clearly.
5. Nose Piece
The part which rotates and uses the objective lenses of different powers is
called nose piece.
6. Objective Lens
Lenses of different powers which are fixed at the lower end of the body
tube are called objective lenses. Objective lenses are nearer to the
specimen kept on the stage.
7. Arm
Arm is the part of the microscope which is used to lift it.
8. Stage
The flat platform on which specimen slides are placed is called stage. It
has clips to hold the slides in position.
9. Clips
The prepared specimen slide is fixed on stage using clips.
10. Diaphragm

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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

A number of microscopes have a rotatable disc below stage which is

called diaphragm. This disc has holes of various sizes for light in order to
have distinct and clear observation of slide.
11. Mirror
A mirror is located below the stage which reflects light on the specimen
under observation.
12. Base
Base is the bottom part of the microscope to which all other parts are
fixed on it.
Activity 1.1

Using a microscope
N Under the guidance of your teacher identify different parts of light microscope present
in your school laboratory and learn the use of the microscope.
N Examine tiny objects such as a word written on a piece of the newspaper, a hair of the
head, parts of an ant’s body and layer of a plant leaf under the microscope by using its
objective lenses of different powers, and draw their diagrams on your notebook.
N Examine prepared slides of different microorganisms, body parts of different animals
and plants (present in your school laboratory) by using the microscope and draw their
diagrams on your notebook.

Do you know?

The objects which are not visible under light microscope can be seen with the help of electron
microscope. Electron microscope magnifies the image 500,000 times the size of the object.
Cell organelles (structures by which a cell is made) of living things are studied using electron
microscope. In electron microscope, electrons are used instead of light.

1.3 ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS

The cells of different parts of animals and plants are different in shape
and perform different functions. Besides this, all cells have a number of same
characteristics. You can see the similarities and differences between an animal

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 General Science 6

Golgi Chloroplast Cell wall

Bodies
Cell
membrane
Ribosomes

Nucleus

Endoplasmic
reticulum

Mitochondria

Cytoplasm

Vacuole

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Figure 1.5Animal and plant cells

cell and a plant cell as illustrated in figure 1.5.

1.3.1 Cell Organelles and their Functions
1. Cell Wall
The outer hard cover of a plant cell is called cell wall. Cell wall is made of
cellulose. It supports the cell and maintains its shape. Cell wall is not found in an
animal cell.
2. Cell Membrane
Cell membrane is the outermost protective layer of an animal cell. In plant
cell, it is found beneath the cell wall. Cell membrane is made up of lipids and
proteins. Different matters enter or leave the cell via the cell membrane.
3. Nucleus
Nucleus is an important part of the cell. It controls all the functions of a
cell. In an animal cell, it is located in the centre of the cell, whereas, in plant cell, a
large vacuole pushes it on one side of the cell. Nucleus is also surrounded by a

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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

membrane called nuclear membrane.

4. Cytoplasm
The semi-transparent thick fluid between nucleus and the cell membrane
is called cytoplasm. It also contains other organelles. All types of functions
regarding life take place in the cytoplasm.
5. Vacuole
The cytoplasm of an animal cell contains a number of small round shaped
bodies called vacuoles. Water, food particles and waste material are stored in
vacuole. In a plant cell, one large vacuole is found in the centre.
6. Mitochondria
These are rod shaped bodies found in the cytoplasm. Reactions regarding
production of energy takes place in mitochondria. That is why mitochondria are
called the power house of the cell.
7. Endoplasmic Reticulum
There is a network of tube like structures found in the cytoplasm which
are called endoplasmic reticulum. They transport materials from one place to
the other.
8. Ribosomes
Ribosomes are tiny granular bodies found in the cytoplasm. They play an
important role in protein synthesis.
9. Centrioles
In animal cell, two centrioles are located near the nucleus. They are
hollow and cylindrical in shape and play an important role in cell division. Plant
cells have no centrioles.
10. Chloroplast
Chloroplast is found only in plant cells. It is not found in animal cells.
Chloroplast contains a green colour pigment called chlorophyll. Chlorophyll
absorbs energy from sunlight which is used in the process of photosynthesis.

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 General Science 6

Chlorophyll gives thebetween

1.3.2Difference green colour to the
Plant leaves.
and Animal Cell
Plant cell Animal cell

1. Cell wall is found in plant cell. Cell wall is not found in animal cell.

2. Chloroplast is found in plant cell. Chloroplast is not found in animal cell.

3. Centrioles are not found in plant cell. Animal cell has two centrioles near the nucleus.

4. Plant cell has a single large vacuole. Animal cell has a number of small vacuoles.

5. In plant cell, nucleus is located on one In animal cell, nucleus is located in the centre of
side near the cell membrane. the cell.

Activity 1.2

Preparing a slide of onion layer

N Take a glass slide.
N Put a drop of water on the slide.
N Cut a small piece of onion layer and
spread it over the drop of water on the
glass slide.
N Cover it by a thin glass cover slip and press
it gently. The slide will be prepared.
N Examine the prepared slide under the
microscope and draw its diagram on your
notebook.
Activity 1.3

Making charts
N Observe the models of animal and plant cells present in your school laboratory.
N Draw the diagrams of animal cell and plant cell on separate charts and label
them.

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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

N Hang the prepared charts on the front wall of your classroom.

1.4 UNICELLULAR AND MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS

Organisms containing only a single cell are called unicellular organisms.
Bacteria, Amoeba, Euglena and Chlamydomonas etc. are the examples of
unicellular organisms. Only a single cell performs all functions of life in them.
They can move, get food, breathe, grow and reproduce.

Bacteria Amoeba Euglena Chlamydomonas

Figure 1.6 Unicellur organisms
Multicellular organisms are the organisms whose bodies are made of a
number of cells. It includes higher animals and plants are such multicellular
organisms whose bodies are made of numerous cells. For example, human
being, lion, plant and goat.

Human Lion Plant Goat

Activity 1.4 Figure 1.7 Multicellular organisms

Microscopic examination of unicellular organisms found in pond water

N Take a glass slide.
N Put a drop of pond water on the slide. Place the slide on the stage of the microscope
and observe the unicellular organisms present in the drop of pond water. Draw the
diagram of the organisms on your notebook.

1.4.1 Cellular Organization in Multicellular Organisms

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 General Science 6

The cells in multicellular organisms do not work individually but they work in
different organized groups to perform various functions. Group of cells form
tissues and tissues form an organ and different organs linked together to form
an organ system. This
Tissues an organism isOrgan
is the way howOrgans formed. Organism
Cells Systems

1.5 TISSUES
A group of similar cells which performs a particular function is called a
tissue. Tissue formation is the first step towards cellular organization. Different
tissues perform different functions in the bodies of animals and plants.
1.5.1 Animal Tissues
The important animal tissues
are as under.
1. Epithelial Tissue
In epithelial tissue, cells are
packed closely in the shape of a Figure 1.8 (a) Epithelial tissue
layer or membrane. In animals the
outer layer of skin or inner layers of
tube like organs or membranes are
made of epithelial tissue.
2. Blood Tissue
Blood tissue consists of Figure 1.8 (b) Blood tissue
blood cells. It transports different
materials from one part of the body
to the other.
3. Bone Tissue
Bone tissue consists of bone
cells. This is a hard and strong tissue
which provides support to the body Figure 1.8 (c) Bone tissue
1
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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

and helps to retain specific shape to

different body organs.
4. Muscle Tissue
This tissue consists of muscle Figure 1.8 (d) Muscle tissue

cells. Movement in the body is produced due

to the expansion and contraction of muscle
cells.
5. Nerve Tissue
Nerve tissue consists of nerve cells and
Figure 1.8 (e) Nerve tissue
transmits messages from one part of the body
to the other part.
1.5.2 Plant Tissues
The plant tissues are as under.
1. Epidermal Tissue
In plants, epidermal tissue serves as the
outer protective layers for roots, stems and Figure 1.8 (f)
Epidermal tissue
leaves.
2. Photosynthetic Tissue
Cells of photosynthetic tissue are rich in
chlorophyll, that is why they look green. This
tissue prepares food during photosynthesis
process. Figure 1.8 (g)
Photosynthetic tissue
3. Xylem Tissue
In plants, xylem tissue transports water
and dissolved salts (nutrients) from roots to
leaves.

Figure 1.8 (h) Xylem tissue Figure 1.8 (i) Phloem tissue
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 General Science 6

4. Phloem Tissue
Phloem tissue transports prepared food from leaves to all parts of the
plants.
1.6 ORGANS
In animals and plants, different tissues are grouped together to form
organs. Heart, lungs, liver, stomach and brain are the examples of organs of our
body. Root, stem, leaf and flower are the examples of the organs in plants.
Figure Organ Function
Organs perform different functions in animals and plants.
Brain controls the functions
1.6.1 Organs in Animals Brain and performance of all body
parts.
Heart
Heart works as a pump and
helps in circulation of blood.
Lungs
Lungs exchange the gases in
the body.
Liver
Liver produces bile which is
helpful in digestion of food.
Stomach
Stomach helps in the digestion
of food.
Figure 1.9 Various organs in humans
1.6.2 Organs in Plants
Figure Organ Function
Flower Flower helps in reproduction.

Leaf
Leaf prepares food during
photosynthesis.

Stem Stem provides support to the plant

Root Root absorbs water and salts

from the soil
Figure 1.10 Various organs in plants
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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

1.7 ORGAN SYSTEMS

In the bodies of multicellular organisms, different organs work together
to form different organ systems. Each organ system performs a particular
function.
1.7.1 Major Organ Systems in Plants
The important organ systems are as under.
Root System
Roots and their branches, form the root system in plants. Root system
keeps the plants fixed firmly in the soil and absorbs water and dissolve salts
(nutrients) from the soil.
Shoot System
The parts of the plants which are above the soil, like stem, branches,
leaves and flowers, form the shoot system in plants. The functions of shoot
system are transportation of water from roots to leaves, preparation of food and
production of seeds.
1.7.2 Major Human Organ Systems
Major human organ systems are as under. Buccal cavity
1. Human Digestive System
Human digestive system consists
Oesophagus
of following organs.
1. Buccal Cavity Stomach Liver

2. Oesophagus Pancreas
Small intestine

3. Stomach
Large intestine
4. Small Intestine
Anus
5. Large Intestine
Figure 1.11 Human digestive system
6. Anus
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 General Science 6

7. Liver
8. Pancreas
Food is taken into the buccal cavity through mouth. The teeth in the
buccal cavity grind the food and addition of saliva makes it soft. This soft food is
then transferred into the stomach through Oesophagus. Muscular activity of
stomach walls breaks the food into further fine particles. Stomach secretes and
mixes gastric juice in the food. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid which
helps in decomposing the proteins. This semi-digested food enters from
stomach to the small intestine, where it gets bile juice from liver and pancreatic
juice from pancreas. These juices contain enzymes which completely digest the
food. The digested food is absorbed in blood through the interior walls of small
intestine which transports it to all cells of the body. Waste materials are excreted
through anus at different regular intervals.
2. Respiratory System
Human respiratory system consists of following organs.
1. Wind pipe 2. Lungs
Nostrils
Oxygen is needed in all body cells for
oxidation of food to produce energy. Carbon
Wind pipe
dioxide is produced during oxidation of food
needs to be excreted out of the body. This
work is done by the respiratory system. When Lungs
we breathe in, the air enters into our lungs
through wind pipe. Exchange of gases takes
Figure 1.12 Respiratory system
place in the lungs. Oxygen of the air is
absorbed in blood and carbon dioxide
produced in the body is excreted while
breathing out. During its circulation blood carries the oxygen from lungs to all
body cells and carbon dioxide from body cells to the lungs.
3. Blood Circulatory System

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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

Human blood circulatory system

Vesselconsists of followingVessel
which supplies organs.
which brings blood
blood to the lungs back from lungs to heart
1. Heart 2. Blood vessels
Heart works like a Lung
pump in human body and
controls the circulation of
Heart
blood in all blood vessels,
spreaded of the whole body. Vessels which bring blood Vessel which supplies
Circulation of blood is the back from body parts to blood to lower body
the heart parts
only mean for transporting
materials from one part of
Figure 1.13 Blood circulatory system
the body to the other.

4. Excretory System

The waste materials produced in

the body are excreted through kidneys. Kidneys
The wastes produced in all cells are
carried by the blood and transported to
the kidneys. Kidneys work as a filter and Urinary
ducts
transfer waste materials into urinary
ducts after their filtration from blood. Urinary
Urinary ducts collect/accumulate these bladder

waste materials in urinary bladder.

From urinary bladder, they are excreted
Figure 1.14 Excretory system
out in the form of urine. Some wastes
are also excreted in the form of sweat Brain

through skin.
Spinal
cord
5. Nervous System

The nervous system maintains a Nerves

discipline in all systems so that the
body can work as a unit. Nervous
system consists of brain, spinal
Figure 1.15 Nervous system
16
 General Science 6

cord and nerves. It transmits

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY
messages
AND in ENVIRONMENT
the body.

· Modern techniques are being used for treatment of kidney diseases

which involves the use of kidney machine (dialysis machine). With these
machines, clean blood is sent back to the body after removal of harmful
and waste materials present in the blood. Although this process is quite
unpleasant but patient do get relief for few days. This research is
providing quite helpful for patients.
· Nowadays, after diagnosis of stone in kidney, the stone is expelled after
breaking into small pieces using shock waves. This technique is becoming
very popular.
· The heart attack disease is due to high level of cholesterol in blood; high
blood pressure; excessive smoking; tension; comfortable life and less
physical activity. Hence it is essential to do regular exercise. Use of
narcotics should be stopped. Avoid every kind of tension. These
KEYmeasures
POINTS can protect you from heart diseases.

1. The structural and functional unit of living things is called cell.

2. Cells differ in their size, shape and function.
3. Tiny objects like cells are studied with the help of microscope.
4. Microscope is an instrument with the help of which we can observe those
tiny objects which cannot be seen by naked human eye.
5. An animal cell and a plant cell are different in appearance. However, cell
membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, ribosomes, mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum etc. are those structures (cell organelles) which are present in
both animal and plant cells.

7
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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

6. Cell wall and chloroplasts are found only in plant cell. They do not exist in
animal cell.
7. Plant cell has only one large vacuole whereas an animal cell has many
small vacuoles.
8. A group of similar cells which perform a particular function is called
tissue.
9. Cells group together to form tissues. Tissues unite to from organs and
EXERCISE
organs are linked to form organ systems.
10. The body of an adult animal or plant consists of many organ systems.

1.1 Encircle the correct option.

(i) The part of the microscope through which image of the specimen can be
seen is called:
a. eye piece b. objective
b. stage d. mirror
(ii) Animal cells cannot prepare their own food because:
a. they have no cell wall
b. they have no chloroplast
c. they are not round in shape
d. their nucleus is not pushed towards cell wall
(iii) Which one of the following is animal cell?
a. Cell wall b. Centriole
c. Chloroplast d. One big vacuole
(iv) The power house of the cell is called
a. Ribosomes b. Endoplasmic reticulum
c. Chloroplast d. Mitochondria

18
18
 General Science 6

(v) Which one of the following is of the nervous system?

a. Stomach b. Small intestine

c. Large intestine d. Spinal cord
1.2 Fill in the blanks.

(i) Cell is the __________ and functional unit of living things.

(ii) There is no __________ present in animal cell.

(iii) The formation of __________ from cells is the first step towards
cellular organization.

(iv) Respiratory system consists of __________ and ________.

(v) The system consisting of brain, spinal cord and nerves is called
__________.

1.3 Identify true and false statements.

(i) Red blood cells kill disease causing germs.

(ii) Mitochondria are called the power house of the cell.

(iii) Chloroplast is found in cell of plants and animals.

(iv) Lungs exchange the gases in the body.

(v) The body of an animal or a plant consists of different organ

systems.

1.4 Write different terminologies of cellular organization in the following

boxes.

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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

1.5 Define the following.

Cell, microscope, tissue, organ and organ system

1.6 Match the terms of column A with the statements of column B.

A B

Mitochondria Presence of chlorophyll, help in photosynthesis.

Ribosomes Power house of the cell.

Chloroplast To control all the functions of the cell.

Cell wall Protein synthesis

Nucleus Outer protective layer in plant cell

To perform role in cell division

1.7 Write names of three unicellular organisms.

1.8 Write names of three multicellular organisms.
1.9 Write functions of the following.
(i) Nucleus (ii) Blood (iii) Muscles
(iv) Xylem (v) Chlorophyll
1.10 Write names of relevant organs in the boxes given in front of the
following functions.
(i) Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases.
(ii) Pump which circulates blood in the body.
(iii) Transmission of messages throughout the body.
(iv) Plant organs which absorb water and dissolved
salts from the soil.
(v) Photosynthesis and preparation of food.
1.11 Differentiate the following.

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 General Science 6

(i) Animal and plant cell.

(ii) Root and shoot system.
(iii) Unicellular and multicellular organism.
(iv) Tissue and organ.
1.12 Write names of the organs included in the following systems. Also
describe the functions of the system.
(i) Digestive system
(ii) Respiratory system
(iii) Circulatory system
(iv) Excretory system
(v) Nervous system.
1.13 Write note on the following.
Chloroplast, Mitochondria
1.14 Label the various parts of the light microscope.

1
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 General Science 6

Chapter
2 Sense Organs

After studying this chapter, the students will be able to:

þ Explain the structure and function of nose.

þ Explain the structure and function of tongue.

þ Explain the structure and function of ear.

þ Explain the structure and function of eye.

þ Explain the structure and function of skin.

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Chapter 2: Sense Organs

Introduction
Sensitivity is an important characteristic of living things. Due to this
characteristic, living things feel their surroundings. Those parts of our body by
which we feel our
environment are called sense
organs. We see different
things in our surrounding with
the help of our eyes. We hear
different kinds of sounds
present in the environment
with the help of our ears. Our
nose can detect different
kinds of pleasant and
unpleasant odour and our
tongue helps us to taste and
detect sweet, bitter, sour and
salty things. Similarly, our skin
feels the hotness or coldness
of our environment or gives us Figure 2.1 Sense organs
the feeling of hardness and
softness of objects.
Eye, ear, nose, tongue and skin are our sense organs. These are also called
five senses. Sense organs have special kinds of cells which receive messages, are
called receptors. In this chapter, we will study the structure and functions of our
sense organs.
2.1 NOSE
Nose is the sense organ for smell. If a person has
used perfume, we can smell it immediately. Similarly a
dead rat or any other dead animal is detected by the
bad odour caused by its decay and it is disposed off.
There are a lot of things which can be detected by using Figure 2.2 Human nose
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our sense of smell.

2.1.1 Structure and Functions of Nose
Nose has two openings called nostrils. Through external nostrils we
breathe in the air. Inner
lining of the nose has a
moist membrane having Brain
mucus and thin hair which Olfactory nerve
prevent the entrance of dust Olfactory cells
present in the air. The
External nostril
internal cavity of the nose is Nasal cavity
called nasal cavity. The inner
Nasal chamber
surface of the nasal cavity
ha s n er ve cells ca lled
olfactory cells which are
s e n s i t i v e t o
the chemical substances. Wind pipe
Olfactory cells transmit the
message to the brain Figure 2.3 Internal structure of nose
through olfactory nerve. Sense of smell is in fact an interaction of olfactory
cells with the chemical substances present in the air.
When vapours of a substance enter the nasal cavity with the air, they
stick with the moist surface of the nasal cavity. As a reaction, the olfactory
cells become active and send message to the brain through olfactory nerve.
The brain detects the chemical substances which we call good or bad smell.
Do you know?

· Some animals like dogs, have a sharp sense of smell. They are used for detection
purposes. Dogs are used to search the missing people and narcotics etc.

· Human nose has nearly 1000 receptors which can distinguish among 10,000 different
kinds of substances which produce smells.

· Our sense of smell is also helpful in our sense of taste.

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2.2 TONGUE
Our tongue is the sense organ for taste.
2.1.1 Structure of Tongue
The upper surface of the tongue has many small humps. These humps
have groups of nerve cells, which are
called taste buds. Taste buds detect
five tastes of different substances.
Different parts of the tongue have Bitter Bitter
taste buds to detect different tastes. Sour Sour
The taste buds on tip of the tongue
to detect the sweet taste. The rare Salty Salty
portion of the tongue has taste
buds to detect bitter taste. The both Sweet Sweet

side edges of the tongue have taste

Figure 2.4 Taste buds on the surface of tongue
buds to detect salty and sour tastes.
Taste buds are connected with nerve cells which send messages to the
brain. In this way, the brain recognizes the tastes of different substances.

Activity 2.1
Identification of taste buds
· Take four small cups.
· Take lemon juice in one cup, salt solution in the second cup, sugar solution in the third
and tamarind sauce in the fourth cup.
· With the help of a dropper, apply the salt solution on different parts of your tongue
and note which part of the tongue is sensitive to it and detect its taste.
· Repeat the above experiment to detect the tastes of remaining three solutions.

2.3 EAR
Ears are the sense organs for hearing. We
hear different sounds with the help of our ears. Figure2.5
Human ear
2.3.1 Structure of Ear
Human ear consists of three parts, i.e.,
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Hammer Middle ear Inner ear

Auditory nerve

Cochlea

Outer ear

Stirrup

Ear canal Ear drum Anvil

Figure 2.6 Structure of ear

outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.

1. Outer Ear
Outer ear is also called pinna. It is a boat-like part of the outer ear. It is
connected with the middle ear by a long and narrow tube which is called ear
canal. At the end of the ear canal, there is a membrane called ear drum.
2. Middle Ear
Middle ear is like a chamber filled with air. It consists of three bones which are
called hammer, anvil and stirrup.
3. Inner Ear
Inner ear consists of a coiled tube called cochlea. It is filled with a thick fluid.
Cochlea is the organ for hearing.
4 Auditory Nerve
Auditory nerve consists of sensory cells which transmit the signals of sound
waves to the brain.
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Interesting Information
Some animals (e.g., horse) can move their ears to receive the sound waves. They move their
ears towards the direction of incoming sound.

Activity 2.2
Observing the chart or model
Look at the model or chart of human ear. Identify its different parts and draw the labeled diagram.

2.3.2 Functions of Ear

The outer ear receives the sound waves and directs them towards the ear
drum through the ear canal. The ear drum starts vibrating due to sound waves
and strikes with the middle ear. In this way, sound waves are transmitted to the
middle ear. These sound waves strike with the three bones of the middle ear
which transfer them onwards to the cochlea. The sensory cells on the surface of
the cochlea convert the sound waves into nerve signals and transmit them to the
auditory nerve. Auditory nerve sends these signals to the brain. Brain detects
them and identifies the sound waves. In this way, our ears help us to hear the
sound.
2.4 EYE
Eye is the sense organ for sight. We
observe beautiful things of different
colours in our surrounding with the help of
our eyes and gain information about them.
The importance of eyes can be best judged
by comparing ourselves with a blind Figure 2.7 Human eye
person.
2.4.1 Structure of Eye
Human eye consists of a hollow spherical eye ball which is fixed in a cavity
in the skull. Externally, it is covered by the eyelids. As shown in the front part of
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eye consists of three membranes, i.e., cornea, iris and retina. Messages from eye
to the brain are transmitted viaLens
optic nerve.

Retina

Optic nerve
Iris

Cornea

Pupil

Figure 2.8 Structure of eyeball

1. Cornea
The front part of the eye ball is covered by a thin and transparent
membrane called cornea. Light enters into the eye through cornea.
2. Iris
Underneath the cornea there is a coloured membrane called iris. The
colour of the eyes is due to the iris. The hole in the middle of the iris is called
pupil. Pupil contracts in intense light and expands in dim light. Behind the pupil,
there is a lens which focuses the light on retina.
3. Retina
The innermost membrane of the eye ball is called retina. Retina is
sensitive to light and acts like a screen. The light passing through the lens makes
the image of the objects on the retina.
4. Optic Nerve
Optic nerve carries messages from the eye to the brain. The sensory cells
of the retina convert the image formed on it to the optic nerve in the form of
signals which further transmits to the brain by the sensory cells of the retina.
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Lens

Pupil

Image

Object
Optic nerve
Retina
Figure 2.9 Formation of image on retina

The brain interprets these signals.

2.4.2 Functions of Eye
Ray of light after being reflected from an object passes through the
cornea and pupil and falls on the lens. The lens focuses it on the retina. In this
way an inverted image of the object is formed on the retina as shown in figure
2.4. The sensory cells of the retina change the image into nerve signals and
transfer it to the optic nerve. Optic nerve in turn transmits these signals to the
brain which interprets the signals and converts them into an erect image. In this

Do you know?
Human eye has a resemblance with a camera. Both have a lens. The lens in the eye forms image
on the retina whereas the lens in camera forms image on the screen.

Interesting Information
· Lens of the eye changes its shape to see the objects near or far away.

· It contracts and becomes thick to see the near objects whereas it expands and
becomes thin to see the far objects.

· Colour blindness is an eye defect due to which a person cannot differentiate

between different colours especially red and green. This is an inherited disease.

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Activity 2.3

Observing the Chart or Model

Look at the model or chart of human eye. Identify different parts of eye on it and draw it.

way, eye helps us to see the things around us.

2.5 SKIN
Skin is a sense organ for touch. It is the largest organ which covers the
whole body. The skin has several kinds of cells which detect heat, cold, pressure,
pain and touch etc.
2.5.1 Structure of Skin
Our skin consists of three layers which are termed as epidermis, dermis and
hypodermis.
1. Epidermis
Epidermis is the outer layer of the skin which protects the inner layers. It is
thin and consists of dead cells. It protects the inner layers.
2. Dermis
Dermis is the middle thick Hair
layer of the skin. It has different
kinds of tissues, muscles, blood
vessels, hair, sweat glands and
Epidermis
sensory cells. This layer is the
sensitive part of the skin. The
sensory cells present in the skin Dermis
are called receptors.
3. Hypodermis Hypodermis

The innermost layer of the Root hair Fat

skin is called hypodermis. It
Figure 2.10 Structure of skin
consists of cells that store fat
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Chapter 2: Sense Organs

which keeps our body warm.

Do you know?

· Blind persons can read Braille by using the

sense of touch of their fingertips.

· The tips of fingers are the most sensitive part

while the heels of our feet are the least
sensitive part of the skin.

2.5.2 Functions of Skin

Skin protects our body. It maintains the body temperature and works as a
sense organ. The sensory cells or receptor in the skin become active instantly on
having a change in temperature, pressure or getting injury and it transmit the
message to the ends of the nerve cells. The nerve cells forward the message to
the brain which
SCIENCE, recognizes
TECHNOLOGY, them.
SOCIETY
AND ENVIRONMENT

· Spectacles are used for sight weakness. In 1990, the lenses used in
spectacles were replaced by modern lenses which are placed on pupil of
eye. These lenses are available in several colours. These are made from
silicon hydrogel instead of glass. These are also referred as water loving
lenses. Their use is continuously increasing in the world.
· Science has also worked for deaf people or people who cannot hear
sounds or have less audibility. The invention of listening tool has created
colours in the life of such people. In this way the use of listening tools
started growing. So far about 1000 different types of listening tools have
been developed. These are called hearing aid.
KEY POINTS

1. The characteristic by which living things feel their environment is called

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sensitivity. The parts of our body which feel the environment are called
sense organs.
2. Eye is the sense organ for sight. The messages from eye to the brain are
conveyed by optic nerve.
3. Ear is the sense organ for hearing. The messages from ear to the brain are
sent by auditory nerve.
4. Nose is the sense organ for smell. Olfactory nerve links the nose and the
brain.
5. Tongue is the sense organ for taste. There are taste buds on the surface of
the tongue which are connected with the ends of the nerve cells. Nerve
cells send the message to the brain.
6. Skin is the sense organ for touch. Sensory cells of the skin which are called
receptors become active instantly on having change in temperature or
pressure or getting injured and transmit message to the ends of the nerve
cells. The nerve cells convey the message to the brain. The brain
recognizes these messages.
EXERCISE

2.1 Encircle the correct option.

(i) The coloured part of the eye beneath the cornea is called:
a. pupil b. iris
b. lens d. retina
(ii) There are three bones in the ear. Where are these located?
a. outer ear b. middle ear
c. inner ear d. auditory nerve
(iii) The nerve which sends messages from nose to the brain is called:

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a. optic nerve b. auditory nerve

c. olfactory nerve d. spinal nerve
(iv) Which taste buds are found at the tip of the tongue?
a. salt b. sweet
c. sour d. bitter
(v) Which of the following is not detected by skin?
a. touch b. pressure
c. temperature d. taste
2.2 Write the proper term or word in front of each the following statement.
(i) To feel temperature.
(ii) Middle hole of the iris
(iii) Entry of the air in the nose
(iv) Present on the surface of the tongue
(v) Conveying messages from ear to the brain.
2.3 Identify true and false statements.
(i) Underneath the iris there is a coloured membrane called cornea.
(ii) Outer part of ear is called pinna.
(iii) Nose, ear, throat, eyes and skin are sense organs.
(iv) Epidermis is outer thin layer of the skin and consists of dead cells.
(v) Nose is sense organ for taste which has taste buds on its surface.
2.4 Complete the sentences using suitable words.
(i) Sense organs are connected with the brain by ____________.
(ii) Pupil __________ in intense light and __________ in dim light.
(iii) The mucus and __________ present on the inner lining of the nose
prevent the passage of dust into the body.
(iv) The three layers of the skin are epidermis, dermis and __________.

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(v) The three bones of the middle ear are called hammer, anvil and
__________.
A B
2.5 Match the terms of column A with the sense organs given in the column
B. Receptors Tongue

Taste buds Air canal

Iris Cochlea

Auditory nerve Skin

Olfactory nerve Nose

Eye

2.6 Describe the functions of the following.

(i) Eye lens. (ii) Ear drum.
(iii) Epidermis. (iv) Olfactory nerve
(v) Rare part of the tongue. (vi) Cochlea
2.7 Which is the most sensitive layer of the skin? Describe its function.
2.8 Explain how the image is formed in the eye?
2.9 Draw a diagram of the tongue and locate different taste buds on it.
2.10 Write note on the following.
(i) Optic nerve (ii) Auditory nerve
(iii) Olfactory nerve (iv) Receptors
2.11 Think and answer. You can also get help from your school library, teacher
and internet.
(i) Prove that colour blindness is a heredity disease.

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Chapter
3 PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND
RESPIRATION IN PLANTS

Sunlight

Carbon Dioxide

Water

After studying this chapter, the students will be able to:

þ Describe the internal structure of leaf.

þ Define photosynthesis.

þ Explain the importance of photosynthesis in plants.

þ Describe the different factors affecting process of photosynthesis.

þ Explain that structure of leaves facilitates photosynthesis.

þ Prove with the help of an experiment that photosynthesis takes place in

a leaf.

þ Explain the importance and the process of respiration in plants.

þ Compare and contrast the processes of photosynthesis and respiration

in plants.

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of Plants and Animals

Introduction
All living things need energy to live and perform different activities of life.
This energy comes from food. Synthesis of food and producing energy from
food are the two processes upon which the whole life depends. Plants make their
own food and all other living things depend upon the food made by the plants.
In this chapter, we will study the processes involved in the synthesis of food in
plants and production of energy from food. The process of making food in
plants is called photosynthesis. In plants this process takes place in green parts
mostly in the leaves. The study of internal structure of leaf is essential for
developing an understanding about photosynthesis.
3.1 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEAF
3.1.1 Epidermis
The outer layer of the leaf is called epidermis. Epidermis protects internal
parts of the leaf. The epidermis on the upper side of the leaf is called upper
epidermis and that on the lower side of the leaf is called lower epidermis. There
is a layer of wax like matter on the upper epidermis of leaf which is called cuticle.

Cuticle
Upper
pidermis
Chloroplasts
Palisade layer
Vascular
of mesophyll
bundles
Phloem
Xylem

Spongy layer
of mesophyll Air space

Lower
epidermis

Guard cell

Stoma

Figure 3.1 Internal structure of leaf

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It controls the loss of water from the leaf. There are number of tiny pores in the
lower epidermis called stomata. Each stoma consists of an opening and two
guard cells. The exchange of gases in leaves takes place through stomata. The
atmospheric carbon dioxide enters to the leaves and the excess oxygen
produced in the leaves releases out through stomata.
3.1.2 Mesophyll
The part of the leaf between upper and lower epidermis is called
mesophyll. Mesophyll tissue consists of cells having chloroplasts. Chloroplasts
are bag like structures containing green coloured pigment chlorophyll, which
gives green colour to plants. Beneath the upper epidermis, the mesophyll makes
a layer of elongated and connected cells called palisade layer of mesophyll. The
layer beneath the palisade is called spongy layer. The cells of spongy layer have
air spaces between them.
3.1.3 Vascular Bundles
The middle part of the leaf consists of vascular bundles. The two types of
tissues present in vascular bundles are called xylem and phloem. Xylem and
phloem are the bundles of tube like cells. Xylem tissue transports water from
roots to leaves in plants. Phloem tissue transports food from leaves to the other
parts of the plant.
3.2 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Plants prepare food from carbon
dioxide and water in the presence of
sunlight. This process of making food in
plants is called photosynthesis. In
plants, the green coloured pigment,
chlorophyll absorbs sunlight and make Oxygen

it usable in photosynthesis. That is why

the reason that photosynthesis takes
Carbon
p l a c e o n l y dioxide

in green parts of the plants containing Water

Figure 3.2 Exchange of gases
chlorophyll. Carbon dioxide used in this during photosynthesis

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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

process enters the leaves through

stomata. The water ascends in leaves from roots through xylem tissue.
The process of photosynthesis can be explained by the following
equation.
Sunlight
Chlorophyll

Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen

In the process of photosynthesis, oxygen is also produced along with the

food (Glucose). The large quantity of oxygen is released in the atmosphere
through stomata. Glucose is converted into cellulose. It is continuously stored in
different parts of the plant.
3.3 IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Living things cannot survive without food and oxygen. Photosynthesis is
the only chemical process during which plants produce food and oxygen for
themselves and for all the other organisms which is essential for their lives. If
there is no photosynthesis, there will be no production of food and oxygen and
hence life would not be possible.
All organisms absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide in the
environment during respiration. In this way the amount of carbon dioxide in the
environment increases continuously. The process of photosynthesis is
responsible for absorption of carbon dioxide from the environment. Therefore
the level of carbon dioxide in the environment is not increased beyond a certain
limit. The increasing level of carbon dioxide in the environment creates
problems like global warming.
Interesting Information

· The word photosynthesis is the combination of two Greek words; 'photo' means light
and 'synthesis' means to prepare.

· The process of photosynthesis takes place in green plants and algae to provide food
for all the organisms. Scientists believe that plants appeared on the Earth about 500

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million years ago.

3.4 FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The process of photosynthesis is not taken place with uniform rate
throughout the day. It depends on the following factors.
1. Light
The process of photosynthesis requires energy of sunlight for chemical
combination of carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose. The rate of
photosynthesis depends upon the intensity of light. Process of photosynthesis
accelerates at noon because of high intensity of light and slows down in the
evening because of low intensity of light. Moreover, photosynthesis stops at
night. White light consists of seven colours but chlorophyll absorbs blue, orange
and red light.
2. Carbon dioxide
The rate of photosynthesis also depends upon the amount of carbon
dioxide. If more quantity of carbon dioxide is available, then the rate of
photosynthesis will be fast. Less quantity of carbon dioxide will slow down the
process of photosynthesis.
3. Water
Besides carbon dioxide, water is also an essential requirement for
photosynthesis. If proper quantity of water is not available, the rate of
photosynthesis will be affected and plant will produce less food.
4. Chlorophyll
The process of photosynthesis cannot take place without chlorophyll. It is
chlorophyll which absorbs sunlight and makes it usable in the photosynthesis.
5. Temperature
Like many other chemical reactions, photosynthesis is also affected by
the temperature. The suitable temperature for this process is needed (25 – 35oC).
At very high or very low temperatures, the process of photosynthesis either
stops or slows down.
3.4.1 Structure of Leaf and Photosynthesis
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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

Most of the process of photosynthesis takes place in leaves as compared

to the other green parts of the plants. This is because of the following factors
which make the structure of leaf most suitable for photosynthesis.Water supply
through xylem
1. The blades of the leaves are flat and
absorb maximum light.
2. Thin blades of the leaves enable the Sunlight
light and carbon dioxide to reach
their internal parts easily.
3. A large number of stomata in lower
epidermis of the leaf help in
absorption of carbon dioxide and
release of surplus oxygen in the
atmosphere. Absorption of
Carbon dioxide
Figure 3.3 Absorption of light and
carbon dioxide in leaf

Cuticle Stomata

Upper Chloroplast
Phloem
epidermis

Mesophyll

Lower
epidermis
Vascular
bundle Stomata
Stoma Guard cell
Figure 3.4 Internal structure of leaf

4. The thick layer of mesophyll can make maximum food for the plant.
5. The vascular bundles in leaves are divided into small branches which
spread in the whole leaf forming a network, so that water and food can

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 General Science 6

easily be transported to every part of the leaf.

The above mentioned characteristics of the leaves make them most suitable for
photosynthesis.
Do you know?

· When guard cells of stoma absorb water, they swell up and make the stoma open.
When guard cells release water, the stoma is closed.

· Generally stomata remain open during day time and are closed at night.

3.4.2 Prove that photosynthesis occurs in leaf

Glucose is made during photosynthesis and converted into starch which is
stored in different parts of the plant including leaves. The presence of starch in a
leaf proves that photosynthesis takes place in the leaf. The presence of starch in
the leaf can be checked by iodine test. For this observe activity 3.1.
Activity 3.1

Iodine Test
Iodine solution is yellow in colour. When one or two drops of iodine solution are added in
starch solution, the colour of iodine solution changes to dark blue.

Material Required
Iodine solution, Green leaves of a plant, Alcohol, Petri Dish, Test Tube, Beaker (500 mL), Gas
Burner or Spirit Lamp, Tripod Stand, Wire Gauze and Dropper.
Beaker
Procedure
Green leaf
1. Half fill a beaker (500mL) with water. Put wire
Water
gauze on the tripod stand and place the
beaker containing water on it.

2. Heat the water in the beaker with the help of Stand

gas burner or spirit lamp till the water starts Spirit
lamp
boiling.

3. Keep a green leaf dipped in boiling water for 2 Figure 3.5 Heating green leaf
to 3 minutes (Figure 3.5). in boiling water

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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

Test tube
4. Half fill a test tube with alcohol.
Green leaf
5. Remove the leaf from boiling
water and dip it in the alcohol in Beaker Alcohol
the test tube.
Water Alcohol
6. Keep the test tube along with
the leaf in boiling water for a few
minutes, so that chlorophyll Stand
dissolves in alcohol (Figure 3.6). Spirit
lamp
7. Remove the leaf from alcohol
and again dip it in boiling
Figure 3.6 Heating leaf in alcohol
water so that it becomes soft
(Figure 3.7).

8. Place the leaf in a petri dish and

spread it (Figure 3.8).

9. Pour a few drops of iodine

solution on the leaf with the
help of a dropper.

10. You will observe that the colour

of the iodine solution becomes
dark blue. Figure 3.7 Heating leaf again
in boiling water
Result
Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves.
The glucose made during Figure 3.8 Leaf spread in petri dish
photosynthesis is converted into starch.

3.5 RESPIRATION IN PLANTS

The process of producing energy from food in living organisms is called
respiration. This process takes place in all cells of organisms. The mitochondria
present in the cells perform this function. So that is why, mitochondria are called
power house of the cell.
During respiration, oxygen gas reacts with food molecules to produce

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energy, which is used in the growth and other functions of the body. This
reaction can be explained by the following equation.
Oxygen + Glucose Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
This process continues all the time in living organisms. In plants, the
oxygen required for respiration comes from photosynthesis during the day time
and the surplus oxygen is released in the atmosphere through stomata. As the
photosynthesis does not take place at night, hence plants absorb oxygen from
the atmosphere through the stomata.
3.5.1 The Importance of Respiration in Plants
Plants do exchange gases with environment like animal but this process
in plants is reversible. During day time, plants prepare glucose and oxygen by
photosynthesis and use in respiration. In this process oxygen and water are
produced whereas carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere.
Photosynthesis process stops at night. Plants absorb oxygen from atmosphere
and release carbon dioxide and water.
Plants are also regarded as natural lungs (natural oxygen-making factory)
because they release oxygen to the atmosphere and absorb carbon dioxide.
Thus one should not sleep under trees during night.
Interesting Information

· Plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen during day time, whereas, at night,
they absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide.
· In plants, exchange of gases takes place through stomata, whereas, in the animals this
work is performed by the lungs.

Brain Teaser

· Compare the functions of chloroplast and mitochondria.

· Why should not one sleep under a tree at night?

3.5.2 Comparison and Contrast between Photosynthesis and

Respiration
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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

1. Photosynthesis takes place in green plants, algae and some bacteria,

whereas, respiration takes place in all living things.
2. Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplast present in the plant cells, algae
and some bacteria, whereas, respiration takes place in mitochondria
present in the cells of all the organisms.
3. Photosynthesis and respiration are two opposite reactions.
Photosynthesis uses sunlight energy to prepare food, whereas, in
respiration process energy is produced from food which is used for
growth and performing all functions of living organisms.
4. The products of photosynthesis (substances made during this porcess),
i.e., glucose and oxygen are the reactants of respiration (substances
taking part in the respiration).
5. The products of respiration, i.e., carbon dioxide and water are the
reactants of photosynthesis.
A comparison and contrast between photosynthesis and respiration is
given in the following table.
Reactants or Products Photosynthesis Respiration

Carbon dioxide is used. is released.

Oxygen is released. is used.

Water is used. is released.

Energy is used. is released.

Activity 3.2

For this activity we will need a plant in pot with large leaves, black paper, pair of scissors and tape.

· Take two pieces of black paper. Prepare stencils by writing 'A' on one piece and 'B' on
the other using scissor.
· Fix these two pieces on two leaves using tape.

· Place the pot in sunshine for few days and water it regularly.

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· Remove pieces of black paper after few days.

· Now examine these two leaves and the remaining leaves.

· Why did the colour of these leaves change?
KEY POINTS

1. Living things need energy to live which they obtain from food.
2. The process of preparing food in plants is called photosynthesis which
takes place in the presence of sunlight.
3. Most of the photosynthesis takes place in the leaves of the plants. The
products of photosynthesis are food and oxygen.
4. The important internal parts of a leaf are epidermis, mesophyll and
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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

vascular bundles.
5. Epidermis is a protective layer which protects the internal parts of the leaf.
The upper epidermis contains wax like layer called cuticle which prevents
the loss of water from the leaf.
6. The tiny pores present in the lower epidermis of the leaf are called
stomata. The exchange of gases takes place through stomata.
7. Chloroplast present in the mesophyll tissue contains chlorophyll due to
which photosynthesis takes place in the mesophyll to produce food.
8. Vascular bundles contain xylem and phloem tissues which transport
different materials in the plants. Xylem tissues transport water from roots
to leaves. Phloem tissues transport food from leaves to other parts of the
plant.
9. Light, carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and temperature are factors
affecting the photosynthesis.
10. The flat blades of the leaves, a large number of stomata in the lower
epidermis, thick layer of mesophyll, division of vascular bundles into
branches and spreading in different parts of the leaves are the
characteristics which make the leaves most suitable organs for
photosynthesis.
11. The presence of starch in the leaf proves that photosynthesis takes place
in the leaves. The presence of starch in the leaf is checked by iodine
solution test. The yellow colour of iodine solution becomes dark blue
after reacting with starch.
12. The process of producing energy from food in the living bodies is called
respiration. Respiration takes place in mitochondria found in the cells of
the organisms. For this reason, mitochondria are called power house of
the cells.
13. During respiration, oxygen gas reacts with food molecules to produce
energy which is used for growth and other body functions of the
organisms.

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EXERCISE

3.1 Encircle the correct option.

(i) Which gas is used in photosynthesis?
a. Nitrogen b. Chlorine
b. Oxygen d. Carbon dioxide
(ii) Which substance reacts with carbon dioxide to produce glucose
during photosynthesis?
a. Oxygen b. Starch
c. Water d. Nitrogen
(iii) Which substance reacts with glucose to produce energy during
respiration?
a. Oxygen b. Chlorophyll
c. Water d. Light
(iv) What is the cause of green colour in plants?
a. Chloroplast b. Chlorophyll
c. Glucose d. Haemoglobin
(v) Which tissue transports water from roots to leaves in plants?
a. Xylem b. Phloem
c. Upper epidermis d. Lower epidermis
3.2 Fill in the blanks.
(i) The process of making food in plants is called __________.
(ii) Vascular bundles consist of __________ and __________ tissues.
(iii) The exchange of gases in leaves takes place through _________.
(iv) Photosynthesis takes place due to the presence of __________ in the
leaf.
(v) The process of __________ continues whole life in all living

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Chapter 1: Cellular Organization
of Plants and Animals

organisms.
3.3 Identify true and false statements.
(i) Epidermis protects internal parts of leaf.
(ii) In plants, water is transported from roots to leaves through
phloem tissue.
(iii) Photosynthesis process is not possible without carbon dioxide.
(iv) Thick layer of mesophyll can make maximum food for the plant.
(v) Yellow colour of iodine solution changes into dark green colour
after reacting with starch.
3.4 Write short answers
(i) Define respiration.
(ii) In which reaction carbon dioxide and water are reactants and in
which they are products?
(iii) Why chlorophyll is essential for a plant?
(iv) Which part of a leaf resembles with your skin in its function?
(v) Which characteristics of a leaf make it best for photosynthesis?
3.5 Write short notes on the following.
Epidermis, mesophyll, xylem, phloem
3.6 Match the terms of column A with the statements of column B.

A B

Stomata Preparation of food in plants

Chlorophyll Process of producing energy from food in plants

Phloem Exchange of gases

Photosynthesis Transportation of food to different parts of the plant

Respiration Green coloured pigment

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 General Science 6

Vascular bundles

3.7 Illustrate the internal structure of a leaf with a diagram and explain its
different parts.
3.8 Compare and contrast the photosynthesis and respiration.
3.9 How different factors affect the process of photosynthesis?
3.10 Think and answer. You can also get help from your school library, teacher
and internet.
(i) Why the life is not possible without photosynthesis?
(ii) Why leaves are always directed towards Sun?
(iii) Mitochondria are called the power house of the cell. Why?

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Chapter
ENVIRONMENT AND
4 INTERACTIONS

After studying this chapter, the students will be able to:

þ Identify the components of environment.

þ Compare the physical factors, which make up the environment of a

desert and a rain forest.

þ Describe the relationship between biotic and abiotic components of the

environment.

þ Explain how abiotic factors affect the ability of plants to create their own
food.

þ Describe that living things depend on one another for food, shelter and
protection.

þ Explain the different relationships between organisms.

þ Give examples of how organisms interact with each other and with non-
living parts of their environment.

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Chapter 4: Environment and
Interactions

Introduction
Living and non-living things found in our surrounding are the part of our
environment. Living things get all the necessities of life from their environment.
Environment provides living things with food, water, air, light, suitable
temperature and place to live. In this way, the living and non-living things of an
environment are closely related to each other. In this chapter, we will make a
comprehensive study of the relationships between living and non-living things
of the environment. Physical factors developing different kinds of environments
will be compared. Preparation of food and interdependence of living things for
food, shelter and protection would also be discussed.
4.1 COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
The organisms like plants, animals, microorganisms and non-living things
like soil, water, air and light are the part of its environment. Living things depend
upon other living and non-living things. Natural balance of non-living things in
the environment is due to the living things. Living and non-living things are the
two basic components of the environment. The living components of the
environment are called biotic components and the non-living components are
called abiotic components.
4.1.1 Biotic Components of Environment
The biotic components of an environment consist of plants, animals and
microorganisms. The living things in an environment depend upon one another
for obtaining food. They are classified into the following three types.
(i) Producers (ii) Consumers (iii) Decomposers
(i) Producers
Plants or algae found in an
environment prepare their own
food by photosynthesis and are
thus termed as producers. All
living things use food made by the
producers.
Figure 4.1 Producers (Plants)
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 General Science 6

(ii) Consumers
Animals cannot prepare their own food. They depend upon the food
prepared by plants. Thus they are called consumers. The animals which eat
plants only are called herbivores. For example; cow, goat, horse, etc. The animals
which eat the meat of other animals are called carnivores. For example; dog, cat,
lion, etc. The animals which eat both plants and animals are called omnivores.
For example man, crow, hen, bear, etc.

Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores

Figure 4.2 Consumers

Do you know?
An elephant is the biggest and giraffe is the tallest herbivore.

(iii) Decomposers
Bacteria and fungi are the organisms which decompose (break down) the
complex compounds of dead bodies and make them part of soil after converting
into useful simpler substances. They also get their food. For this reason bacteria
and fungi are called decomposers. Decomposers
play a key role in any environment. If there are no
decomposers, the dead bodies cannot be
decomposed and all food substances will remain
intact in the dead bodies of animals and plants
without becoming the part of the soil again. As a
result the soil will become infertile and plants will
not be able to prepare food. If there is no food,
there will be no life. Figure 4.3 Decomposers

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Chapter 4: Environment and
Interactions

4.2 ABIOTIC COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT

Abiotic components of an environment consist of non-living factors such
as soil, water, air, light, temperature, etc. They are closely related with biotic
components, i.e., abiotic and biotic factors affect each other.
1. Soil
Soil is an abiotic component of the environment. It has a close
relationship with living things. Plants absorb water and nutrients from the soil
and prepare food. All living things depend upon the food prepared by the
plants. Soil is also a habitat of a number of living things. A lot of animals, e.g.,
snake, rat, frog, tortoise and insects, etc., make holes in the soil to live. Soil
provides them shelter, food and air.
Soil is dependent on bacteria and
fungi for maintenance of its fertility.
Bacteria and fungi decompose the
dead bodies and make them the part
of soil after converting them into
simpler substances. In this way the
fertility of the soil is maintained
permanently. Earthworms make the
soil soft and fertile. The soft soil can Figure 4.4 Fertile soil
easily absorb air and water.
2. Water
Water is the most important component of the environment. Life on the
Earth is possible only because of water. It is an essential part of all living bodies.
Plants use it in preparation of food, animals drink it and people use it for washing
and bathing purposes. A large number of living things (fish etc.) live in water.
They obtain food and oxygen from water. The abundance of plants and
animals in rain forests are due to the
Think for a while!
plenty of water there. The scanty
population of living things in the What will happen to the fish and
other aquatic life if there is no water?
deserts is due to the scarcity of water.

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 General Science 6

The presence of water vapours in the air keeps it temperate and moist.
3. Air
Living things cannot live without air. The life is solely dependent on the
presence of gases in the air especially oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
Oxygen is used in respiration. Without respiration, living things cannot obtain
energy from food. Carbon dioxide is a basic requirement of photosynthesis
without which preparation of food is not possible. Nitrogen makes the soil
fertile. Bacteria present in the Mixing of atmospheric Atmosphere
Absorption of carbon
soil and plant roots convert the nitrogen in soil in the dioxide in the leaves
form of nitrogenous Release of oxygen
nitrogen of the air into usable compounds from plant leaves
Absorption of
compounds for the plants. water and
Plants grow on the soil and dissolved
nitrogenous
prepare food. So the whole compounds
through roots
biotic component of the
environment is completely
dependent upon the air. On the Soil
other hand, living things
maintain the natural balance of Figure 4.5Exchange of gases in plants

gases in the air. Plants release

oxygen in air and all animals release carbon dioxide in the air.
Photosynthesis
4. Light
Light
Like air and water, light is Releases in
atmosphere,
also an essential requirement of
Chlorophyll Oxygen
the biotic components of the absorbs light
environment. All living things
need light. Sunlight is needed Starch

for photosynthesis process. Food is stored in

different parts of
Plants cannot prepare food the plant
Roots absorb water
without sunlight. If there is no and transport it to Carbon dioxide
light in an environment no food leaves Carbon dioxide is absorbed
Water into leaf through stomata
will be prepared there. No food
Figure 4.6 Importance of light
no life. Animals also need light
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Chapter 4: Environment and
Interactions

to see and search food

therefore light has a close
relationship with living things.
5. Temperature
Temperature is an important abiotic component of the environment.
Suitable temperature is the most essential requirement for living things to live
and grow in an environment. Winter plants cannot grow in summer and summer
plants cannot grow in winter due to difference of temperature. Temperature has
also a profound effect on the climate.
The water from surface of the seas, rivers and lakes turn into vapours due
to rise in temperature. Water vapours form clouds which causes rain and water is
supplied on different parts of the Earth. In this way, the organisms living on
different parts of the Earth can meet their need of water. Living things are also a
cause of increase in temperature on Earth. The living things release carbon
dioxide in the environment. Carbon dioxide present in the air absorbs heat
Think for a while!
released by earth to keep the environment warm.

1. What will happen if there is a permanent increase in the amount of carbon dioxide
in the environment?

2. How4.1
Activity can we reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the environment?

(i) Observe the environment in your surrounding carefully and identify its biotic and
abiotic factors.

(ii) Illustrate with the help of a diagram the relationship between the biotic and abiotic
factors of the environment.

4.3 COMPARISON OF FACTORS MAKING DESERT

ENVIRONMENT AND RAIN FOREST
ENVIRONMENT
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 General Science 6

Abiotic factors such as water, light, temperature, air and soil, etc., are the
causes of physical factors, i.e., hotness, coldness, dryness, moisture or rains, etc.,
in the environment. Physical factors of one environment can be different from
those of the other environment. For example, the physical factors of an aquatic
environment are different from those of the desert environment due to excess of
water. Similarly other factors can be different.

Desert environment Rain forest environment

Physical Factor Desert Environment Rain Forest Environment

Water Little rainfall makes the The rain forest environment has
deserts hot and dry. wet places and moist climate due
Photosynthesis process is to heavy rains. The photosynthesis
slow due to the shortage of process is fast and there is
water and hence food is abundance of food.
always rare.

Light Direct heat of sunlight Due to thick forests, the Earth's

makes the deserts very hot surface remains under shade and
during day time. Animals moist giving cold surrounding.
keep themselves hidden Leaves of the plants get plenty of
underground or in shady light and photosynthesis process
places during day time. remains fast resulting in maximum
However, rats, snakes and food production. That is why there
owls, etc. come out in search is abundance of animals and
of food at night. plants in the rain forests.

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Chapter 4: Environment and
Interactions

Physical Factor Desert Environment Rain Forest Environment

Temperature During day time the The temperature remains almost

temperature remains high constant i.e. there is no significant
due to intense sunlight. difference between day and night
However, at night, the temperatures.
temperature drops.

Air Air has little moisture. Very Air is rich in moisture. During day
often, wind storms appear time, amount of oxygen increases
at night. The proportions and that of carbon dioxide decreases
of oxygen and carbon due to photosynthesis. Wind storms
dioxide remain constant. rarely appear.

Soil Soil remains dry and is The soil is moist and more fertile.
sandy and rocky. The soil is That is why a lot of plants grow and
less fertile. flourish. Animals also find food and
shelter.

Brain Teaser

Figure 4.7

A comparison of physical factors of desert environment and the rain forest

environment is given in the following table.
Interesting Information
Insects make hustle and bustle around the illuminated bulbs in the summer evenings but not
in the winter evenings. Why?

¤ Some animals, e.g., earthworm and cockroach, etc. avoid the light and like to live in dark.
¤ A number of desert animals are not seen moving around in the day time. They keep
themselves hidden due to heat. However, they come out at night in search of food. They
are called nocturnal. Animals which search food in the day time are called diurnal.
¤ Do youDesert”
“Sahara know? is the world's largest desert and located in Africa.

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Activity 4.2

The interactive system developed between the biotic and abiotic factors of an environment is
called ecosystem.

1.
Brain Observe
Teaser a pond in your locality along with your teacher and identify its biotic and
abiotic components.
2. Draw and label the diagram of pond ecosystem in your notebook and label it.

Both the Moon and the Earth get light from the Sun. There is life on the Earth but not on the
Moon. Point out the abiotic factors on the Earth which are responsible for life on the Earth and
there is no life on Moon due to their absence.

4.4 ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING THE FOOD

PRODUCTION ABILITY OF PLANTS
Abiotic factors of the environment deeply affect the process of
photosynthesis in plants. In the presence of abundant supply of water and
carbon dioxide, suitable temperature and bright light, the process of
photosynthesis takes place at a fast rate. As a result food is formed and the
plants grow well. In case of decrease or lack of any one of these abiotic factors,
the rate of photosynthesis is affected and the required amount of food is not
formed. For example the rate of photosynthesis in desert plants is extremely
slow due to the shortage of water resulting in less food formation. That is why
fewer plants grow in the deserts. On the other hand, there is plenty of water in
the rain forests, photosynthesis takes place at fast rate and more food is formed.
This is the reason of thick growth of plants in rain forests.
In addition to water and carbon dioxide, light also affects the process of
photosynthesis. Due to dim light in the morning and the evening times,
photosynthesis takes place slowly and less food is formed. During other times of

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Chapter 4: Environment and
Interactions

the day, there is intense light which results in higher photosynthesis rate and
much food is formed. As there is no light at night, therefore photosynthesis
Activity
stops 4.3and no food is formed.
at night
Temperature also affects the photosynthesis. A suitable temperature
o o
(25 C – 30 C) is required for this process.

Ÿ Go to a garden and examine its soil.

Ÿ Do you see small animals and plants?
Ÿ Dig the moist soil of garden to some depth and observe.
Ÿ Did you see some insects?
Ÿ Write the names of these insects in your notebook.
Ÿ Now search a tiny plant in the garden and remove it with roots. Bring it to your class room
and observe.
Ÿ Did the leaves of plant fade? Why did it happen so?
Ÿ Seek guidance from your teacher and prove that soil is important for living things.

4.5 DEPENDANCE OF LIVING THINGS ON ONE

ANOTHER FOR FOOD, SHELTER AND PROTECTION
Living things of an environment depend upon one another for food,
shelter and protection. Let us see how?
(i) Getting Food
As we have already learnt that the decomposers get food by breaking
down the dead bodies into simpler substances but also increases the fertility of
soil and nutrition for plants. Thus, plants depend on decomposers, i.e., bacteria

Do you know?

Green plants prepare their own food. Some animals eat food prepared by plants.
Some animals eat other animals. This sequence is called food chain.

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 General Science 6

Goat
Lion
Wolf

Hawk

Hare

Plant
Snake
Rat

Figure 4.8Food for animals (Food chain)

and fungi. Plants prepare food by photosynthesis and all living things depend
directly or indirectly upon food made by plants. Herbivores eat plants directly.
Carnivores eat other animals. Omnivores eat both plants and animals. In this
way, living things depend on one another for getting food as illustrated in figure
4.8.
(ii) Shelter
Living things provide place to live i.e. shelter
Figure 4.9 Owl
to one another. Many birds, e.g., sparrow, crow,
hawk, etc., make nests on the trees and also get
benefit from the shadow of the trees. Some birds,
e.g., owl etc., make holes in the stems of the trees
and live there. Ants and butterflies also live on the
trees and flowers.
(iii) Protection Figure 4.10 Parrot

Activity 4.4
Observe your food daily and tell the names of various animals and plants from which this food is
obtained. Paste the pictures with names of these on a chart and display this chart in the class room.

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Chapter 4: Environment and
Interactions

Living things depend on other living things

to get protection from their enemies. For example;
parrot hides itself in green leaves of the tree and
look like leaves. Grasshopper gets benefit of green
colour of grass and hides in the grass.
4.6 RELATIONSHIPS AMONG ORGANISMS
1. Predation
Some animals, e.g., lion, tiger, wolf, fox, hawk,
snake, spider, shark, etc., hunt other animals.
They attack and get their food by killing them. Figure 4.11 Predator and prey

Such animals are called predators. The animals

which
Brainare attacked by the predators are called
Teaser
preys. Deer, rabbit, fly, fish, frog, rat, etc., are the
examples of preys. The relationship between
predators and preys is termed as predation.

(i) Identify the predator and prey from cat and chick.
(ii) Identify the predator and prey from hen and earthworm.
(iii) Frog is both a predator and a prey. Explain.
(iv) Give any other example of predator and prey if you have in your mind.

2. Parasitism
Parasitism is a relationship between organisms like the host and the guest. In
this relation, one organism lives in the body of the other organism to obtain
food. Such an organism is called parasite. The organism in the body of which the
Parasites
parasite lives is called host. Parasite gets the benefit and host provides the
benefit. Such a relationship between the parasite and the host is termed as
parasitism. There are a lot of organisms which have developed parasitism. For
example; malarial parasite (plasmodium)
enters the human blood via mosquito bite Figure 4.12 Disease causing parasites
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 General Science 6

Brain Teaser

and lives there as a parasite. Man becomes its

host. Similarly, tapeworm lives in human
intestine as parasite and causes diseases.
Many types of bacteria and fungi also live in
animals and plants as parasites and cause
diseases.
(i) Can you tell the name of the parasite which lives in the gut of female mosquito
(Anopheles)?
(ii) Identify the parasite and the host from lice
and human being.

3. Mutualism
Mutualism is a friendly relationship
between two organisms, where both
organisms live together and provide
benefit to each other. The relationship
between the butterfly and the flowering
plant is the best example of mutualism. Figure 4.13 Mutualism between a
Butterfly sucks nectar from the flower. Honey butterfly and a flower
bee and butterfly also help in pollination of t
he flowering plants. They fly from one flower to another and the pollen grains
which are stuck to their bodies from stamen of first flower are transferred to the
carpel of the other flower. The transfer of pollen grains from the stamen of one
flower to the carpel of another flower is called pollination.
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY
AND living
Bacteria ENVIRONMENT
in plant roots also develop mutualism with the plants. They are
benefited by getting food from plant root and also provide benefit to plant by
converting nitrogen into usable compounds for plants.

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Chapter 4: Environment and
Interactions

In the field of agriculture, Japan has helped a lot in overcoming the shortage of
food by introducing a modern technology called effective microorganisms (EM).
KEY POINTS
This is a highly effective germ solution which brings beneficial effects on crop
lands. Due to this technology farmers can enhance their income from various
crops. Use of fertilizers has become almost negligible by EM technology.

1. All living and non-living things present in our surrounding make our
environment.
2. The two main components of the environment are called biotic and the
abiotic.
3. The biotic components of the environment include all living organisms.
Plants prepare food and are termed as producers. Animals consume the
food prepared by plants and are termed as consumers. Bacteria and fungi
break down the dead bodies and are termed as decomposers.
4. The abiotic components of the environment include non-living things
like air, water, light, soil, temperature, etc.
5. Abiotic factors of an environment are the causes of physical factors. For
example in desert environment, dryness and hardness are caused by the
shortage of water. In rain forests, the abundance of plants and animals is
due to enough water and rainfall.
6. Biotic and abiotic factors of the environment are closely related with each
other. For example, light is an abiotic factor but it is most useful for the
biotic factors. In the absence of light there will be no photosynthesis and
plants cannot prepare food. Animals cannot survive without food.
Similarly, other abiotic factors such as water, air, soil and suitable
temperature are also essential for the biotic factors of the environment.
On the other hand, biotic factors play key roles in maintaining the natural
balances of abiotic factors in the environment.

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 General Science 6

7. Abiotic factors such as water, carbon dioxide and suitable temperature

affect the food producing ability of plants.
8. The relationship of living things with one another is essential for getting
food and other necessities of life. Predation, parasitism and mutualism
are the examples of such relationships.
9. The animals which hunt and kill other animals for food are called
predators, for example; lion, tiger, wolf, snake, shark etc. The animals
which are hunted by the predators are called preys. Deer, frog, rat, fish etc.
are the examples of preys. This relationship between the predator and the
prey is termed as predation.
10. The organisms which live in the bodies of other organisms for getting
food are called parasites. The organisms in the bodies of which parasites
live are called host. A louse is a parasite and man is its host. Bacteria living
in the bodies of men and other organisms are also the examples of
parasites. The relationship between the parasite and the host is termed as
parasitism.
11. Mutualism is a friendly relationship between two organisms. For this
relation, they live together and benefit from each other. The relationship
EXERCISE
between the butterfly and flowering plant is the best example of
mutualism. Butterfly sucks the nectar from flowers and in turn it helps in
pollination of the flowering plants.

4.1 Encircle the correct option.

(i) Bacteria and fungi are:
a. herbivores b. carnivores
b. omnivores d. decomposers
(ii) Which organisms are called producers?
a. plants b. bacteria
c. fungi d. animals
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Chapter 4: Environment and
Interactions

(iii) Which type of animal the horse is?

a. herbivore b. carnivore
c. omnivore d. decomposer
(iv) What are lice?
a. predators b. preys
c. parasites d. hosts
(v) What is the relationship between lion and deer?
a. predation b. parasitism
c. mutualism d. no relation
4.2 Fill in the blanks.
(i) The living components of the environment are called __________.
(ii) Bacteria and fungi are called __________.
(iii) The suitable temperature for photosynthesis is from __________ to
__________.
(iv) The animals which eat plants only are called ____________.
(v) The relationship between the butterfly and the flowering plant is
the best example of __________.
4.3 Identify true and false statements.
(i) Animals eat food prepared by plants. They are called producers.
(ii) Soil depends on organisms like bacteria and fungi for revival of its
fertility.
(iii) Due to shortage of water, the physical factors of aquatic
environment are similar to desert environment.
(iv) Living things depend on other living things to get protection from
their enemies.
(v) The relationship between organisms like the host and the guest is
called mutualism.
4.4 Write short answers.
(i) What are abiotic factors?
(ii) What are the physical factors of a desert environment?
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 General Science 6

(iii) What is meant by parasitism?

(iv) Fewer plants grow in a desert environment. What is the reason?
(v) Why does parrot often sit in tree leaves?
4.5 Match the terms given in column A with relevant statements of column B.

A B

Bacteria and fungi Desert environment

Less fertility Mutualism

Malaria, fever Carnivores

Friendly relationship between organisms Decomposer

Crow and bear Plasmodium

Omnivores

4.6 Write preys of the predators.

Predator Prey Predator Prey
Cat Lizard
Snake Hen
Wolf Tiger
Hawk Shark
Dog Owl
4.7 Why the decomposers are important in the environment?
4.8 Differentiate between the physical factors of a desert and a rain forest.
4.9 Which factors affect the food making ability of plants and how?
4.10 Give examples of dependence of living things on one another for food,
shelter and protection.
4.11 What is the function of soil, air, water and temperature as the biotic
component s of an environment.
4.12 Think and answer. You can also get help from your school library, teacher
and internet.

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 General Science 6

Chapter Atom, Molecules,

5 Mixture and Compounds

O
H

After studying this chapter, the students will be able t:

þ Differentiate between an atom and a molecule.
þ Recognize the symbols some common elements.
þ Classify elements into metals and non-metals.
þ Relate the physical properties of elements to their uses.
þ Differentiate between elements and compounds and compounds and
mixtures.
þ Identify examples of compounds and mixtures from their surroundings.
þ Explain uses of common mixtures in daily life.
þ Explain why air is considered as a mixture of gases.
þ Identify the sources of carbon dioxide and how its level can be maintained in
nature.
þ Separate mixtures using variety of techniques.
þ Choose a technique to separate and identify different components in dyes.
þ Demonstrate with an experiment to separate soluble solids from mixtures.
þ Use safety measures to conduct science experiments.

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Chapter 5: Atom, Molecules, Mixture
and Compounds

Introduction
Everything found in universe is made up of matter. The things in our
surrounding look different from one another because they are made up of
different kinds of matter. Some objects are made of iron, some of wood and
some are made of plastic. Jewellery is made of gold or silver. Tea consists of
water, milk, sugar and tea leaves. Air is a mixture of different gases. Have you
ever thought why gold, silver, iron, wood, plastic, water and air, etc., are different
from one another? If all objects are made of matter then why are not all these
things similar? In order to search the answer of all these questions, in this
chapter we will learn about basic particles of matter, i.e., atoms, molecules,
different kinds of matter, i.e., elements, compounds and mixtures. In this chapter,
we will also learn the techniques to separate the components of the mixtures.
5.1 ATOMS AND MOLECULES
Matter consists of tiny particles which are called atoms. Hydrogen atom,
Helium atom and Carbon atom can be explained in the following figures.

Hydrogen atom Helium atom Carbon atom

Figure 5.1

Atoms are extremely small particles of matter which may (He) or may not
(H,C) exist independently. Atoms combine chemically to form groups which are
called molecules. Molecule is that particle of matter which can exist

Hydrogen molecule Water molecule Methane molecule

Figure 5.2
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 General Science 6

independently. Different gases in our surrounding air, i.e., Oxygen, Nitrogen,

Carbon dioxide and water vapours are found in the form of molecules. Hydrogen
and Methane gases also exist in molecular form.

Interesting Information
· The word atom means “indivisible” but now the scientists have discovered that atom
also consists of many small particles.
· Three important particles of an atom are proton, neutron and electron.
· Protons are found in the central part of the atom called nucleus. They carry positive
charge on them.
· Neutrons are also found in the nucleus. They carry no charge.
· Electrons move around the nucleus in different orbits. They carry negative charge on
them.

5.2 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

There are three types of matter.
5.2.1 Element
An element is the simplest form of matter consisting of similar atoms. The
number of naturally occurring elements is 92. Iron, gold, silver, carbon, sulphur,
etc., are the examples of elements.

Iron nails Gold bars Silver ring Carbon (coal)

Figure 5.3 Objects made of different elements

5.2.1.1 Symbols of Elements

An element is usually represented by the first capital letter or first letter
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Chapter 5: Atom, Molecules, Mixture
and Compounds

combined with second letter of its English or Latin name. The letters which are
used to represent the elements are called their symbols. In symbol of an element
the first letter is capital and second letter is small. The symbol represents an
atom of the element. Following table shows the symbols of some important
elements.
(a)
Table 5.1 Names and symbols of some important elements
Element Symbol Element Symbol

Argentum (Silver) Ag Hygragyrum (Mercury) Hg

Aurum (Gold) Au Kalium (Potassium) K

Cuprum (Copper) Cu Natrium (Sodium) Na

Ferrom (Iron) Fe Neon Ne

(b)

Element Symbol Element Symbol

Aluminium Al Iodine I

Argon A Magnesium Mg

Bromine Br Neon Ne

Calcium Ca Nickel Ni

Carbon C Nitrogen N

Chloride Cl Oxygen O

Fluorine F Phosphorus P

Helium He Zinc Zn

Hydrogen H

5.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

Elements are classified into two major classes.
1. Metals 2. Non-metals
1. Metals
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Elements which are good conductors of heat and electricity are called
metals. Metals are found in solid form except mercury (Hg) which is in liquid
form. About 70% of the known elements are metals. Iron, Gold, Silver, Copper,
Aluminium, Mercury, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Zinc, Nickel etc.
are common examples of metals.
2. Non-Metals
Elements other than metals are called non-metals. Majority of non-
metals except graphite are non-conductor of electricity. Graphite (an allotrope
of carbon) is a good conductor of electricity. Non-metals exist in all three
physical states i.e. solid, liquid and gas at room temperature. Hydrogen, Helium,
Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Neon, Argon,
Sulphur and Phosphorus, etc., are the examples of non-metals.
Properties Metals Non-Metals
Physical state All metals except mercury occur in Non-metals exist in all the three physical
solid form at room temperature. states at room temperature.

Hardness All metals except mercury are hard Kalium (Potassium)

and in solid form.
Luster Metals have shiny surfaces. The surface of all solid non-metals
except diamond (which is an allotrope of
carbon), graphite, silicon and iodine, is
not shiny.
Melting and Metals have high melting and Non-metals have low melting and
boiling points boiling points boiling points
Strength Metals are strong. They are not Non-metals are brittle i.e. they break
brittle. When subjected to into pieces when subjected to pressure.
pressure, They expands along This is the reason that plates and wires
sides. This is the reason that plates cannot be made from them.
and wires are made from them.
Conductivity Metals are good conductors of Majority of non-metals are non
heat and electricity. conductor of electricity. However,
graphite (an allotrope of carbon) is a
good conductor of electricity.

Alloy Metals are used to make alloys. Alloys cannot be made from non-metals.
formation

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Chapter 5: Atom, Molecules, Mixture
and Compounds

5.3.1 Comparison of Properties of Metals and Non-Metals

5.3.2 Uses of Metals
1. Mercury is a metal which exists in liquid state. It expands on heating and
contracts on cooling. That is why it is used in thermometers to measure
the temperature.

Thermometer Mercury
Figure 5.4

Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6 Figure 5.7

Railway line Surgical instruments Aluminium windows

2. Metals are hard. For this reason they

are used to make railway line, bridge,
ships, steel and surgical instruments.
3. The surface of metals is shiny. That is
why they are used in making
ornamental and decorative objects.
For example, doors and windows are
made from aluminium. Jewellery is Figure 5.8 Cooking utensils

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made from gold and silver.

4. Due to high melting and boiling points, metals like iron, aluminium and
copper etc. are used to make cooking utensils.
5. Metals are used to make plates and wires. Usually, iron is used to make
plates and copper and aluminum are used to make electric wires and
other equipment.

Figure 5.9
Copper and aluminium wires Figure 5.10 Iron plates Figure 5.11 Electric wires

6. Formation of alloys is an important property of metals. In order to make

an alloy, molten metals in different proportions are mixed up uniformly.
Alloys are more strong and durable than metals. They are rust resistant
and are used to make different objects. German silver is an alloy which is
made from copper, zinc and nickel. It is used in Jewellery. Brass is also an
alloy which is made from copper and zinc.

5.3.2 Uses of Non-metals

(i) Carbon, sulphur and phosphorus are the examples of solid non-metals.
Diamond and graphite are the most important allotropic forms of carbon.
Diamond is the hardest matter found on the Earth. It is shiny and is used
in ornaments. It is also used to cut the glass.

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Chapter 5: Atom, Molecules, Mixture
and Compounds

Figure 5.12 Diamond and its use in jewelery

1. Graphite is soft and good conductor of

electricity. It is used as electrodes in
batteries. It leaves spot when rubbed on
the paper. That is why it is used in making
Figure 5.13 Lead pencil
pencils.

2. Sulphur is used to make different

chemical compounds like hydrogen
sulphide and sulphuric acid. Use of
phosphorus in match box industry is very Figure 5.14 Match sticks

common.

3. Welders use hydrogen, carbon and

oxygen to cut and weld the metals.
4. Hydrogen and nitrogen are used to
prepare ammonia fertilizer. Hydrogen gas
is also used to prepare banaspati ghee
from vegetable oil. Figure5.15 Metal welding

Interesting Information

In daily life non-metals in gaseous form are used widely. Oxygen present in the air is used by
living things for respiration. Nitrogen increases the soil fertility and is used in plants to make
food containing protein.

Do you know?

The third group of elements is called metalloids. This group consists of only few elements, i.e.,
boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium. They possess properties of both
the metals and non-metals. Most of the metalloids are bad conductors of electricity but

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become conductor like metals when they are heated. They are used to make industrial goods
like transistors and semiconductors.

5.4 COMPOUNDS
Two or more than two elements are combined chemically in a fixed ratio
to form a compound. The properties of a compound are entirely different from
those of the elements which form it. For example, hydrogen and chlorine are
chemically combined to form hydrogen chloride. Hydrogen chloride is a
compound. It is represented by HCl. The properties of hydrogen chloride are
different from hydrogen and chlorine. Similarly, water is also a compound, which
is formed from hydrogen and oxygen. Two hydrogen atoms combine chemically
with one oxygen atom to form one molecule of water. The formula for water is
H2O. Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen. Its formula is NH3. The
number of hydrogen atoms in each molecule of hydrogen chloride (Hcl), water
(H2O) and ammonia (NH3) are shown in figure 5.16.

Ammonia (NH3) molecule Water (H2O) molecule Hydrogen chloride (HCl) molecule

Activity 5.1
Figure 5.16

Prepare balls of different size using clay or plasticine. Use them to make models of hydrogen
and hydrogen chloride
Interesting molecules.
Information

Ÿ Although the number of naturally occurring elements is 92. However, there are billions of
compounds which are formed from these elements.

Ÿ Elements5.2
Activity and compounds are the examples of pure substance.

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Chapter 5: Atom, Molecules, Mixture
and Compounds

Prepare a list of the compounds available in your surrounding and write any one use of each.

5.5 MIXTURES
Mixtures are impure matters. In a mixture, different kinds of elements or
compounds are physically combined without any fixed ratio and retain their
properties. The components of the mixture do not react chemically with each
other and can be separated from each other easily. Salad, ice cream, sharbat
(drink), milk and air etc. are common examples of the mixtures. There are two
kinds of mixtures.
(i) Homogeneous mixture (ii) Heterogeneous mixture
(i) Homogeneous Mixture
Take some water in a transparent glass. Add a pinch of salt, stir and place
it on the table. In this way a mixture will be prepared. Observe the mixture after
some time. You will see only transparent water in the glass.
The salt in the water will not be seen. However, on tasting
you can feel salt in water. Such a mixture whose
Figure 5.17 Homogeneous mixture
components, in spite of presence of different things, appearof salt and water
transparent is called homogeneous mixture. Sugar
solution, extract of rose and air are homogeneous mixtures.
(ii) Heterogeneous Mixture
The mixture whose components can be seen separately and clearly is
called heterogeneous mixture. Salad, fruit chat, ice cream, soil, etc., are the
examples of heterogeneous mixtures.

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Salad Fruit chat Ice cream Soil

Activity 5.3
Figure 5.18

Mixture of Iron fillings

Ÿ Take sulphur powder in a china dish and prepare a and sulphur
mixture by adding some iron filings in it.
Iron sulphide
Ÿ Move a bar magnet in the mixture.
Ÿ You will observe that the iron filings stick with the bar China dish
Magnet Wire gauze
magnet and separated from sulphur powder.
Tripod
China dish Spirit lamp

Figure 5.19

Ÿ Again mix up the iron filings with the sulphur powder in the china dish.
Ÿ Heat the mixture in the china dish with the help of burner or spirit lamp.
Ÿ The mixture of sulphur and iron will be converted into a black coloured substance.
Ÿ Let the matter cool down and move the bar magnet in it.
Ÿ Are the iron filings separated from the sulphur this time too?
Ÿ If not then why?

5.5.1 Air as a Mixture

Air is an example of homogeneous mixture in our environment. In spite of
the presence of different gases and water vapours in the air, it appears as a single
phase. The components of this mixture include nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, noble gases and different types of impurities. These components do not
react chemically with one another but they can be separated by physical
methods. That is why air is called a mixture. The reactions occurring in natural
cycles maintain the proportions of different gases in air.
5.6 USES OF COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
1. Uses of Compounds
We use different types of compounds in our daily life. For example, we
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and Compounds

drink water. Living things cannot live without water. Plants prepare food from
carbon dioxide and water. Similarly, sugar and salt are such compounds which
are the part of our food. Proteins, carbohydrates and vitamins are the important
components of our food. Marble, i.e., calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is used in the
constructions of the houses. Lime, i.e., calcium oxide (CaO) is used for white
washing of the houses. We use methane (natural gas) as fuel.
2. Uses of Mixtures
Air is a mixture of different gases. It is essential for the living things.
Oxygen of the air is used in respiration. Plants use carbon dioxide for making
food. Nitrogen creates soil fertility in lands where plants and crops grow. Alloys
which are the mixtures of different metals are used in making utensils,
machinery, pipes and different types of instruments. Drinks which we use are the
mixtures of water, sugar and different fruit extracts. During illness patients use
syrups prescribed by the doctor. These syrups are the mixtures of different
medicines. Tincture iodine is a mixture of alcohol and iodine. It is used as an
antiseptic.
5.7 SEPARATING COMPONENTS OF MIXTURES
The components of different types of mixtures can be separated by the
following methods.
1. Filtration 2. Sublimation 3. Distillation 4. Chromatography
1. Filtration
By using filtration method, the insoluble matters are separated from the
liquids with the help of filter paper. Separating tea leaves from the tea with the
Activity 5.4
help of a strainer is also called filtration. In the filtration plants, the same method
Glass rod Filthy
(filtration) is used to remove the insoluble impurities from water. water

Funnel
Filter
· Fold a filter paper twice. paper

· Open the filter paper folds in such a way that three

folds remain on one side and the fourth fold on the Stand
Beaker
other side, so that it gets the shape of a funnel.
Liquid
· Wet the inner surface of a glass funnel with water and 5.20
Figure
fit the filter paper in it. Filtration

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 General Science 6

· Fix the funnel in a stand and place an empty beaker

below it.
· Take some filthy water in a beaker and pour
it into the funnel using a glass rod as shown in the figure 5.20.
· Water will accumulate into the beaker after passing through the pores of the filter paper
and solid impurities will be left behind on the filter paper.

2. Sublimation
Certain solids like ammonium chloride, iodine, camphor and naphthalene on
heating change directly into vapours (gaseous state) without passing through
the liquid state. On cooling, these vapours transform again in solid form. The
process of changing solids directly Heating
into their gaseous states on heating is called
sublimation. If a mixture contains the substance like those mentioned above, it
Cooling
can be separated from the mixture using sublimation technique.
Activity 5.5
Solid Vapours
Cotton
swab

· Take a mixture of ammonium chloride Funnel

Solid
and sodium chloride in a china dish.
Vapours of ammonium
· Invert a glass funnel on the china dish. ammonium chloride
chloride
· Wrap the outer part of the funnel with
wet cloth and close the end of the
funnel with cotton swab.
China dish
· Place the china dish on a tripod stand
and heat the mixture with help of a Burner
Stand
burner or spirit lamp as shown in the
figure 5.21.
Figure 5.21 Sublimation
· You will observe that white fumes of
ammonium chloride come out of the
china dish and stick in the solid form
with the inner cold walls of the funnel.
· Stop heating after complete separation of ammonium chloride from the sodium
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Chapter 5: Atom, Molecules, Mixture
and Compounds

chloride (common salt).

· Remove the funnel from the china dish and collect sticked ammonium chloride on its
inner walls in a separate container.
3. Distillation
Distillation is a method of separating liquid components of the mixture. In
this process, the component of the mixture with lowest boiling point will
separate first by its transformation into vapours. These vapours are condensed
into liquid state by passing them through the condenser and are collected in a
separate
Activitycontainer.
5.6 The temperature of the mixture will not increase until the
component with lowest boiling point is separated completely from the mixture.

· Prepare a salt solution in water and pour it in a distillation flask.

· Connect a condenser with the distillation flask and set the apparatus as shown in the
figure 5.23.

· Heat the solution in distillation flask with the help of a burner or spirit lamp.

· Let cold water to pass through the outer jacket of the condenser.

· Water vapours leaving the flask enter the inner tube of the condenser. They are
liquefied after condensationInner
andtube
keepofon falling into the beaker placed below the
Thermometer condenser
Outer jacket of
condenser

Outlet Inlet for

Wire
Stand gauze for water water
Beaker
Burner
Distillation Stand
Flask

Figure 5.22 Distillation

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 General Science 6

second end of the condenser.

Interesting
· Information
In this way, salt and water are separated from the salt solution.

Ÿ Water used for injections is obtained by using distillation technique.

Ÿ In Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, sea water is passed through distillation process to make it
drinkable.

Ÿ The components of crude oil, i.e., gas, petrol, kerosene oil, diesel oil and tarcoal, etc., are
separated through distillation process.

4. Chromatography
Chromatography is derived from two words 'chrome' and 'graph' which
mean colour and measurement. The method of separating the components of
mixtures like ink or dyes is called chromatography. Chromatography works on
the principle that the components of a liquid mixture travel on the filter paper or
blotting paper with different speeds. The coloured components of liquid
mixtures
Activityappear
5.7 on different distances as they move on the filter paper. The
commonly used method is called paper chromatography.
Beaker

Alcohol
· Take a small (about 20 cm long) strip of
filter paper.
Strip of
· Draw a line about 2.5 cm from its one filter paper
end using a lead pencil.
· Put a spot of black ink on the centre of the line.
Spot of red ink
· Allow the spot of ink to dry. Spot of blue ink

· Fill a jar or beaker with alcohol. Figure 5.23 Chromatography

· Hang filter paper strip in the jar in such a
way that its spotted end should touch the
alcohol.
· You will observe that the alcohol starts moving up on the filter paper and the
components of the ink will also move up along with the alcohol on the filter paper.

1
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Chapter 5: Atom, Molecules, Mixture
and Compounds
th
· When alcohol rises about 3/4 of the length of the filter paper, remove the strip and let it
dry.
· Observe the spots of coloured components of the ink on filter paper strip.

5.8 SAFETY MEASURES TO CONDUCT SCIENCE

EXPERIMENTS
It is important to be very careful while doing science activities. The
following safety measures should be observed.
Ÿ Listen to the teacher's instructions carefully before starting the activity or
experiment.
Ÿ Use lab coat and safety glasses.
Ÿ Use the scissors or other sharp instruments carefully.
Ÿ Keep the table used for activity or experiment neat and clean.
Ÿ In case of any accident, inform your teacher at once and act upon the
teacher's instructions.
Ÿ Wash your hands after each activity.
Ÿ Neither
SCIENCE, play with fire SOCIETY
TECHNOLOGY, nor throw anything in the fire.
AND ENVIRONMENT
Ÿ Perform experiment in the presence of your teacher.

Ÿ One interesting property of metals is their ability to form alloys. Keeping in

mind these characteristics of metals, scientists have developed many alloys
after hard work of day and night. Nowadays these are used for many useful
purposes. For example German silver is an alloy, made of copper, zinc and
nickel. It is used to make peculiar and modern type of jewellery. Similarly brass
is also an alloy which is made by combining copper and zinc. It is being used
to make jewellery; pipe and nozzle.
Ÿ Sea is the largest mixture of the world. Sea water contains sodium chloride
and various other salts. Due to science, this water is filled in extremely large

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KEY POINTS
pond and left for some time. In this way water evaporates and sodium
chloride is left at the bottom. This is packed in bags after further drying. This is
common salt and we use it in our daily life.
1. Atom is an extremely tiny particle of matter which may or may not exist
independently except for noble gases.
2. Atoms combine chemically to form molecules.
3. Molecule is such a particle of matter which can exist independently.
4. Matter consisting of one kind of atoms is called element. An element is
represented by its symbol. The number of naturally occurring elements is
92.
5. When two or more than two elements combine chemically in a fixed ratio,
a new substance is formed which is called compound. The properties of a
compound are different from those of the elements forming it.
6. The matter in which different kinds of elements or compounds are
combined physically without any fixed ratio but retaining their individual
properties is called a mixture. The components of a mixture can be
separated by simple physical methods.
7. There are two types of mixtures.
(i) Homogeneous mixture (ii) Heterogeneous mixture
8. In a homogeneous mixture, different substances are mixed in such a way
that apparently one transparent phase is seen, whereas, in the
heterogeneous mixture, different substances are seen separately.
9. EXERCISE
The components of the mixtures are separated by using the methods
such as filtration, sublimation, distillation and chromatography.

5.1 Encircle the correct option.

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Chapter 5: Atom, Molecules, Mixture
and Compounds

(i) The number of naturally occurring elements is:

a. 62 b. 82
c. 92 d. 102
(ii) Mercury is a
a. metal b. non-metal
d. metalloid d. compound
(iii) Matter consisting of one kind of atoms is called:
a. element b. compound
c. mixture d. solution
(iv) The symbol of carbon is:
a. Ca b. Na
c. K d. C
(v) Graphite is a _________________ of electricity.
a. good conductor of electricity
b. bad conductor of electricity
c. non-conductor of electricity
d. conductor as well as non-conductor
(vi) Calcium carbonate is used:
a. in white wash b. in constructions
c. as fuel d. as food.
(vii) Method of separating components of the mixture of Naphthalene
and salt is:
a. filtration b. sublimation
c. distillation d. none of them
5.2 Fill in the blanks.
(i) The particle of matter which can exist independently is called
___________.

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 General Science 6

(ii) Metal found in liquid form is __________.

(iii) Hydrogen chloride is a __________.
(iv) The method of separating liquid components of the mixture,
is called _____________.
(v) Chromatography means _____________ and ______________.
5.3 Identify true and false statements.
(i) The number of naturally occurring elements is 82.
(ii) Diamond is the hardest among all matter found on the earth.
(iii) The mixture that has a uniform appearance in spite of the
presence of different materials is called heterogeneous mixture.
(iv) The method of separating the coloured components of mixture is
called chromatography.
(v) The particles of solute passes through filter water.
5.4 Write short answers
(i) Differentiate between an atom and a molecule.
(ii) What is meant by a symbol?
(iii) Define an element.
(iv) Give examples of compounds.
(v) Write names of the methods of separating mixtures.
(vi) What is sublimation?
(vii) What is an alloy?
5.5 Write the symbols of following elements.
Copper, Sodium, Silver, Gold, Iron, Magnesium, Mercury, Chlorine, Iodine,
Helium.
5.6 Write the names of the elements which are represented by the following
symbols.
F _____________ C _____________ Ca _____________
Br _____________ Ne _____________ Al _____________
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Chapter 5: Atom, Molecules, Mixture
and Compounds

K _____________ Ni _____________ Zn _____________

P _____________
5.7 Match each of the terms given in the column A with relevant statement of
column B.
A B

Molecule An impure matter.

Element Result of chemical combination of two or more than of

two substances.

Compound Matter consisting of one kind of atoms.

Mixture Method of separating the mixture of sand and water.

Filtration It can exist independently.

Method of separating the liquid components of the mixture

5.8 Differentiate between the following.

(i) Element and compound
(ii) Compound and mixture
(iii) Metal and non-metal
5.9 Write note on the following.
(i) Filtration (ii) Sublimation
(iii) Distillation (iv) Chromatography
5.10 Think and answer. You can also get help from your school library, teacher
and internet.
(i) Is mercury a liquid?
(ii) Why water is called a compound?
(iii) Why sugar cannot be separated by passing the mixture of water
and sugar from filter paper? Explain.
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Chapter
6 Air

Nitrogen
Oxygen
Other gases

After studying this chapter, the students will be able to:

þ Recognize the importance of air.

þ Identify the composition of air.

þ Relate the properties and uses of gases in air with the composition of
air.

7
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Chapter 6: Air

Introduction
Air is a mixture of different gases present around the planet earth. It also
includes water vapours and dust particles. In this chapter, the importance of air
and properties and uses of different gases present in it will be discussed. Uses of
different gases of the air and their relation with the composition of the air would
also be explained. Pollution and its effects on life will also be discussed briefly.
6.1 IMPORTANCE OF AIR
Air is a great blessing of Allah. Living things cannot survive without air.
Animals and plants breathe in the air. If there is no air, the process of respiration
in living things will stop and the life will come to an end. Oxygen of the air is used
in respiration and carbon dioxide in photosynthesis. Nitrogen creates fertility in
the soil where plants grow. Oxygen of the air is also used in the burning process.
Dissolved oxygen in water is used by the fish and other aquatic life. The birds and
airplanes cannot fly in the atmosphere without air. Without air we will not be
able to hear the sounds of each other because air serves as a medium for the
sound to travel.
Solar radiations reflecting back after striking with the Earth are partly
absorbed by the air. In this way the Earth's environment remains at suitable
temperature. This process of keeping the Earth warm is called greenhouse effect.

Solar
radiations

Earth Earth

Figure 6.1 Greenhouse effect Figure 6.2 Ozone layer protects the Earth
from harmful solar radiations.
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 General Science 6

The gases in the air which absorb sunlight to keep the Earth's
environment warm are called greenhouse gases. The protective layer of ozone is
present at about 25 – 30 km above the Earth's surface (ozone molecule consists
of three oxygen atoms i.e. O3). The ozone layer does not allow the harmful parts
of solar radiations to reach the surface of the Earth. In this way, the life on the
Earth remains safe from the effects of these harmful radiations.
Seeds of some plants reach on different parts of the earth due to air. Air is
filled in a number of daily use objects such as football, balloons and tyres of a
vehicle. In Vacuum cleaner, which is used to clean the houses, air pressure is
utilized to collect the dust particles. Wind vane is used to guess the direction of
wind. Scientists predict about weather with the help of wind vane.

Do you know?

Carbon dioxide, water vapours, oxides of nitrogen, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons

(CFCs) present in the air are called greenhouse gases.

6.2 COMPOSITION OF AIR

We have already studied that air is a mixture of different gases. Its
composition is as under.

Name of gas present in the air Percentage

Nitrogen 78%

Oxygen 20.9%

Carbon dioxide 0.03%

Argon 0.9%

Other gases 0.17 %

6.3 PROPERTIES OF GASES PRESENT IN THE AIR

1. Properties of Nitrogen
(i) Nitrogen is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas.
(ii) 78% of our air is nitrogen.
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Chapter 6: Air

(iii) Pure nitrogen is an unreactive gas.

(iv) Nitrogen reduces the reactivity of oxygen present in the air with other
substances.
(v) Nitrogen is slightly soluble in water.
(vi) Nitrogen is an important part of proteins present in the tissues of living
things.

Activity 6.1
· Take a balloon. Using the mouth, fill it with air
and observe.
· Did the size of balloon increase?

· What is the cause of increase in the size of balloon?

· Which gas is inside the balloon?

· What did you learn from this activity?

2. Properties of Oxygen
(i) Oxygen is a colourless, odourless and
tasteless gas.
(ii) 21% of our surrounding air is oxygen.
(iii) Oxygen is soluble in water to some
extent. That is why fish and other
aquatic organisms can breathe in Figure 6.3 Fish in water
water.
(iv) Oxygen in liquid form acquires blue
colour.
(v) Oxygen is a reactive gas. It does not
burn itself but helps the burning
process.
(vi) Rusting of iron is due to the oxygen Figure 6.4 Rusting of iron

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 General Science 6

and moisture.
3. Properties of Carbon dioxide
(i) Carbon dioxide is a colourless and odourless gas. It has a slightly sour
taste which is an acidic characteristic.
(ii) 0.03% of our air is Carbon dioxide.
(iii) It is slightly soluble in water. Its solubility increases with the increase of
pressure.
(iv) It is about 1.5 times heavier than the air.
(v) Under high pressure it transforms into liquid state.
(vi) Neither it burns nor helps the burning process but extinguishes the
burning objects.
(vii) It turns lime water milky.
Activity 6.2

For this activity candle, match box and empty transparent glass are needed.

· Light the candle using match box.

· Invert the transparent glass tumbler on it as
shown in figure and observe.
· Did the candle flame twinkle?
· Why the candle flame twinkled?
· Did the flame put off immediately after twinkling?
· What is the cause of flame put off?
· What did you learn from this activity?

4. Noble Gases
Helium, neon and argon are called noble gases. They make less than 1%
of the air. These are inert gases and do not react chemically with other
substances. These are colourless, odourless and tasteless gases.

6.4 USES OF GASES AND ITS RELATION WITH THE

COMPOSITION OF AIR
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Chapter 6: Air

The composition of air has a strong relation with the uses of gases
present in the air. Before studying uses of different gases present in air, it is
necessary to know that all the gases in the air become useful only due to their
compositions in the air. If composition of the air is changed, then none of the
gases can produce those useful effects that are obtained due to specific
composition of the air. For example, if the amount of nitrogen (which is an inert
gas) is reduced from 78% of the air, the reaction of an active gas like oxygen with
other substances will not be controlled and a little spark can burn all the things
of the environment.
An increase or decrease in percentage of nitrogen or any other gas in the
air will not maintain the specific atmospheric pressure which is necessary for
vital processes like respiration and photosynthesis. Any increase or decrease in
naturally fixed atmospheric pressure can become an obstacle in vital processes
like respiration and photosynthesis and can end the life. If the amount of
nitrogen in the air increases from 78%, the role of oxygen to burn the fuel will be
affected and it will become impossible to get energy by burning fuel.
In addition to nitrogen, an increase or decrease in the percentage of
oxygen (20.9%) or carbon dioxide (0.03%) in the air can also become the cause of
resistance in their useful effects and may result in several damages.
Amongst the greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide is an important gas,
which absorbs heat and keeps the Earth's environment warm. An Increase in
percentage of carbon dioxide in the air can increase the average temperature of
the Earth creating problems like global warming.
The composition of air remains fixed due to the natural cycles of different
gases in the air. The uses of important gases in the air are given below.
Uses of Nitrogen
(i) Nitrogen is used to keep
fresh and preserve food.
(ii) Due to its inert character, it is
used in storage tanks for
explosives. Figure 6.5 Storage tanks for explosives
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 General Science 6

(iii) Nitrogen is also filled in

electric bulbs, so that their
filament cannot catch fire.
(iv) Nitrogen is used in the
manufacturing of fertilizers
like urea and ammonium
sulphate.
(v) Nitrogen is also used in making
dyes, medicines and
explosives.
Figure 6.6 Urea
(vi) Liquid nitrogen is used as
coolant for freezing of
blood and protecting large
computer systems.
Uses of Oxygen
(i) All living things use oxygen during the
process of respiration.
Figure 6.7 Oxygen cylinders
(ii) Oxygen is used in the burning of wood,
coal and natural gas.
(iii) Oxygen cylinders are used in the
hospitals for the patients of lungs and
heart diseases to provide them artificial
oxygen.
(iv) Mountain climbers, sea divers and Figure 6.8 Sea diver
astronauts carry oxygen cylinders for
breathing.
(v) Oxygen is also used to cut and weld the
metals.
(vi) Liquid oxygen is used in rockets used
for space travel which help in the
Figure 6.9 Welding
3939
Chapter 6: Air

burning of fuel.
(vii) Oxygen in the form of ozone layer
protects us from harmful ultraviolet
radiations of the Sun.
Interesting Information
(viii) Oxygen is used as a bleaching agent in paper
industry.
Figure 6.10 Ultraviolet radiations

Oxygen produced by a tree can fulfill the

respiration needs of 36 children.

Uses of Carbon dioxide

Sunlight
energy
(i) Plants absorb carbon dioxide and use them in photosynthesis for making
food. Oxygen

Carbon
dioxide

Water

Figure 6.11 The process of photosynthesis Figure 6.12 Soda water bottles

Figure 6.13 Fire extinguisher Figure 6.14 Cake

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 General Science 6

(ii) It is filled in soda water bottles under pressure.

(iii) Fire extinguishers release carbon dioxide which puts off the fire.
(iv) Carbon dioxide is used in the bakeries for making breads and cakes. Due
to this bread and cake become soft and spongy.
Interesting Information
(v) Carbon dioxide can easily be frozen in solid form. Solid carbon dioxide is
called dry ice which is used to preserve the food.

When crushed dry ice in the form of powder is carried high up with the help of an airplane
and sprinkled on the clouds, it converts the clouds into liquid water which falls as rain. This
experiment was done in an Australian desert.

Uses of Noble Gases

(i) Helium is a very light gas and is filled in weather balloons.
(ii) Neon
SCIENCE, is used to produce
TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETYcoloured light in colourful advertisement sign
AND ENVIRONMENT
boards.
(iii) Argon is used in electric bulbs and fluorescent lamps.

· Moving air is called wind. Wind blows fast as well as slow and in all
directions. The direction of air is determined by wind vane. Using the
same wind vane, scientists provide weather forecast.
· Scientists have been successful in having artificial rain and dry ice is used
in this process. Dry ice, after grinding, is sprinkled on clouds using
KEYaeroplanes.
POINTS When dry ice falls on clouds, rain starts. Artificial rain is
carried out in those regions where natural rain seldom takes place. This
process is mainly carried out in Australian desert.

5959
Chapter 6: Air

1. Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, noble gases and water are important
components of the air.
2. The processes like respiration, photosynthesis, soil fertility, burning of
things and travelling of sound waves, etc., are all dependent on the air.
3. Air contains 78% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen and 0.03% carbon dioxide and
remaining proportion consists of noble gases which is less than 1%.
4. Nitrogen, oxygen and noble gases are colourless, odourless and tasteless
gases. Carbon dioxide is also colourless and odourless. It is slightly sour in
taste.
5. Nitrogen increases the soil fertility. It is an inert gas. Due to its inert
character, oxygen (an active gas) does not react chemically with other
substances.
6. Nitrogen is filled in electric bulbs. In addition, it is also used in the
preparation of fertilizers, dyes, medicines and explosives.
7. Oxygen is an active gas. It does not burn itself but helps the burning
process. It is also used in the rusting of iron and respiration.
8. Carbon dioxide is 1.5 times heavier than the air. Neither it burns nor it
helps the burning process but extinguishes the burning objects. It turns
lime water milky. It is slightly soluble in water. That is why it is filled in soda
water bottles under pressure.
9. Carbon dioxide is produced in a fire extinguisher which is used to
extinguish the fire. It pushes the oxygen away from the burning point
because it is heavy. In this way the fire gets extinguished.
10. Carbon dioxide is also used in bakeries to make the cake and bread soft
and spongy.
11. Solid carbon dioxide is called dry ice which is used to preserve the food.
12. Helium is a light gas which is filled in weather balloons.

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EXERCISE
13. Argon is used in electric bulbs and fluorescent lamps.
14. Neon is used to produce colourful lights in advertisement signboards.
6.1 Encircle the correct option.
(i) The percentage of nitrogen in the air is:
a. 0.03% b. 1%
c. 20.9% d. 78%
(ii) The gas used in photosynthesis process is:
a. nitrogen b. oxygen
c. carbon dioxide d. neon
(iii) Which of following process does not employ oxygen?
a. Respiration b. Photosynthesis
c. Burning process d. Rusting of iron
(iv) The gas used to manufacture urea fertilizer is
a. Nitrogen b. Oxygen
c. Carbon dioxide d. Argon
(v) The gas used to make the bread spongy is
a. Nitrogen b. Oxygen
c. Carbon dioxide d. Neon
6.2 Fill in the blanks.
(i) Oxygen of air is used in ___________ process.
(ii) Carbon dioxide is about __________ heavier than the air.
(iii) Liquid __________ is used to freeze the blood.
(iv) In paper industry ___________ is used as bleaching agent.
(v) In electric bulbs ___________ gas is used.
6.3 Identify true and false statements.
(I) Ozone molecule consists of three oxygen atoms.
(ii) Helium, neon and argon are one percent of air.
(iii) The process of keeping the Earth environment warm is called
greenhouse effect.
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Chapter 6: Air

(iv) The amount of oxygen in air is 0.03 percent.

(v) Nitrogen increases the fertility of soil.
6.4 Write short answers
(i) Why is air essential for us?
(ii) What is dry ice?
(iii) Which gas is used to produce colourful light in advertisement
signboards?
(iv) Which gas plays important role in keeping the Earth's
environment warm?
(v) Oxygen is an active gas. Why does it not burn the things in the
environment?
6.5 Match each of the terms given in the column A with the terms given in
column B.
A B
Soda water Oxygen
Rockets Nitrogen compound
Advertisement boards Helium
Weather balloons Argon
Ammonia Neon
Carbon dioxide
6.6 Describe the properties and uses of nitrogen gas.
6.7 Describe the properties and uses of oxygen gas.
6.8 Describe the properties and uses of carbon dioxide gas.
6.9 Describe the use of noble gases.
6.10 When an empty glass is inverted vertically in a tub of water, the water
does not enter inside the inverted glass. Why is it so?
6.11 Think and answer. You can also get help from your school library, teacher
and internet.
(i) Which is called natural factory of oxygen manufacturing? Explain in
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Chapter
7 SOLUTIONS AND
SUSPENSIONS

After studying this chapter, the students will be able to:

þ Differentiate between solute, solvent and solution.

þ Identify solute and solvent in a solution.

þ Explain the formation of solution by the particle model.

þ Distinguish between aqueous, dilute and concentrated solutions.

þ Demonstrate the use of water as a universal solvent.

þ Prepare saturated and unsaturated solutions.

þ Define solubility.

þ Investigate the effect of temperature on solubility using a variety of

compounds.

þ Differentiate between solutions and suspensions.

þ Identify uses of solutions and suspensions in daily life.

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Chapter 7: Solutions and Suspensions

Introduction
When we add a spoon of sugar in a glass full of water and stir it, the sugar
dissolves in the water and forms a homogeneous mixture. A homogeneous
mixture of two or more than two substances is called solution. A sugar solution is
formed by dissolving sugar in water and a salt solution is formed by dissolving
salt in water. The air in our environment is a solution of different gases. In this
chapter, we will study the components of the solution, types of solution,
aqueous solution, dilute solution, concentrated solution, saturated solution and
unsaturated solution. The solubility and effect of temperature on it will be
discussed. Difference between solution and suspension will be explained. The
uses of solutions and suspensions will be described.
7.1 SOLUTION AND ITS COMPONENTS
The homogeneous mixture of two or more substances is termed as
solution. In addition to sugar and salt, there are many other substances which
can dissolve in water to form solutions. A solution consisting of two substances
is known as binary solution. The part of a solution which is less in quantity is
called solute, whereas, the part which is greater in quantity is called solvent. In a
solution of salt and water, salt is solute and water is solvent. The solute and
solvent are components of the solution.

Activity 7.1
· Take two transparent glasses and half fill each of them with water.
· Label one glass as A and the other as B.

· Add half spoon of salt or baking powder in glass A and

half spoon of sand in glass B. Stir both the mixtures.

· Observe both the mixtures carefully.

· Is baking powder or salt soluble in water or not?

· Is sand soluble in water or not?

Sugar, salt, glucose, baking powder, vinegar, alcohol and carbon dioxide,
etc., are the examples of the substances which are soluble in water. Sand, soil,
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 General Science 6

flour, chalk powder, stones, spices, oil and wood, etc., are the examples of
insoluble substances in water.
7.1.1 Types of Solutions
Mostly, solutions are prepared by dissolving solid, liquid or gaseous
substances in liquids. However, solutions are of following types.

State of solute State of solvent Examples of the solutions

Solid Liquid Salt solution, tea, sharbat

Liquid Liquid Ink in water, water in alcohol

Gas Liquid Soda water, River water (oxygen dissolved in water)

Gas Gas Air

Solid Solid Alloy (brass, bronze)

7.2 PARTICLE MODEL OF SOLUTIONS

How a solution is formed? In order to know the answer of this question, we
will have to understand the particle model of the solution. According to particle
model of the matter;
1. All types of matters consist of tiny particles. These particles may be
atoms, molecules or ions.
2. All particles are in a constant state of motion. Their movement increases
when they are heated.
3. The attractive forces are present among the particles of solid and liquid
solutions.
4. Moving particles have spaces between them.
When a solute is mixed in a solvent, then the attractive forces among the
particles of solute become weak due to continuous motion of solvent particles. It
forms forces among the solute and solvent particles. As a result, the solute
particles begin to enter the intermolecular spaces of the solvent and thus a
solution is formed.

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Solute Solvent
particles particles

Liquid solvent

Solution

Solute crystals
Figure 7.1 Particle model of making a solution

7.3 WATER AS UNIVERSAL SOLVENT

Water is known as universal solvent because most of the substances are
easily dissolve in it.
· Solid substances, e.g., sugar, rock salt, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate),
etc., are dissolved in water.
· Liquids, e.g., milk, vinegar, alcohol, lemon juice, apple juice, etc., are
dissolved in water.
· The food we eat dissolves in water after digestion to form a solution
which after absorption in blood reaches every part of our body.
As water is used as a solvent in most of the daily life processes, hence, it is
called universal solvent.

Activity 7.2
· Take six transparent glasses and half fill each of them with water.

· Add a little amount of salt in the first, sugar in the second, baking powder in the third,
lemon juice in the fourth, carrot juice in the fifth and milk in the sixth glass and stir the
mixture in each glass.

· Do all the things dissolve in water?

· What do you conclude from this activity?

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7.4 AQUEOUS, DILUTE AND CONCENTRATED

SOLUTIONS
7.4.1 Aqueous Solutions
The solutions in which water is used as a solvent are called aqueous
solutions. Water is the most important solvent found in the universe. A lot of
substances dissolve in it. That is why it is known as universal solvent. However,
grease, paints, oil, fat, etc., do not dissolve in water.
7.4.2 Dilute and Concentrated Solutions
The solution which has less quantity of dissolved solute in it is called
dilute solution. A solution which has comparatively more quantity of dissolved
solute in it is called concentrated solution.

Activity 7.3
· Take two beakers of equal volumes.
· Fill both of them with equal amount of water.
· Label one beaker as 'A' and the other
as 'B'.
· By using a dropper add two drops of
ink in beaker 'A' and four drops of ink
in beaker 'B'.
· In which beaker, the colour of solution
is dark tell why?
· In which beaker, the colour of the
solution is light tell why?
· Can you tell which of the two solutions (A and B) is dilute and concentrated and why?

7.5 UNSATURATED AND SATURATED SOLUTIONS

The solution in which, at a certain temperature, the further quantity of
solute can be dissolved is called unsaturated solution. The solution in which, at a
certain temperature, the further quantity of solute cannot be dissolved is called
saturated solution.

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Chapter 7: Solutions and Suspensions

Activity 7.4
th
· Fill approximately 3/4 of a transparent glass with water.
· Add half teaspoon of sugar in it and stir.
· Is this solution saturated or unsaturated?
· Now keep on adding and stirring half teaspoon of sugar in the
solution until sugar in water stops dissolving and insoluble
sugar crystals settle down at the bottom of the glass.
· Filter the solution. The filtrate will be such a solution in which no more sugar can be
dissolved.
· Is this solution saturated or unsaturated at normal temperature tell why?

Do you know?

Dead Sea is highly saturated with salts. With a slight decrease in temperature, the salt crystals
start appearing.

7.6 SOLUBILITY
In order to make a saturated solution of sodium chloride (common salt) in
100 gram water at normal temperature (25oC), 36 gram of sodium chloride is
required. Similarly, for making a saturated solution of copper sulphate at normal
temperature (25oC), 24 gram copper sulphate is required.
The amount of a solute in grams required to make its saturated solution
in 100 grams solvent at a certain temperature is called its solubility.

Activity 7.5
· Take 100 grams water in a beaker.
· Weigh 100 grams sodium chloride.
o
· Prepare a saturated solution of sodium chloride at normal temperature (25 C) by
adding salt gradually.
· Weigh the left over salt.
· Calculate the solubility of sodium chloride at normal temperature.

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 General Science 6

7.6.1 Effect of Temperature on Solubility

Temperature affects the solubility of the substances. The solubility of
certain compounds in water, increases with the increase of temperature of the
solution e.g., sodium chloride, sugar, copper sulphate and potassium nitrate etc.
However, there are certain compounds whose solubility decreases by increasing
the temperature of the solution e.g., carbon dioxide and calcium oxide (lime) etc.

Activity 7.6
· Take 100 gram water in a beaker and
prepare a saturated solution by adding
Beaker
common salt in it at normal temperature.
Add few more crystals of salt in saturated
solution. Salted
water
· No more salt will be dissolved in its
saturated solution at normal Wire
gauze
temperature.

· Start heating this solution. You will observe

Tripod Burner
that some more amount of the salt
dissolves in this saturated solution.

· What do you conclude from this activity?

Interesting Information

o
At room temperature (25 C), the solubility of
copper sulphate in water is 24 gram whereas at
60oC its solubility in water becomes 60 gram.

7.7 SUSPENSION
Blood is a suspension in which red
Chalk Powder
blood cells, white blood cells and platelets are
present in the plasma. A suspension is a
mixture in which solid solute particles are not Figure 7.2 Suspension
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Chapter 7: Solutions and Suspensions

dissolved in the solvent but they remain

suspended and move freely in the solvent. The particles of the suspension are
settled down at the bottom of the container if stirring is stopped. For example, if
we mix the flour or chalk powder in water and shake it, we will get a white
coloured mixture, called suspension. If we stop stirring, the suspended particles
of flour or chalk will settle down at the bottom of the container because they are
not dissolved in water. The components of a suspension can be separated by
filtration.
7.7.1Uses of Suspensions
The uses of some important suspensions are as under.
(i) When water is mixed with soil, a suspension is formed which is used as
mud.
(ii) Lassi and fruit squashes are also examples of suspensions which are used
to quench the thirst.
(iii) Paints are the suspensions which are prepared in water or oil and are used
to add the beauty of the homes, door and vehicles.
Interesting Information

A suspension in which excess amount of insoluble solid solute is present is called slurry.
The mixture of cement and water is an example of slurry.

7.7.2 Uses of Solutions

We use different types of solutions in daily life. For example;
(i) Carbonated water (soda water) which we drink is a solution of sugar and
carbon dioxide, etc., in water.
(ii) Sea water is a solution of different salts and other compounds. Fish and
other aquatic animals live in it.
(iii) Many types of medicines are injected to the patients in solution form.
(iv) Perfume solutions are prepared by dissolving sweet-smelling oils in
alcohol.
(v) Solutions of different dyes in water are prepared and used for dying
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 General Science 6

clothes.
7.7.3 Difference between Solution and Suspension
Solution Suspension

(I) In a solution, the solute particles are In a suspension, the solute particles do not
dissolved in the solvent and do not settle dissolve in the solvent but remain suspended
down at the bottom of the container. and move freely in the solvent. If stirring is
stopped, they will settle down at the bottom
of the container.

(ii) All particles of a solution pass through The solute particles present in a suspension
the filter paper. cannot pass through the filter paper.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY

AND ENVIRONMENT

· The use of solution is very common in the field of medicine. The

medicines, which cannot be given to patient in the form of a tablet or
capsule, are added to the blood of patient in the form of injection or drip.
These medicines are actually solutions.
· Plants absorb water and nutrients through roots. These nutrients are
actually solutions.
· Sea water is a type of solution. The countries that are located on sea side,
scientists have installed very large modern plants to make this water
drinkable. They convert sea water into clean water after separating salts
and other harmful impurities.
KEY POINTS

1. A solution consisting of two substances is called binary solution.

2. The part of the solution which is less in quantity is called solute.
3. The part of the solution which is greater in quantity is called solvent.
4. The solutions in which water is used as solvent are called aqueous

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Chapter 7: Solutions and Suspensions

solutions.
5. Water is the best solvent because a lot of substances can be dissolved in
it. That is why water is known as universal solvent.
6. The solution which has less quantity of dissolved solute in it is called
dilute solution.
7. The solution which has comparatively greater quantity of dissolved solute
in it is called concentrated solution.
8. A solution in which more quantity of the solute can be dissolved at a
certain temperature is called unsaturated solution.
9. A solution in which no more quantity of the solute can be dissolved at a
certain temperature is called saturated solution.
10. The amount of solute in gram required to make its saturated solution in
100 gram solvent at a certain temperature is called its solubility.
11. Temperature affects the solubility of substances.
12. Suspension is such a mixture in which solute particles do not dissolve in
the solvent but remain suspended and move freely in the solvent. If
stirring of suspension is stopped, the particles of the suspension are
settled down at the bottom of the container.
EXERCISE

7.1 Encircle the correct option.

(i) Which of the following mixture is called solution?
a. iron filings and sulphur b. water and oil
c. water and carbon dioxide d. water and fat
(ii) The solubility of which compound in water decreases by
increasing the temperature?
a. sodium chloride b. carbon dioxide

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 General Science 6

d. copper sulphate d. potassium nitrate

(iii) Air is a homogeneous solution. What is solvent in this solution?
a. nitrogen b. oxygen
c. carbon dioxide d. water
(iv) The particles are settled down at the bottom of the container.
a. in solution b. in solute
c. in solvent d. in suspension
(v) Which substance is called universal solvent?
a. alcohol b. oil
c. water d. milk
7.2 Complete the sentences by using proper words.
(i) The part of the solution which is relatively more in quantity is
called __________.
(ii) An unsaturated solution can dissolve more amount of __________.
(iii) The solubility of lime (calcium oxide) in water decreases by
increasing the __________.
(iv) Perfume solutions are prepared by dissolving sweet-smelling oil in
__________.
(v) The solutions in which water is used as solvent are called
__________.
7.3 Identify true and false statements.
(i) The part of solution which is less in quantity is called solvent and
one which is more is called solute.
(ii) Water is a universal solvent.
(iii) The solution in which, at a certain temperature, the further
quantity of solute cannot be dissolved is called saturated solution.
(iv) The solubility of sodium chloride increases with the increase in

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Chapter 7: Solutions and Suspensions

temperature.
(v) Blood is a suspension.
7.4 Match the statements of column A with the relevant statements of column B.
A B
Alloy Little amount of salt dissolved in a glass full of water.
Dilute solution Saturated solution of a solute in 100 gram solvent at a
certain temperature.
Solubility A solution consisting of two substances
Binary solution Lassi
Suspension A solution in which both the solute and solvent are solids
The solutions in which water is used as solvent
7.5 Write short answers.
(i) What is meant by aqueous solution?
(ii) What is solubility?
(iii) Give an example of solution in which both the solute and the
solvent are solids.
(iv) Give an example of solution in which both the solute and the
solvent are liquids?
(v) Name three suspensions which are used in daily life.
7.6 Differentiate between the following.
(i) Solute and solvent.
(ii) Solution and suspension.
(iii) Dilute solution and concentrated solution.
(iv) Saturated solution and unsaturated solution.
7.7 Why the sea water is called a solution?
7.8 Whether you use hot water or cold water in order to dissolve maximum
amount of lime for white wash of the house? Why?
7.9 Think and answer. You can also get help from your school library, teacher
and internet.
(I) Why water is a universal solvent?

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Chapter
8 Energy and its Forms

After studying this chapter, the students will be able to:

þ Explain that energy provides the ability to do work and can exist in
different forms.
þ Identify different forms of energy with examples.
þ Differentiate between kinetic and potential energy.
þ Demonstrate how one form of energy is converted into other form of
energy.
þ Identify that energy is dissipated in atmosphere.
þ Explain that energy is conserved during conversion of different forms of
energy.
þ Explain the importance of energy in improving the quality of life.
þ Identify energy converters in their surroundings.
þ Illustrate energy conversion to other forms using an energy converter.
þ Explain the term renewable.
þ Describe the advantages of using renewable energy sources.
þ Describe the form of energy stored in the human body.
þ Identify energy transfer in an environment.
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Chapter 8: Energy and its Forms

Introduction
Energy enables us to do work. Works like eating, drinking, breathing,
thinking, writing, reading and playing, etc., are not possible without energy.
Heat, light, sound and motion, etc., are examples of energy. In this chapter, we
will study the forms of energy, conversion of different forms of energy, law of
conservation of energy, dissipation of energy, energy converters and renewable
energy sources. Further, benefits of using renewable energy sources and energy
stored in human body will also be discussed briefly.
8.1 ENERGY
The ability to do work is called energy. Energy can bring change in
temperature, speed, size or direction of any object.
8.2 FORMS OF ENERGY
There are two main forms of energy.
1. Kinetic energy
2. Potential energy
8.2.1 Kinetic Energy
Moving objects have ability to do work. This ability is called kinetic
energy. You know that running water can move the turbine. Moving air (wind)
can move the blades of the wind mill. Similarly, moving wheels of the vehicles
help in traveling long distances. A stone falling from certain height can make a
pit into the ground. All these works are done due to kinetic energy of the moving
objects.

Running motorcycle
Motorcycle at rest
K.E = O
K.E = O (A moving object possesses kinetic energy.)
Figure 8.1 Motorcycle at rest and in motion
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 General Science 6

Kinetic energy of an object depends on its motion. The kinetic energy of a fast
moving car is more than that of slow moving car provided both possess equal
masses. Kinetic energy of a mobile object which has greater mass is more than
that of the mobile object with less mass provided both have same speed.
Kinetic energy is written as K.E.
8.2.2 Potential Energy
The energy of an object due to its position is called potential energy. If we
do work by lifting a stone and place it at some height, then work done is stored
in the form of energy. As this energy is due to the position of the stone, it is
therefore called potential energy. When the stone is allowed to fall, it makes a pit
in the ground. Potential energy is stored
in the objects which are at some height
from the Earth's surface. When the
spring of a watch or toy car is wound up,
potential energy stores in it and makes
the watch work or toy car move.
Figure 8.2 Toy car
Potential energy is written as P.E.
Activity 8.1

· Take four empty plastic bottles and place them in

sequence on floor as shown in figure.

· Take a ball and roll it towards these bottles.

· What form of energy did you find in the rolling ball?

· Did you identify the kind of energy from this activity?

8.2.3 Heat Energy

Heat is a form of energy. It is due to the movement of particles of an
object. When we heat an object, the movement of its particles becomes fast and
its temperature increases. Heat energy is stored in hot objects. It transfers from
hot object to the cold object. We use heat to cook food. Due to heat, solid
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Chapter 8: Energy and its Forms

objects melt into liquid state and liquids change into their gaseous state. Sun is
the biggest source of heat energy.

Sun Burner
Figure 8.3

Activity 8.2

For this activity take an iron rod, wax, four nails, match box and spirit lamp.

· Using wax fix four nails at different distances at one end of iron rod.

· Heat one end of iron rod using spirit lamp as

shown in the figure and observe.

· Will rod become hot?

· Will nails fall one by one or all fall at the same time?

· What kind of energy is identified by you from this activity?

8.2.4 Light Energy

Light is a form of energy. Sun is also the biggest source of light energy.
Light enables us to see the objects. Plants use light energy to make food. Certain

Heat
Light

Electricity Energy
saver
Solar calculator
Bulb Figure 8.4Light energy

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 General Science 6

calculators work by using solar energy. Solar cells are charged by the sunlight.
Light makes images of the objects on the film after passing through lens of the
camera. In daily life, we use bulbs, tube lights and energy savers to lit our homes.
These produce light energy.
8.2.5 Electrical Energy
The energy which is used in electric bulbs and
fans is called electrical energy. Electrical energy is
due to the movement of electrical charge. It is
produced at power stations and supplied to other
places through electric wires. Electrical energy can
easily be converted into other forms of energy.
Lightning is also an example of electrical energy.
Figure 8.5 Electric fan
8.2.6 Sound Energy
Sound is also a form of energy which
is produced from vibrating objects. If we
place small pieces of paper on a stereo deck,
the sound energy makes them move. When
we speak, the sound energy creates
vibrations in the eardrum due to which we
listen to the sound. As the quantity of sound
energy is extremely low, therefore other Figure 8.6 Stereo deck
needs of life cannot be fulfilled by it.
8.2.7 Chemical Energy
Energy stored in chemical elements is
called chemical energy. Similarly the energy
stored in food is also called chemical energy.
We use the chemical energy of food to do
different work and play. The kinds of energy
which are stored in batteries and fuel (coal,
petrol, natural gas, etc.,) are also examples of
chemical energy. Chemical energy of Figure 8.7 Sources of chemical energy

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Do you
batteries andknow?
fuel is released during chemical
reactions.

Photosynthesis in plants is a chemical reaction. During this reaction, solar energy is

converted into chemical energy which is stored in food.

Solar energy
Release of oxygen

Carbon dioxide

Formation of Glucose
Chlorophyll

Water

Process of photosynthesis

Kinetic Energy Potential Energy

The ability of moving object to do work is Energy of an object due to its position is
called kinetic energy. Energy of moving called potential energy. Energy present in a
water, energy of wind, energy present in a stone which is placed at certain height and
stone falling from certain height, etc., are the energy stored in the wound up spring
the examples of kinetic energy. Kinetic of a toy car, etc., are the examples of
energy of a fast moving car is more than potential energy. The heavier is the stone
that of a slow moving car provided that placed at certain height, the greater will be
they have the same mass. its potential energy.

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 General Science 6

Activity
8.3 8.3
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN KINETIC ENERGY AND
POTENTIAL ENERGY

· Make few balls from wet clay and let them for
few days to dry.

· Spread these balls on the floor as shown in the

figure.
· Now drop a brick on these balls.

· You will observe that these balls are smashed.

· What did you learn from this activity?

· Remember that the brick at a height has the

ability to do work because it possesses potential
energy.

8.4 CONVERSION OF DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY

Energy does not destroy when it is used, but it is converted into other forms
of energy.
1. When a toy car is moved up towards the top of the ramp, potential energy
is stored in it. When it is allowed to move downwards, its potential energy
gradually changes into kinetic energy. When it stops moving, its kinetic
energy converts into work which appears in the form of distance covered
by the car.
2. When we burn fuel in the kitchen, the chemical energy stored in it is
converted into heat and light energy.
3. When we switch on the electric bulb, the electrical energy starts
converting into light energy and heat energy.
8.4.1 Law of Conservation of Energy

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Activity 8.4
According to this law, energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. It
changes from one form to another. Let us perform the following activity to
understand this concept.
String

· Hang a metallic bob with the help of a string.

· Tie the upper end of the string with a hook.
Metallic
· If the bob is released after taking it to
bob
position 'A', then bob will start moving
back and forth.

· During its movement, when the bob stops

for a while on any extreme position e.g. B,
its kinetic energy becomes zero, but its
potential energy reaches to maximum.

· When the bob moves back from position B towards its initial position O, its potential
energy begins to change into kinetic energy.

· At initial position O, its potential energy is zero but the kinetic energy has maximum
value.

· When bob moves towards second extreme position A without stopping at O, its kinetic
energy starts decreasing and potential energy starts increasing gradually.

· Hence, during each complete round of the bob, the energy is not created but it
changes from one form to another.

Result: Energy can be changed from one form to another, but its total amount remains
constant.

8.5 DISSIPATION OF ENERGY IN THE ENVIRONMENT

According to the law of conservation of energy, energy is not destroyed,
but changes from one form into another form. However, during conversion from
one form to another, some energy is lost into the surrounding in the form of
heat. For example, when a fan works, the electrical energy is converted into
mechanical energy. Besides it the fan also becomes hot. This is due to the fact
that during conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy, some part of
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it changes into heat, which makes the fan hot. This heat of the fan keeps on
dissipating in the environment. Similarly, when we prepare juice in the blender,
some energy is added to the environment in the form of heat and sound. This
process is called energy loss or dissipation of energy in environment. During
different types of daily life activities in our surrounding, energy is continuously
being dissipated in the environment. Can you give further examples of energy
dissipation in the environment?
8.6 ENERGY CONVERTERS
The machines which convert one form of energy to the other are called
energy converters. By using energy converter, we can convert energy to such
forms which improve the living standard. Electric bulb, fan, iron, radio, television,
Activity 8.5
drill machine, washing machine and solar cells are the examples of energy
converters.

Calculator Fan Lamp

Oil pump Television Radio

Washing machine Drill machine

Solar cells

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Which form of energy in the following converters is converted to other form?

8.7 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
The word renewable means something that can be regenerated or
restored. Renewable energy sources are the naturally occurring sources of
energy which restores their used amounts with the passage of time. Solar
energy, hydropower energy, wind energy, geothermal energy and biomass are
the examples of renewable energy sources.
8.7.1 Solar Energy
Sun is the biggest renewable source of
energy. The large amount of sunlight reaching
the Earth's surface is called solar energy. Solar
energy is used to maintain the suitable
temperature on the Earth. In addition, plants Figure 8.8 Solar energy panels
use it for making food, for ripeness of crops,
water evaporation and many other activities.
In spite of all these, the Sun is an everlasting
source of energy.
8.7.2 Hydropower

Power house Wires

Reservoir

Generator

River
Turbine

Figure 8.9 Hydroelectric power station

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Hydropower means the power of water. The force of running water is also
a renewable source of energy. In Pakistan, hydropower stations have also been
built for producing electricity by using the force of running water. In these
hydropower stations, kinetic energy of water is used to move the turbines, which
in turn move the generators to produce electricity.
8.7.3 Wind Energy
The places where wind remains
blowing, windmills can be used to convert the
kinetic energy of air into electricity. Blowing
wind moves the blades of windmills, attached
to turbine and in turn moves turbines along
with blades. Electricity is produced by Figure 8.10Windmill
attaching generator with turbine. In this way
the wind energy is converted into electricity.
Blowing wind on the Earth is a natural process.
Hence, it is a renewable energy source.
8.7.4 Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is the heat energy
present deep in the Earth. This heat is used to
make steam or hot water which in turn is used
Figure 8.11 Geothermal energy
to generate electricity or keep the buildings
warm. Geothermal energy is a renewable
energy source, because heat is constantly
available deep in the Earth.
8.7.5 Biomass
The source of bio-energy is the solar
energy which is used by plants to make food.
Plants are eaten by animals. In this way,
chemical energy stored in plants is
transferred in animal bodies. Dead plants,
dead animals and animal dung make Figure 8.14 Biomass

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biomass. Energy obtained from biomass is

called bio-energy. As biomass is produced
naturally therefore it is also a renewable
source of energy.
8.7.6 Advantages of Renewable Energy Sources
· The greatest advantage of renewable energy sources is that they in spite
of their use remain intact. The nature has maintained the system for their
Activity 8.6
restoration.
· They do not pollute the environment.
· By using renewable energy sources, we can overcome energy crisis.

Prepare a list of appliances being used in your home that operate on electricity. Collect pictures
of these appliances and paste them on your notebook.

8.8 ENERGY STORED IN HUMAN BODY

Human body gets energy from food. During respiration process energy is
obtained from food which is used by the body to perform activities in daily life.
Life is not possible without food. Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are the main
components of food which are stored in the body. The energy stored in these
types of food is called chemical energy. Carbohydrates provide instant energy to
our bodies. The human body utilizes fats and proteins for gaining energy in the
absence of carbohydrates.
Do you know?
Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals are the major
components of our nutrients that are used to perform various activities in the
body. However, carbohydrates, fats and proteins are also the sources of energy.

Interesting Information
· Energy obtained from one gram carbohydrates is about 4000 calories.
· Energy obtained from one gram fats is about 9000 calories.
· Energy obtained from one gram proteins is about 4000 calories.

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SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY

AND ENVIRONMENT

· Pakistan is using the sources like water, gas, oil and coal to produce electricity.
· There are five main projects for producing electricity in Pakistan i.e. Ghazi Brotha,
Terbela, Mangla, Warsak and Chashma.
In Pakistan the electrical energy resources are very limited which are being used
carelessly and unwisely by us. We use bulb for light. In ordinary filament bulb
only 5 percent of electrical energy is converted into light and 95 percent
electrical energy changes into heat. Keeping this in mind tube light was
KEY POINTS
invented. Modern technology further developed and these were replaced by
energy saver and LED bulb which use less electricity and provide more light.
They also have long life. Modern LED lights have a life of fifty thousand hours.

1. Ability to do work is called energy.

2. Two main forms of energy are kinetic energy and potential energy.
3. The energy in an object due its motion is called kinetic energy.
4. The energy in an object due its position is called potential energy.
5. Heat, light, electricity and sound are the other forms of energy.
6. According to law of conservation of energy, energy can neither be
created nor be destroyed; it can change from one form to another form.
7. The machines that convert one form of energy into other forms are called
energy converters.
8. The naturally occurring sources of energy which restores their used
EXERCISE
amounts with the passage of time are called renewable energy sources.
9. Solar energy, hydropower, wind energy, geothermal energy and biomass
are the examples of renewable energy sources.

8.1 Complete the sentences using proper words.

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(i) The ability to do work is called ________________.

(ii) The biggest source of heat is _____________.
(iii) Electrical energy is produced by the _____________ electric charge.
(iv) Energy stored in food is called _____________.
(v) According to the law of conservation of energy, energy cannot be
______________.
8.2 Encircle the correct option.
(i) The energy of moving object is called:
a. kinetic energy b. potential energy
c. electrical energy d. solar energy
(ii) The example of renewable energy sources is:
a. coal b. natural gas
d. air d. petrol
(iii) When work is done, the energy is:
a. produced b. destroyed
b. wasted
d. converted from one form into other form
(iv) Which of the following is not an energy converter?
a. chair b. radio
c. lamp d. fan
(v) Energy present deep in the Earth is called:
a. solar energy b. hydropower energy
c. geothermal energy d. bio-energy
8.3 Identify true and false statements.
(i) Kinetic energy is denoted by K.E. and potential energy by P.E.
(ii) Electrical energy is due to the movement of electrical charge.
(iii) The machine which converts one form of energy into another is
called energy converter.
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(iv) Electricity is generated by attaching generator with turbine.

(v) The disadvantage of renewable energy sources is that they finish
after use.
8.4 Match the terms of column A with the relevant statements of column B.

A B

Bulb The biggest source of heat and light.

Potential energy Chemical energy.

Kinetic energy A stone placed at certain height.

Sun Energy converter

Food Energy of a fast moving car

Renewable energy

8.5 Write short answers.

(I) What is meant by law of conservation of energy?
(ii) Define kinetic energy.
(iii) Define potential energy.
(iv) What is meant by energy converter?
8.6.1 Why are the following called renewable energy sources?
(i) Solar energy. (ii) Hydropower energy.
(iii) Wind energy. (iv) Geothermal energy.
(v) Biomass.
8.7 What is meant by dissipation of energy? Explain with examples.
8.8 Give examples of energy transfer in the environment.
8.9 Think and answer. You can also get help from your school library, teacher
and internet.
(i) You use electrical fan to get coldness. Which energy is converted
into other form in this process?
(ii) What are different reservoirs of energy in human body? Also state
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the type of stored energy.
 General Science 6

Chapter
9 Forces and Machines

After studying this chapter, the students will be able to:

þ Recognize wheel and axle and identify their uses.
þ Describe pulleys and their kinds.
þ Identify the uses of pulleys in daily life.
þ Describe the functions of pulley systems and gear systems.
þ Describe how motion in a system of pulleys of different sizes is transferred in
another system of various gears in the same structure.
þ Investigate with the help of an experiment the effort required by different
gear system to lift the same load.
þ Find out how the action of a pulley system is altered by changing the tension
of the band connecting two pulleys.
þ Design and make a system of pulleys and / or gears for a structure that moves
in a prescribed and controlled way and performs a specific function.
þ Identify and make modifications to their own pulley and gear systems to
improve the way they move a load.
þ Describe how a bicycle functions.
þ Identify common devices and systems that incorporate pulleys and / or

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Introduction
A machine makes the work easier. We have learnt about simple machines
like inclined plane, wedge, and lever. In this chapter we will study about wheel
and axle, pulley and gears and how they help us in making the work easier.
9.1 WHEEL AND AXLE
Wheel is the most important simple machine. It makes work easier. Before
the invention of wheel, heavy loads were dragged on the Earth's surface for
shifting them from one place to other place. When some round rod was
placed below the heavy load, then it worked like
Wheel
a wheel and the dragging of heavy object
became easier. Nowadays traveling has been
made easier by putting wheels below the heavy
vehicles. In wheel and axle system, a small wheel
is fixed in the centre of a large wheel. The small
wheel is called axle. Both turn on the same line or Axle

axis. When the wheel is made to turn, its axle also Figure 9.1 Wheel and axle
turns.
9.1.1 Use of Wheel and Axle System
Wheel and axle system is used in two types of
works.
1. To lift heavy loads
2. To increase or decrease the speed
For lifting heavy load,
force is applied on the wheel
and the rope which is wrapped
around the axle lifts the load.
Similarly, more or less force is
applied on the wheel to
increase or decrease the speed
of the axle and connected Figure 9.2 Use of wheel and axle

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 General Science 6

shaft respectively.
Examples:
(i) Screwdriver
Screwdriver is the simplest example
of wheel and axle system. The handle of
the screwdriver acts as wheel whereas its Figure 9.3 Screwdriver
thin and long steel rod acts as axle.
Screwdriver is used to push or pull the
screw.

(ii) Steering Wheel

Steering wheel of the vehicle is also
an important example of wheel and axle
system. A little force applied on the
steering wheel can easily turn the wheels
Figure 9.4 Steering wheel
of the vehicles.

(iii) Tap Handle

We open and close the water by
moving the tap handle. The handle of the
tap works as wheel whereas its connected
rod works as axle.
Brain Teaser Figure 9.5 Tap handle

Write the name of any five simple machines

which are used in your surroundings.
Activity 9.1

· Take a reel of large diameter and fix with it a reel of small diameter with the help of
gum stick.

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reel
· Fix a thin and hard wooden stick through the hole in the inner hole of the reels.

· Provide support to both the ends of the

wooden stick for keeping and lifting them up
Axle Wheel
and fix the stick on the supports in such a way
that it can turn about.
· The large reel will work as wheel and the Force Load
small reel along with wooden stick works as
axle.

· Wrap the ropes around the wheel and axle Figure 9.6
and lift the load.

9.2 PULLEY
Pulley
You have learnt how to lift load with the
help of a rope wrapped around the axle. In this
system, if we wrap a rope around the wheel, tie
some load with one end of the rope and apply
force on its other end, the system will become
pulley system. Pulley is a simple machine
which consists of a wheel and a rope wrapped Load
around the wheel. With the help of pulley, we Force
change the direction of applied force and
Figure 9.7
make the work easier. Pulley turns freely
around its axle and is used to lift the load up
Do you know?
with the help of a rope wrapped around it.

Pulley system is still used by the people

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 General Science 6

living in some villages to take out water

from well.
9.2.1 Functions of Pulley System

(i) Pulley system is used in construction works for lifting heavy materials up
to certain height.
(ii) Motor engineers use pulley to lift and place heavy engines in the vehicle.
(iii) For hoisting the flag, we use pulley fixed at the upper end of the pole.
(iv) There are also pulleys in a crane which facilitate the lifting of heavy
Activity 9.2
load.

· Visit the flag pole of the school with your teacher and observe it.

· What objects are used in the flag pole?

· Use the string to lower the flag fitted on top end of pole.

· Observe what job was done by the pulley.

· Now move the flag up again.

· Will pulley make the job easy?

Draw diagram of this pole, flag and pulley in your notebook.

9.3 TYPES OF PULLEY

Pulleys are of two types.
Pulley
1. Fixed pulley
2. Movable pulley Rope

9.3.1 Fixed Pulley

In fixed pulley system, axle of the pulley Force
is fixed with some support. The load is tied with
one end of the rope wrapped around the pulley
Load
and the force is applied on the other end of the
rope in opposite direction. In this way, the load Figure 9.8 Fixed pulley

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Chapter 9: Forces and Machines

is lifted by changing the direction of the force.

9.3.2 Movable Pulley
Rope
In movable pulley system, pulley is not fixed
with some support but is free and moves with the Force
load. A hook is fixed with the pulley which is used to
lift the load. One end of the rope wrapped around
the movable pulley is tied with some support and
force is applied on its other end. In movable pulley
system, the direction of force does not change. The Load
applied force and load move in the same direction. Figure 9.9 Movable Pulley
For making the work much easier,
compound pulley system is used. In compound
pulley system, both the fixed pulley and the
movable pulley are used. Load is tied with the
movable pulley. By increasing the number of
pulleys, the required force for lifting heavy load can Rope

be decreased. Force

9.4 USES OF PULLEY IN DAILY LIFE

(i) More force is needed to lift the load without
pulley. The force has to be applied in Load
upward direction. Figure 9.10
Compound pulley system
(ii) By using more than one pulley, the heavier
load can be lifted with less force.
(iii) The lifting of load with the help of
pulley is easy and safe way.
(iv) The flag on a flag pole can be
moved up with the help of pulley.
A pulley is fixed at flag pole which
changes the direction of force.
When one end of the rope passing
over the pulley is pulled
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 General Science 6

Activity 9.3
downwards, the second end lifts
the flag upwards.

· Tie buckets with the two ends of the rope wrapped around a fixed pulley
as shown in the figure.
· Put such a load in one bucket so that it touches the ground and the
second bucket remains hanging above the ground.
· Now keep on putting weights in the second bucket and note how much
weight is used to lift the first bucket up from the ground.
· Repeat the experiment by
using two pulleys, one fixed
and the other movable as
shown in the figure. Note
whether the same weight
(as in first experiment) is
used to lift the same load
by using two pulleys.
· What do you conclude
from this activity?

9.5 GEARS
Gear is an advanced shape of wheel
and axle system. Teeth are made around the
gear wheel. Usually, the teeth of one gear are
interlocked with those of the other gear. Gears
are used to transfer the force from one wheel
to the other. Gears are also used to increase or Figure 9.11Gears
decrease the speed.
Gear Train
When two or more gears work together, they are called gear system or
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gear train. A gear train consists of two gears; the gear on which force is applied
is called driving gear and the gear which moves due to the motion of the first
g e a r
is called driven gear. Gear systems
are used in bicycle, motor car and
many other machines. Gears are Figure 9.12 Gear train
used in two ways.
(i) For increasing speed,
Driving gear
driving gear is kept
larger and the driven
Driven gear
gear is small.
Figure 9.13
(ii) For increasing force,
driving gear is kept
small and the driven
gear is large.
The gear system of a bicycle consists of two gears which are connected by
a chain. The front gear is a large wheel with teeth around it and is called crank
Activity
wheel. Rear9.4
gear is a small wheel having teeth around it and moves the wheels of
bicycle. The gear system of bicycle can be observed by the following activity.

· Place a bicycle upside down and move the front gear by applying force on the pedal.
· Do both the gears move with the same speed?
· How many cycles are completed by the back wheel of the bicycle by moving the pedal
once?
· Count the teeth of crank wheel and rear wheel and find the ratio between their teeth.
· Is there any relation between the ratio of teeth of both gears and speed of the wheel?
Do you know?
· Will the bicycle move fast or slow if the two gears are replaced with each other?

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 General Science 6

Two gears whose teeth are interlocked with each other move in opposite directions.

9.6 FUNCTIONS OF GEARS

Gears are also used in big and complex machines. They transfer the force
from one wheel to the other and also change the direction of the force.
(i) Gears in a hand drill are at an angle
of 90o with each other. When big
wheel is turned vertically, the small
wheel turns horizontally. Hand drill is
used to make hole in the wood.
(ii) Bicycle, motor cycle, motor car and
other vehicles move with the help of Figure 9.14 Gear system of a car
gear systems. Their speed is also
controlled using gear system.
Activity 9.5
(iii) More than two wheels are used in
the gear system of a racing bicycle.

· Observe the egg beater being used in home.

· This is a simple machine.

· Draw the diagrams of other simple machines

used in this machine and label them.
· What do you learn from this activity?

9.7 TRANSFER OF MOTION FROM ONE PULLEY OR

GEAR SYSTEM TO ANOTHER
In a machine, the motion of one pulley or gear system is transferred to the
other with help of a belt or chain. The transfer of motion to another gear system
with the help of belt or chain can be observed in bicycle, donkey pump and other

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 Chapter 9: Forces and Machines

Figure 9.16 Transfer of motion in

Figure 9.15 Transfer of motion using a belt back wheel of a bicycle through the
chain

complex machines.
In the gear system of a bicycle, when force is applied on front gear, it
turns. This creates tension in the chain connecting the two gears. Tension in the
chain causes the back gear to move.
9.7.1 Effect of Tension in the Belt or Chain on the
Action of Pulley or Gear System
Tension in the belt or chain affects the motion of pulley or gear system. In
a bicycle, when tension in the chain is increased by applying force on front
wheel, the back gear and back wheel move fast. When we stop pedaling or less
force is applied, the tension in the chain decreases. As a result, a decrease in the
speed of back gear or wheel takes place.

9.7.2 Function of a Bicycle

A bicycle has two gears. The front gear is connected with the back gear
through a chain. When force is applied on the front gear, it moves. With this,
tension is created in the chain connecting the two gears which is the cause of
movement of the back gear. In this way, back wheel of the bicycle which is

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 General Science 6

Activity 9.6
connected with back gear also moves and makes the bicycle move on the road.
As force is applied on front gear, it is called driving gear. For increasing speed,
the driving gear is kept bigger than the driven gear.

· Make a visit along with your teacher to the

site where a building is under construction.
Observe the gear system in the crane or lift
which is used to transport materials at
certain height.
· Write down the use of force required by
different gears for lifting the same load on
your workbook.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY

AND ENVIRONMENT

Due to modern technology, wheelchair for disabled persons such as persons

without legs and hands has been transformed into new shape. This wheelchair is
controlled by voice. An electronic device has been installed in wheelchair which
helps
KEY in POINTS
movement of wheelchair as per verbal command. The velocity and
direction can also be changed by this command. This is termed as voice
command wheelchair.

1. A machine makes the work easier.

2. Wheel is the most important machine.
3. In wheel and axle system, a small wheel is fixed in the centre of a large
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Chapter 9: Forces and Machines

wheel. Small wheel is called axle. Both the wheel and the axle turn on the
same line or axis.
4. Wheel and axle system is used in two types of works. (i) To lift heavy load.
(ii) To increase or decrease the speed.
5. Pulley is a simple machine which consists of a wheel and a rope wrapped
around the wheel.
6. With the help of pulley, we can change the direction of applied force and
make the work easier.
7. There are two types of pulleys. (i) Fixed pulley (ii) Movable pulley.
8. For making the work much easier, compound pulley system is used. In
compound pulley system, both the fixed pulley and the movable pulley
are used.
9. Gear is an advanced shape of wheel and axle system. Gears are toothed
wheels. Usually, the teeth of two gears are interlocked with each other.
10. Gear system is used to transfer the motion of one wheel to the other.
Gears are also used to increase or decrease the speed.
11. Two or more gears which work together are called gear train.
12. In a gear system consisting of two gears, the gear on which force is
applied is called driving gear and the other which turns due to the motion
of driving gear is called driven gear.
13. To increase the speed, driving gear is kept large and the driven gear is
kept small.
EXERCISE
14. Gears are used in bicycle, motor cycle, motor car and all the other
complex machines.

9.1 Complete the sentences using proper words.

(i) Screwdriver is the simplest example of wheel and ______________
system.

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 General Science 6

(ii) To make the work much easier _____________ pulley system is used.
(iii) By _____________ the number of pulleys, the amount of force
required to lift the load is decreased.
(iv) The gear on which force is applied is called _____________ gear.
(v) Two gears whose ________________ are interlocked with each other
move in opposite directions.
9.2 Identify true and false statements.
(i) More or less force is applied to wheel to increase or decrease the
speed of the axle and connected shaft.
(ii) Pulley is a simple machine which consists of a wheel and a rope
wrapped around it.
(iii) Gears are used to transfer the force from one wheel to another.
(iv) The gear system consisting of two gears, the gear on which force is
applied is called gear train.
(v) Tension in the belt or chain affects the motion of the pulley.
9.3 Encircle the correct option.
(i) Which of the following is an example of wheel and axle system?
a. knife b. screwdriver
c. bottle opener d. hammer
(ii) What is the function of a fixed pulley?
a. Lifts the load with difficulty.
b. Changes the magnitude of force.
c. Changes the direction of force.
d. Cancels the effect of force.
(iii) Which pulley systems needs less force to lift a certain load?
a. System consisting of one pulley.
b. System consisting of two pulleys.
c. System consisting of three pulleys.

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d. System consisting of four pulleys.

(iv) Gear system is an advanced shape of
a. lever b. wedge
c. compound machine d. wheel and axle
(v) Gears whose teeth are interlocked with each other:
a. do not move
b. move in opposite direction
c. move in the same direction.
d. always remain moving
9.4 Match the terms of column A with the relevant statements of column B.

A B

Axle A simple machine.

Driven gear A complicated machine

Wedge Machine for making hole in wood.

Gear train Small wheel of the two fixed wheels.

Hand drill Turns due to the motion of the other gear.

Working of two or more gears together.

9.5 Write short answers.

(i) What is meant by wheel and axle?
(ii) What is the difference between a fixed pulley and a movable
pulley?
(iii) What is a compound pulley?
(iv) What is meant by gear system?
(v) What will happen if two gears of a bicycle are of equal size?
9.6 Describe the uses of wheel and axle system in daily life.

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9.7 What are the uses of gears.

9.8 Narrate the advantages of simple machines.
9.9 What is the difference between wheel and axle?
9.10 Describe difference between pulley and gear.
9.11 Name some machines in which gears are used.
9.12 Think and answer. You can also get help from your school library,
teacher and internet.
(i) How complex machines are different from simple machines?
Explain.
(ii) How wheel and axle, pulley and gear are similar?

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Chapter
10 Properties of Light

After studying this chapter, the students will be able to:

þ Differentiate between transmission, absorption and reflection of light.
þ Demonstrate the law of reflection.
þ Demonstrate the difference between smooth, shiny, and rough surfaces.
þ Compare the regular and diffused reflection.
þ Identify everyday applications, which involve regular reflection and diffused
reflection.
þ Draw ray diagrams for light reflected from a plane mirror at different angles
of incidence.
þ Describe image formation by a plane mirror.
þ Compare characteristics of the images formed by a plane mirror and a
Pinhole camera.
þ Explain the use of reflecting surfaces in different devices.
þ Design an experiment to make an optical instrument using mirrors.
þ Explain the principle of reflection in a kaleidoscope.
þ Describe the relationship of angles between two mirrors and the number of
images they can see in a kaleidoscope.
þ Explain types of mirrors and their uses in our daily life.
þ Investigate the image formation by convex and concave mirrors.

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Introduction
Light is a form of energy. Sun is the biggest source of light. Electric bulbs,
tube lights and fire are other sources of light. Sun, burning candle and lighted
bulb are luminous objects. Objects which do not produce their own light are
called non-luminous objects. Light helps us to see things. We cannot see the
things in the absence of light. The life of all living things depends upon light. In
the absence of light, plants cannot produce food. Living things cannot survive
without food. We have already learnt that light travels in straight line. Light
passes through the transparent objects but cannot pass through opaque
objects. In this chapter, we will study some further properties of light.

Interesting Information
The light which helps our eye to see is called visible light. There are also some types of light
which are not visible to our eyes. e.g., X-rays are used to take the pictures of body skeleton,
ultraviolet rays which kill the germs and gamma rays that are used to sterilize the surgical
instruments.

10.1 TRANSMISSION, ABSORPTION AND REFLECTION

10.1.1 Transmission of Light

Passage of light through

an object is called transmission
of light. The objects through
which light passes are called
transparent objects. As light
passes through the transparent
objects, that is why we can see Incident
ray
the things placed behind them. Transparent
For example, the wind screen of surface
Transmitted
a car and the glass fitted in ray
windows are transparent.
Figure 10.1 Transmission of light

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10.1.2 Absorption of Light

Absorption of light is a process in
which light is absorbed by an object. Dark
and black coloured objects absorb most of
light falling on them. This is the reason that
people wear dark and black coloured clothes
in winter season. When a ray of light falls on an
opaque object, major part of it is absorbed by
Absorption of light
the object and is converted into heat. Rest of
the light is reflected. As light cannot pass Black or rough surface
through opaque objects, therefore it makes a Figure 10.2 Absorption of light
shadow of the object.

10.1.3 Reflection of Light

Turning back of light ray after
striking on an object is called
reflection of light. For example, light is
reflected when it falls on the mirror.
Mirror
Light is reflected not only by the
mirrors, but a number of other
polished objects also reflect light. We
see the objects when light reflected by
them falls on the screen of our eyes.
Incident ray Reflected ray
Let us perform an activity to
know further about reflection of
light. Mirror
Figure 10.3 Reflection of light

Activity 10.1
· Take a plane mirror and stand in a dark room at some place near the wall where light
enters the room through the window or door.

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· Move the mirror in such a way that light falls on it.

· Turn the mirror towards the wall in such a way that light falls on the wall after
reflecting from the mirror.
· What do you see on the wall and why?

Incident Ray
Ray of light which strikes on
Normal
the surface of ab object is called
incident ray.
Reflected Ray
Reflected ray
Incident ray
Ray of light which is reflected
after striking an object is called
Angle of incidence (i) Angle of reflection (r)
reflected ray.
Point of Incidence
Plane mirror
The point on the surface of Point of incidence
an object at which the incident ray Figure 10.4Reflection of light
strikes is called point of incidence.
Normal
A vertical line at the point of incidence is called normal.
Angle of Incidence
The angle made by the incident ray with the normal is called angle of
incidence. It is represented by 'i'.
Angle of Reflection
The angle made by the reflected ray with the normal is called angle of
reflection. It is represented by 'r'.
10.2 LAWS OF REFLECTION
Following are the laws of reflection.
(i) Incident ray, reflected ray and normal all lie on the same plane or
medium.
(ii) Angle of incidence and angle of reflection are equal and on opposite
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Activity 10.2
sides of the normal.

· Fix a white paper on a drawing board with the help of drawing board pins.
Mirror
· Place a mirror strip AB vertically on the paper.

· Fix two common pins at points Q and

R on the paper in front of the mirror in
a line as shown in the figure.

· Observe the image of the common

pins in the mirror and fix two more
common pins at points S and T in such
a way that the pins Q, R, S and T
appear in the same line.

· Join the points Q and R and S and T to Figure 10.5

the point P on the mirror AB.

· Draw a perpendicular line PN on point P. This line will be called normal.

· Ray QR will make an angle of incidence with the normal.

· You will observe that incident ray QR has made an angle of incidence QPN with the
normal and reflected ray ST has made the angle of reflection NPT with the normal.

· Incident ray QR, reflected ray ST and normal PN all lie on the same plane.

· Angle of incidence QPN is equal to the angle of reflection NPT.

10.3 TYPES OF REFLECTING SURFACES

1. Smooth surface
2. Rough surface
10.3.1 Difference among Smooth, Shiny and Rough Surfaces
The smooth surfaces of the objects which
reflect the major part of the light and absorb its
minor part are called smooth and shiny surfaces. For
example the surfaces of metal sheet, white
cardboard and polished wood .
Figure 10.6Shiny surface
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The surfaces of the objects

which absorb major part of light and
reflect minor part of the light ray are
called rough surfaces. For example the
surfaces of the wood. As these surfaces
absorb major part of the light ray
therefore they do not appear shiny.
Figure 10.7 Black and rough surface

Do you know?

None of the naturally occurring objects can reflect or absorb the

entire incident light.

10.4 REGULAR AND DIFFUSED REFLECTION

When parallel rays of light strike
a smooth or polished surface, they are
reflected as parallel rays making the
angle of reflection with the normal
M R
equal to the angle of incidence. Such
Figure 10.8 Smooth or polished surface
type of reflection is called regular
reflection.
When parallel rays of light fall on
a rough surface, they are reflected
making different angles of reflection
with the normal, i.e., their angle of
reflection is not equal to the angle of
incidence. Such type of reflection is Figure 10.9 Rough surface
called irregular or diffused reflection.
10.4.1 Use of Regular and Diffused Reflection in Daily Life
· Due to regular reflection of light, we see our image in the plane mirrors.

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· Due to regular reflection of light, we can turn light towards the dark place
by using a mirror.
· Sunlight does not reach everywhere in our rooms. Even then we can see
objects in our rooms during day time because light enters the rooms due
to diffused reflection.
· When light strikes the dust particles, it is reflected in different directions
due to diffused reflection.
· We can see objects for few minutes just before the sunrise and even after
the sunset. This is also due to the diffused reflection of light.
10.5 IMAGE FORMATION BY A PLANE MIRROR
When the back side of a glass sheet is polished with a thin silver layer, it
becomes a mirror. A plane mirror has smooth and flat surface. We can see our
image and images of different objects in the plane mirrors. Following are the
characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror.
1. Image formed by a plane mirror is erect (upright).
2. Image is equal in size to the object. If you put your hand on the mirror,
you will observe that the image of your hand formed by the mirror is
exactly equal in size to your hand.
3. In a plane mirror, your left side
becomes right side in the
image, i.e. the image is laterally
inverted. This is the reason
that the word AMBULANCE is
often written laterally inverted,
so that the driver of the vehicle
going ahead could read the
word correctly and easily in
back view mirror and give way Figure 10.10 Ambulance
to the ambulance.
4. The image formed by the plane mirror is not real. It is virtual, i.e., it

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disappears on removing the object from front of the mirror.

5. The image is formed as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
A ray diagram helps to locate the position of the image in a plane mirror.
10.5.1 Ray Diagram
A ray diagram is a method of finding the path of the light ray from
object to mirror and from mirror to eye. The position of image in the mirror can
be located. The position of image of an object placed in front of plane mirror can
be determined by the following ray diagram.
Fix a white paper on a drawing board and draw a line AB. Place the plane
mirror that is mounted in the cork, vertically along the line as shown in the
figure. Fix a pin 'O', serving as an object, in front of the mirror in such a way that it
is seen in the middle of the mirror. View image 'I' of 'O' from left side and fix two
pins 'R' and 'Q' aligned with it. Similarly view the image from right side and fix
two pins 'S' and 'T' in such a way that are in line with 'I'. Lift the mirror and remove
the pins carefully one by one and draw circles around pin holes.
Extend points IX and ST beyond line
AB till both intersect each other at I. Now
join O to I which intersects line AB at X.
Measure OX and IX. OX is the distance of
object from the mirror and IX is the
distance of image from the mirror. These
two distances will be equal in length on Figure 10.11 Ray diagram
measurement.
This indicates that image is formed as far as behind the mirror as the
object in front of mirror. Repeat the experiment by decreasing or increasing the
distance of object from the mirror and by viewing the object from different
angles.
10.6 PINHOLE CAMERA
Pinhole camera is a box with a small pinhole on one side. The pinhole is 1

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millimetre in diameter. There is a screen on the opposite side of the pinhole.

Light
rays reflecting from different
parts of the object enter the
camera through pinhole and
strike its screen where they form
an inverted image of the object.
All inner walls of the camera are Figure 10.12 Pinhole camera
made completely black.

10.6.1 Comparison of Characteristics of the Images formed by a

Plane Mirror and a Pinhole Camera
(i) The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, whereas, the image formed
by the pinhole camera is real. It is formed on the screen of the camera.
(ii) The image formed by a plane mirror is erect whereas the image formed
by the pinhole camera is inverted.
(iii) The image formed by the plane mirror is equal in size to the object. The
image formed by the pinhole camera is smaller in size than the object.
However, the image becomes large if the separation between camera and
object is decreased.
(iv) In plane mirror, the distance between the object and the mirror is equal to
the distance between the image and the mirror. In pinhole camera, these
distances are not equal.
(v) The image formed by a plane mirror is laterally inverted but it does not
happen in case of pinhole camera.
10.7 USE OF REFLECTING SURFACES IN DIFFERENT
DEVICES
Reflecting surfaces are used for changing the direction of light in many
instruments, e.g., periscope, telescope and microscope. The surface of plane
mirror is the best example of reflecting surface.

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Mirror strip

Light ray

o
Eye Angle of 45

Figure 10.13 Periscope

10.7.1 Periscope
Periscope helps us to see on the other side of the wall or barrier. Periscope
consists of a long tube which is bent at right angle at both the ends. A plane
mirror is fitted on its either bend in such a way that the mirror makes an angle of
45o with the wall of the tube. Top mirror reflects light to the bottom mirror.
Bottom mirror reflects light to the eyes.
Periscope is used in submarines. People inside the submarine can see
things above the surface of water with the help of periscope. Periscope is also
fitted in battle tanks where the crew inside the tank can see the things outside
the tank.
10.7.2 Reflecting Telescope
The images of distant objects like the moon,
the stars and the planets can be seen with the help Figure 10.14 Reflecting telescope
of the telescope. In telescope, a plane mirror is also
used to reflect the light.
10.7.3 Microscope
Microscope is used to see the objects, e.g.,
bacteria that cannot be seen with naked eye. A
mirror is also an essential part of a compound Figure 10.15 Microscope
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microscope which reflects light towards the object

on the specimen slide placed on the stage.
10.7.4 Multiple Reflections
Reflection of a light ray in different directions is called multiple
reflections.
10.8 KALEIDOSCOPE
Kaleidoscope is an optical instrument in
which we can see more than one images of a
simple design.
Kaleidoscope works on the principle of
multiple reflections. It consists of a long hollow
tube in which two or more rectangular plane Figure 10.16 Kaleidoscope
mirrors are fitted. The mirrors are fixed making an
angle of 60o or 45o with each other. Two more
plates are fixed at the far end of the kaleidoscope.
O n e
plate is made of clear glass and the other plate is of ground glass. The clear glass
is closer to the eye. The ground glass plate reflects the light in different
directions which makes different designs. Small pieces of coloured objects are
kept between the plates. This end of the tube is closed with a piece of mirror. The
second end of the tube is closed leaving a hole in it to see through. When
Activity 10.3
kaleidoscope is turned, the coloured pieces of the objects change their position
and reflected designs are also changed. A number ofKaleidoscope
attractive designs are
formed by it.

· Draw two lines at right angle Eye

Hole
(90o) to each other on the sheet
Mirror
Mirror strip
strip
of white paper.
· Make a design with the help of
Mirror 1 (Line1)
Mirror strip

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coloured pencils in between

these lines.
· Place two mirror strips along the
two lines.
· Observe the image of design formed in a mirror. The number of images
will be three.
· If you make observation by changing the angle between the mirror
strips as 600, the number of observable images will be five.
· Now change the angle between the mirror strips. Observe that how
many types of designs are formed.
· This activity proves that the number of observable designs also changes
as the angle between the mirrors of kaleidoscope is changed.

10.9 TYPES OF MIRRORS

Mirrors are of two types, plane mirror and spherical mirror. We have learnt
about the plane mirror and images formed by Concave
it. Spherical mirror is the part of a
Convex
mirror mirror
sphere. Its centre is called centre of curvature, which is represented by 'C'. The
centre of the mirror is called pole, which
is represented by 'P'. The straight line
joining P and C is called principal axis. Figure 10.17

The distance from P to C is called radius

of curvature. It is represented by 'R'.
Spherical mirrors are also of two types,
(i) concave mirror (ii) convex mirror.

Figure 10.18 Concave mirrors Figure 10.19 Convex mirrors

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10.9.1 Concave Mirror

A spherical mirror whose inner surface is reflecting is called concave
mirror. It is like the inside of the bowl of a spoon.
Activity 10.4
10.9.2 Convex Mirror
A spherical mirror whose outer curved surface is reflecting is called
convex mirror. It is like the outside of the bowl of a spoon.

· Take a spoon and look at your image in it.

· Observe the type of image.
· Move the spoon away from your face and observe the image of your face.
· Will any change in image take place?
· What type of mirror is represented by outside of the bowl of spoon?
· What type of mirror is represented by inside of the bowl of spoon?

10.9.3 Uses of Mirrors

The uses of mirrors are as under.
The image formed in a plane mirror is erect, equal in size to the object and
virtual. It is usually used as looking glass. It is also used in the microscope to
reflect light.
The image formed in a concave mirror is real, inverted and larger in size to
the object (magnified). In daily life, it is used by dentist to see the teeth and by
ladies as cosmetic mirror. It is also used in search lights, torch and as headlight
and mirror in cars.
The image formed in a convex mirror is erect, smaller in size to the object
(diminished) and virtual. In daily life, we can see these mirrors installed in cars,
parks, blind corner and mountainous regions. Object

10.10 IMAGE FORMATION IN CONCAVE

Image MIRROR
(I) If the object 'OD' is placed away
Figure 10.20
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from the centre of curvature 'C'

in front of the concave mirror, its
image 'IE' is formed between
the centre of curvature 'C' and Object

principal focus 'P'. The image is real, inverted and smaller than the object
Image
(figure 10.20).
(ii) If the object 'OC' is placed at the
Figure 10.21
centre of curvature in front of the
concave mirror, its image 'IC' is also
formed at centre of curvature (C). Object
The image is real, inverted and equal
in size to the object (figure 10.21). Image
(iii) If the object 'OD' is placed between
Figure 10.22
the centre of curvature and principal
focus in front of the concave mirror,
its image 'IE' is formed away from the
centre of curvature. The image is real,
Object
inverted and larger in size than the
object (figure 10.22).
(iv) If the object 'OF' is placed at
principal focus in front of the
concave mirror, its image is formed Figure10.23
at infinity and cannot be obtained on
the screen (figure 10.23).
(v) If the o bject 'OD'
Image
is p la ced b etween
principal focus and Object
pole in front of the
concave mirror, the
rays after reflection do
not meet at any point.
Figure10.24

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Hence no real image is

formed. If we extend
t h e re f l e c t e d r a y s
behind the mirror, they
meet at a point where the image 'IE' is formed. The image is virtual, erect
and larger in size than the object (figure 10.24).
10.11 IMAGE FORMATION INObject
CONVEX MIRROR
Image
Rays coming from the object
'OD' do not meet at any point after
reflection from a convex mirror but
spread. Therefore the image 'IE' Figure10.25
appears to be formed behind the
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY
convex AND
mirror as shown in figure 10.25.
ENVIRONMENT
The image formed in convex mirror is
virtual and erect (figure 10.25).

Our sun is producing energy for the last several billion years whereas solar
energy is light rays of sun that reaches earth. Scientists have done a miracle for
KEY welfare
human POINTS by converting this energy into other forms of energy and
presented it in the form of heat and electricity. Today we can easily obtain
electricity from solar energy.

1. Light is a form of energy. Its biggest source is the Sun. Lighted electric
bulbs, tube lights and fire are also its sources.
2. The passage of light ray through some object is called transmission of
light. The objects through which light passes are called transparent
objects.
3. Absorption of light is a process in which light is absorbed by an object.

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Dark and black coloured objects absorb most of light falling on them.
4. Turning back of light ray after striking on some object is called reflection
of light.
5. Ray of light which strikes on the shining surface of some object is called
incident ray. Ray of light which is reflected after striking an object is called
reflected ray. The point on the surface of an object at which the incident
ray strikes is called point of incidence.
6. The angle made by the incident ray with the normal is called angle of
incidence. The angle made by the reflected ray with the normal is called
angle of reflection.
7. Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Incident ray,
reflected ray and normal all lie on the same plane.
8. When parallel rays of light strike a smooth or polished surface, they are
reflected as parallel rays making the angle of reflection with the normal
equal to the angle of incidence. Such type of reflection is called regular
reflection.
9. When parallel rays of light fall on a rough surface, they are reflected
making different angles of reflection with the normal, i.e., their angle of
reflection is not equal to the angle of incidence. Such type of reflection is
called irregular or diffused reflection.
10. A ray diagram is a method of finding the path of the light ray from object
to mirror and from mirror to eye. In this way, we can find the position of
image formed by plane mirror.
11. Reflecting surfaces are used for changing the direction of light in many
instruments, e.g., periscope, telescope and microscope, etc.
12. Mirrors are of two types, plane mirror and spherical mirror. Spherical

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EXERCISE

mirrors are also of two types, concave mirror and convex mirror.
13. A spherical mirror whose inner surface is reflecting is called concave
mirror.
14. A spherical mirror whose outer surface is reflecting is called convex
mirror.
10.1 Encircle the correct option.
(i) Passage of light ray through certain object is called:
a. transmission b. absorption
c. reflection d. diffused reflection
(ii) The size of image formed in a plane mirror is:
a. smaller than object.
b. larger than the object.
c. equal to the object.
th
d. 3/4 of the object.
(iii) Maximum light is reflected by
a. white paper. b. mirror.
c. wooden plate. d. black coloured sheet.
(iv) An instrument which helps us to see on the other side of the wall
or barrier is called:
a. periscope b. telescope
c. microscope d. kaleidoscope
(v) The ray of light moving parallel to the principal axis, after
reflection from a concave mirror:
a. meet at a point and spread.
b. meet at a point but do not spread.
c. do not meet at a point but spread.
d. neither meet at a point nor spread.
10.2 Complete the sentences using proper words.
(i) The point on which incident ray strikes the reflecting surface is

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called __________.
(ii) Incident ray, reflected ray and normal all lie on the same __________.
(iii) Image formed by the plane mirror is__________.
(iv) A spherical mirror whose inner surface is reflecting is called
__________.
(v) Rays coming from an object do not meet at any point after
reflection from __________.
10.3 Match the statements of column A with the relevant statements of column
B.

A B

Smooth surface Finding the path of light from object to mirror

and from mirror to eye.

Ray diagram Observing images of the moon, stars and the

planets.

Telescope Making more than one images of a simple

design.

Microscope Regular reflection.

Kaleidoscope Multiple reflection

Used to see the objects which cannot be seen by

the naked eye.
10.4 Write short answers
(i) Describe the laws of reflection.
(ii) How regular reflection takes place?
(iii) What is diffused reflection?
(iv) How pinhole camera works?
(v) What is ray diagram?
(vi) What is kaleidoscope?
10.5 Identify true and false statements.

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(i) If the object is placed at centre of curvature in front of a concave

mirror, its image is formed at principal focus.
(ii) The image formed by a convex mirror is always virtual, erect and
smaller in size than the object.
(iii) Reflecting surfaces change the direction of light.
(iv) Image formed by a pinhole camera is a real image.
(v) Plane mirror is the part of a sphere.
10.6 Differentiate the following.
(i) Concave mirror and convex mirror
(ii) Microscope and telescope
(iii) Pole and centre of curvature
(iv) Absorption and reflection
(v) Images formed by a plane mirror and a pinhole camera
10.7 What is light? Describe its importance.
10.8 Define transmission, absorption and reflection.
10.9 Compare properties of the images formed by a plane mirror and that
formed by a pinhole camera.
10.10 Describe the use of reflecting surfaces.
10.11 Describe the characteristics of the images of the objects placed at
different distances in front of a concave mirror and explain with the help
of diagrams.
10.12 Describe the characteristics of the image formed by a convex mirror and
explain with the help of diagrams.
10.13 Think and answer. You can also get help from your school library, teacher
and internet.
(i) How different images of the same design can be seen by
kaleidoscope?
(ii) How solar energy can help us to overcome the severe problem of
shortage of electricity?

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Chapter
11 Investigating Sound

After studying this chapter, the students will be able to:

þ Describe sound as a form of energy.

þ Compare the speed of sound in solids, liquids and gaseous mediums.

þ Identify a variety of materials through which sound can travel.

þ Explain that how does a human ear receive sound waves.

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Introduction
We hear different kinds of sounds daily. Sounds of speaking our brothers,
sisters and friends, chirping of birds, sounds of wind, telephone bell, loud
speaker, music and noise, all are different from each other. What is common in all
of these sounds is that they are produced by the vibrations of the objects. Can
you tell what vibrations are? Back and forth
movements of the objects are called
vibrations. In this chapter we will make
further study about the sound. How is sound
produced? How does it travel? What is the
speed of sound in different material
mediums? In addition, we will also be able to Figure 11.1 Sound waves
know how human ear receives sound waves.
11.1 WHAT IS SOUND? HOW IS IT PRODUCED?
Sound is a form of energy. It is produced by vibrating objects. Sound
energy is in fact the kinetic energy of vibrating bodies. Loud sounds have more
energy and soft sounds have less energy. Loud sounds, e.g., explosions have so
much energy that they produce vibrations in the panes of the doors and
windows. Sometimes, the sounds of the explosions have so much energy that
they cause the walls to cracks and window panes to break.

Activity 11.1
· Put some rice grains on the membrane of a drum.
· Strike the drum membrane with a stick.
· You will hear a sound and observe that rice
grains are moving up and down on drum
membrane.
· Why are rice grains jumping?
· What is happening to the drum membrane?
· Is it vibrating or not?
· Does the sound produce when rice grains stop

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moving? If not, why?

11.2 HOW DOES SOUND TRAVEL?

Sound travels in the air or other material mediums in the form of waves.
When we speak, the vibration of our voice creates waves in the air. We hear the
sound when these waves strike the eardrum. Vibrating objects transfer their
kinetic energy (Sound Energy) to the molecules of surrounding air or other
medium which in turn also starts vibrating. These molecules collide with the
neighboring molecules which also begin to vibrate. In this way, a wave of
vibrating molecules is developed which moves ahead in the medium. In this
Sound wave
manner the sound travels in the
medium. Have you ever seen the
sound waves? Sound waves
cannot be seen. However, their
effect can be observed. Let us Figure 11.2 Travelling of a sound wave
perform the following activity for
this purpose.
Activity 11.2

· Strike a tuning fork against a rubber

pad and observe carefully whether its
prongs are vibrating.

· Strike it again against the rubber pad

and bring it close to your ear. Do you
feel vibration of sound?

· Fill a bowl with water. Strike the tuning

fork against the rubber pad and bring it
close to the surface of the water filled in
the bowl.
· Do you observe some ripples or waves
on water surface?
· Why did ripples or waves produce on the surface of water?
· In fact, vibrating prongs of tuning fork transferred their kinetic energy to air molecules.
Air molecules transferred this energy to water molecules. Due to this, ripples or waves

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Activity 11.3
were produced on the water surface.
· Take a long iron or plastic pipe. Ask your friend to hold one end of the pipe and place its
second end on the floor. Ask your friend to tap the pipe gently at the end in his hand.
Try to listen to sound of tapping the pipe.

· Now bring the second end of the pipe close to your ear and ask your friend to tap the
pipe gently again. Try to listen to sound of tapping pipe again. This activity will help you
to guess about the sound travel and its speed in the air (gas) and solid mediums.

Activity 11.4

Fill a large tub with water. Ask your friend to ring the bell inside the water of the tub. Try to
listen to the sound of the bell by bringing your ear close to the edge of the tub. This activity
will help you to guess about the sound travel in liquids and its speed in water.

11.3 SOUND NEEDS MEDIUM TO TRAVEL

Sound cannot travel in vacuum. It needs a medium to propagate from
one place to another. This medium may be in either solid, liquid or gas form.
However, the speed of sound in different mediums is different.
11.4 SPEED OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT MEDIUMS
Sound travels in a medium in the form of waves. The sound waves will
travel fast in a medium whose molecules are packed closely with one another
other. In solids, the intermolecular distances are smaller than those in the liquids
and gases. For this reason, the speed of sound in solids is greater than that in
liquids and gases. Similarly, the intermolecular distances in liquids are smaller
than those in the gases. That is why the speed of sound is comparatively greater
in liquids than that in the gases. The speed of sound in different mediums is
given in the table below.
Medium Speed of sound Medium Speed of sound

1. Air 343 metre per second 4. Iron 5130 metre per second
2. Water 1482 metre per second 5. Glass 5640 metre per second
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3. Concrete 3200 metre per second

11.5 HOW DOES HUMAN EAR RECEIVE SOUND?

The outer part of human ear which is also called pinna catches the sound
waves and directs them to the ear canal. In the ear canal, sound waves strike the
eardrum located at the far end and make it vibrate. The vibration of the eardrum
transfers sound energy in the forward direction to the bones of the middle ear.
The bones of middle ear transfer the sound energy to the cochlea in the inner
ear.
Cochlea is filled with a liquid. When this liquid begins to vibrate, the hairs
present on it becomes dynamic and sound energy is converted into signals.
These signals travel along the auditory nerve to the brain and the brain
interprets these signals as sound.
Bones of middle ear
Auditory nerve

Cochlea

Pinna
Eardrum
Ear canal

Figure 11.3 Structure of human ear

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY

AND ENVIRONMENT

A cane based on sound waves has been developed for blind persons that help
them in walking. This cane has been named as sonar cane. Sound waves emitted
from this cane strike the confronting objects and their signals are conveyed to

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KEY POINTS

headphone attached to ears of blind persons. With this invention blind persons
can freely move from one to another place without any help.
1. We hear different kinds of sounds in daily life. What is common in all of
these sounds is that they are produced by the vibrations of the objects.
Back and forth fast movements of the objects are called vibrations.
2. Sound is a form of energy. Loud sounds have more energy and soft
sounds have less energy.
3. In fact sound energy is the kinetic energy of vibrating bodies which
travels in the air or other mediums in the form of waves.
4. Sound cannot travel in vacuum. It needs a medium to travel.
5. The speed of sound in different mediums is different. In solid mediums,
speed of sound is greater than that in liquids. In liquid mediums, the
speed of sound is greater than that in the gases.
6. The speed of sound is 343 metre per second in the air, 1482 metre per
second in water and it is 5130 metre per second in iron.
7. The outer part of human ear which is also called pinna directs the sound
waves to eardrum through ear canal. This make the eardrum vibrate. The
vibration of the eardrum is transferred to the cochlea of the inner ear
through bones of middle ear. When the liquid filled in the cochlea begins
to vibrate then the hairs present on the cochlea become dynamic and the
sound energy is converted into signals. These signals travel along the
EXERCISE
auditory nerve to the brain. The brain interprets these signals as sound.

11.1 Encircle the correct option.

(i) The back and forth movements of the objects is called:

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a. speed b. vibrations
b. moving around d. circular motion
(ii) The energy transferred from vibrating object to surrounding
medium is?
a. potential energy b. kinetic energy.
c. heat energy. d. mechanical energy.
(iii) Sound cannot travel in:
a. solid. b. liquid.
c. gas. d. vacuum
(iv) The speed of sound is 343 metre per second in:
a. air b. water
c. iron d. wood
(v) Which part of the human ear transfers sound waves to the
cochlea?
a. pinna. b. ear canal.
c. eardrum. d. bones of middle ear.
11.2 Fill in the blanks.
(i) The sound needs ______________ to travel.
(ii) The speed of sound in solids is ______________________ than in the
liquids and gases.
(iii) Sound is a form of _____________.
(iv) The sound is produced by a ________________ object.
(v) The ________________ part of human ear receives the sound waves.
11.3 Identify true and false statements.
(I) Sound energy is actually the potential energy of vibrating object.
(ii) The intermolecular distances are very small in solid objects.
(iii) Speed of sound in water is 5130 metres per second.
(iv) Sound cannot travel in vacuum.
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(v) When air, filled in cochlea, vibrates then hair present on it becomes
dynamic and sound energy is converted into signals.
11.4 Match the statements of column A with the relevant statements of
column B.
A (Medium) B (Speed)
Glass 1482 metre per second
Iron 343 metre per second
Air 5130 metre per second
Water 5230 metre per second
5640 metre per second
11.5 Write short answers.
(i) Which sounds have more energy and which have less?
(ii) What is meant by vibrations?
(iii) Why sound cannot travel in vacuum?
(iv) Why speed of sound is more in solids as compared with liquids
and gases?
(v) Which type of energy of the sound producing object is
converted into sound energy?
11.6 Sound is a form of energy. Explain.
11.7 How is the sound produced?
11.8 How does sound travel?
11.9 Why the speed of sound is different in different mediums?
11.10 How does human ear receive sound?
11.11 Think and answer. You can also get help from your school library,
teacher and internet.
(i) Can sound of drum be heard in a room without air? Explain.
(ii) State whether sound waves travel fast in air canal or bones of
middle air.

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Chapter
12 SPACE AND SATELLITES

After studying this chapter, the students will be able to:

þ Define the term satellite.

þ Compare the physical characteristics of comets, asteroids and meteors.

þ Describe the different kinds of meteors.

þ Inquire into the sighting of Halley's Comet; describe what would they
feel if they saw it.
þ Define the term artificial satellites and geostationary.

þ Explain the key milestones in space technology.

þ Describe the uses of various satellites in space.

þ Investigate how artificial satellites have improved our knowledge about
space and are used for space research.

þ Explain that how do satellites tell us where we are.

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Introduction
The objects like the sun, the moon, the stars and planets found in universe are
called heavenly bodies. These heavenly bodies are the part of the space. In our
solar system, in addition to the bigger objects such as the Sun, the planets and
their moons, the objects like asteroid, comets and meteors are also found. We
have already learnt about the solar system and planets. In this chapter, we will
study the other parts of the solar system, i.e., asteroids, comets and meteors.
12.1 SATELLITES
The heavenly bodies which are moving around a star or a planet are
called satellites. Planets and their moons are the examples of the satellites. The
Earth is a satellite of the Sun and Moon is the satellite of the Earth.

Earth
Sun
Asteroid
Moon Belt

Figure 12.1 Satellites

12.2 NATURAL SATELLITES

The planets, their moons and many other heavenly bodies such as
asteroids and comets which are found naturally, are called natural satellites.
12.2.1 Asteroids
Asteroids are the pieces of rocks or metals or both which revolve around
the Sun between the Mars and the Jupiter. They make a belt between the Mars
and the Jupiter which is called asteroid belt.
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Asteroids Asteroid belt

Figure 12.2
Asteroids have different shapes and sizes. Some are as big as about 1000
km in diameter and some are very small in diameter. 'Ceres' and 'Vesta' are the
two such asteroids which have been seen with the help of telescope.
Astronomers think that the materials which could not be used in making planets
started moving around the Sun separately. They were called asteroids. Asteroids
are also known as minor planets.
Do you know?
Most of the asteroids complete their revolution around the Sun in about 5 Earth years.

12.2.2 Comets
In addition to the planets and asteroids, there are also some bodies
revolving around the Sun, are called comets.
These are the large balls of dust made of
frozen gases and rocks particles. The comets
revolve around the Sun in an elliptical orbit.
They have very low speed and complete a
revolution around the Sun in a long time.
They appear along the outer edges of the
solar system. When they come close to the
Sun, their movement becomes fast and they
become visible. A comet is only seen when it Figure 12.3Comet
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comes close to the Sun. When a comet comes close to the Sun during its motion,
its frozen matter changes to clouds of gases and dust and spreads along its one
end of the comet. This cloud of gases is called 'coma'. The gases and dust release
from the coma forms a long tail which is illuminated by the Sun. The tail of the
coma points away from the Sun. The length of this tail can be millions of
kilometres.
12.2.3 Halley's Comet
A comet which has been seen many times in the sky is called Halley's
Comet because this was first seen by an English astronomer Halley in 1682.
Halley's Comet appears after every 76 years. Last time it was seen in 1986.
People in the past had been
sighting the Halley's Comet in
different shapes. Some people
sighted it as a long star. Some
sighted it as having a long tail
spreading smoke on the sky. Many
people in the past were afraid of this
comet. If you could see the Halley's
Comet, you might feel it as star
spreading light and different gases in
the sky which make the shape of a Figure 12.4 Halley’s Comet
long tail.
Interesting Information

· It is not necessary for a comet to be frozen water. It may be frozen carbon dioxide,
methane or ammonia.
· Comet has no light of its own. It reflects the light of the Sun.

Brain Teasers

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Activity 12.1
Comet Halley is seen after every 76 years. When will it be seen next?

· Go to your school library with teacher. Read ancient and latest books about solar
system and draw the figure of solar system on your notebook.

· What new information comes to your observation after studying ancient and latest
books?

· Get information from your teacher about the planet that has been excluded from
solar system.

12.2.4 Meteors
Besides the comets, there are a lot of small
objects which revolve around the Sun. These are called
meteoroids. Meteoroids are the pieces of rocks or
metals which orbit around the Sun on different paths.
Most of them are too small to be seen from the Earth.
You might have seen scattering of fireballs in the
sky. Many people call them shooting star. In fact, it is
not a star. It is a meteoroid which enters the Earth's Figure 12.5 Meteoroid
atmosphere and starts burning. A meteoroid which burns after entering the
Earth's atmosphere is called meteor.
Meteors cannot reach the
Earth's surface. They burn completely
a n d a d d d u s t i n t h e E a r t h 's
atmosphere. They burn up about 50 –
100 km above the Earth's surface.
There are three important kinds
of meteors.
(i) Irony meteors
They mostly consist of iron.
(ii) Stony meteors
Figure 12.6 Meteor
They consist of pieces of rock
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and silicate minerals.

(iii) Stony-Iron meteors
They consist
Interesting of pieces of silicate, nickel and iron.
Information

· When a large meteoroid enters the Earth's

atmosphere and hits the Earth's surface, it makes a
crater on the ground. Such a meteoroid is called
Meteorite
meteorite.

· In 1920, a very big meteorite struck the Earth's

surface in Namibia (Africa). It weighed 60 tons and
was named Hoba. Hoba meteorite

· Very long ago, a huge meteorite struck the Earth's

surface and made a crater 180 metres deep and 1200
metres wide. This crater is located in Arizona Crater made by meteorite in Arizona
(America).

Activity 12.2

For this activity we will need a tray, clay and stone.

· Fill a tray with clean clay.

· Drop the stone from height into tray

as shown in figure.

· Remove stone carefully and

examine the pit.
· What will you conclude from this activity?

12.3 ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES

The Moon is the natural satellite of our Earth. A large number of man-
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made satellites have been launched into the space for orbiting around the Earth.
These man-made satellites are called artificial satellites. Artificial satellites are
playing an important role in improving the standard of human life.
12.3.1 Sputnik-I
Soviet Union launched artificial satellite
named Sputnik-I on 4th October, 1957. Its
weighed 83 kilogram and wrecked after
remaining 57 days in space. Transmitter installed
in it used to send information about atmosphere Figure 12.7 Sputnik-I
towards Earth.
12.3.2 Explorer-I
This satellite was sent by America into
space on 31st January, 1958. The satellite sent
information about radioactive environment in
Figure 12.8 Explorer satellite
Earth orbit. It weighed 14 kilogram.
12.3.3 Geostationary Satellites
Geostationary satellites are
the artificial satellites which revolve
around the Earth at a height of
36000 km. The path on which
geostationary satellites revolve is
called geostationary orbit. These
satellites complete one revolution
around the Earth in the same time
that is taken by the Earth to
complete one spin around its axis.
It means that a geostationary
satellite completes one revolution
around the Earth in 24 hours.
Figure 12.9 Geostationary satellite

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That is why a satellite moving on the geostationary orbit appears stationary.

Geostationary satellites are used for communication purposes.
12.3.4 Landsat
Landsat is actually a series of satellite
missions. The first Landsat satellite was sent into
space by America on 23rd July, 1972. These
satellites collect and send information and Figure 12.10 Landsat satellite
pictures about Earth.
12.3.5 Communication
In 1960 NASA sent one
communication satellite into space.
This satellite transmitted messages
from one part to another part of the
world. This also broadcasts various
television programmes in the world Figure 12.11 Communication satellite
simultaneously.
12.3.6 Polar Orbiting Satellites
Polar orbiting satellites move in the polar orbit around the North and
South poles of the Earth. The satellites moving along this orbit scan the whole
Earth.
12.3.7 Low Earth-Orbit Satellite
Low Earth-orbit is an orbit which is close to the Earth. It is used for the
Space Shuttles, Space Stations and
Hubble telescopes. The satellites
moving in this orbit complete one
revolution around the Earth in 90
minutes. These satellites revolve
around the Earth in six different orbits
and form a Global Positioning System
(GPS). This system helps a telephone
Figure 12.12 Polar orbiting satellite
receiver, or a mobile phone to catch
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signals. The passengers can use

this system for not only to know
their location but to select the best
route to reach their destination.
The Earth satellites help us to take
detailed photographs of the
Earth's surface which are useful in
r e s e a r c h
works in the fields of forestry,
fisheries, mining and environment,
etc.

An airplane pilot, sailor of the boat

or a person living in desert or any Figure 12.13 Global positioning system
other place can use the GPS present in his mobile phone to find his position
and get information about his surroundings.

Figure 12.14 Satellite receiving centre

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12.3.6 Satellite Receiving Stations

The stations on the Earth which receive the messages from the satellites
are called satellite receiving stations.
12.3 KEY MILESTONES IN SPACE TECHNOLOGY
Several thousand artificial satellites have been sent into the space. Some
key milestones in space technology are given below.

October 4, 1957 Soviet Union launched Sputnik-I into space.

January 31, 1958 America launched Explorer-I into space.

April 12, 1961 Russian Yuri Gagarin was the first man who went to space,
completed a revolution around the Earth and returned
safely.

July 20, 1969 Two American Neil Armstrong and Edwin Eledrin were
the first men to step on the Moon.

May 14, 1973 America lunched its first space station Skylab into space.
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY
April 19,
AND 1975 India sent its artificial satellite Aryabhatta into space.
ENVIRONMENT

July 16, 1990 Pakistan sent its artificial satellite Badr-I into space.

· Artificial satellites are a great success for scientists. Due to them,

information regarding planets and stars in the sky is received at earth
station which is used by scientists to detect changes occurring in them. In
addition, information about the changes taking place in the atmosphere
reaches earth through artificial satellites. In this way protective measures
are taken against every type of threats.

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KEY POINTS

· The location of any object has become very easy with the help of
satellites. This mechanism is called global positioning system (GPS).
Using GPS receiver, every person can access that within seconds.

1. The heavenly bodies which are moving around a star or a planet are
called satellites.
2. Planets, their moons, asteroids and comets, etc. are the examples of
natural satellites.
3. Asteroids are the pieces of rocks or metals or both which revolve around
the Sun between the Mars and the Jupiter. They make a belt between the
Mars and the Jupiter which is called asteroid belt.
4. In addition to the planets and asteroids, there are also some bodies
revolving around the Sun, are called comets. These are the large balls of
dust made of frozen gases and rock particles which complete a revolution
around the Sun in a long time.
5. Besides the comets, there are numerous small objects which revolve
around the Sun. These are called meteoroids.
6. Meteoroids which start burning after entering the Earth's atmosphere are
called meteors.
7. Some meteoroids hit the Earth's surface and make craters on the ground.
Such meteoroids are called meteorites.
8. A large number of man-made satellites are orbiting the Earth. These
man-made satellites are called artificial satellites.
9. Geostationary satellites, polar satellites and low earth-orbit satellites are
examples of artificial satellites.

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10. EXERCISE
The station on the Earth which receives the messages from the satellites is
called satellite receiving centre.
11. Artificial satellites are playing an important role in improving the human
life standard.

12.1 Encircle the correct option.

(i) The Moon is:
a. Natural satellite of the Sun.
b. Natural satellite of the Earth.
c. Polar satellite of the Earth.
d. Geostationary satellite of the Earth.
(ii) Russia sent Sputnik-I into space in:
a. 1947 b. 1957
c. 1967 d. 1977
(iii) Geostationary satellite complete one revolution around the Earth
in:
a. one day b. one week
c. one month d. one year
(iv) The first man who completed one revolution around the Earth was:
a. Edwin Eledrin b. Neil Armstrong
c. Elan Shepard d. Yuri Gagarin
(v) The satellite Badr-I was sent into space by Pakistan in:
a. 1969 b. 1973
c. 1975 d. 1990
12.2 Fill in the blanks.
(i) Last time comet Halley was seen in __________.
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(ii) Meteoroid which burns after entering Earth's atmosphere is called

_________.
(iii) The name of first artificial satellite is __________.
(iv) Geostationary satellites revolve around the Earth at a height of
__________ kilometres.
(v) Artificial satellites are playing an important role in improving
__________.
12.3 Identify true and false statements.
(i) There are two asteroids which have been seen with the help of
microscope.
(ii) Comets revolve around the Sun in circular orbit.
(iii) Meteors burn at an altitude of 50-100 kilometres.
(iv) Geostationary satellites complete one revolution around the Earth
in 34 hours.
(v) Neil Armstrong and Edwin Eledrin put steps on moon on 20th July,
1969.
12.4 Write short answers.
(i) What are satellites?
(ii) Name two natural satellites.
(iii) Name two artificial satellites.
(iv) Which of the two planets have asteroid belt in between them?
(v) When Explorer-I was sent in space by America?
12.5 Match the terms of column A with the relevant statements of column B.
A B
Natural satellites Ceres
Artificial satellites Moon
Asteroids Matter consisting of rock or metals which begin

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to burn on entering the Earth's atmosphere

Halley's Comet Badr-I
Meteors Appears after every 76 years
Coma
12.6 Write note on the following.
(i) Asteroids (ii) Comets (iii) Meteors
12.7 Tail of a comet is formed on opposite side of the Sun. Why?
12.8 Why do meteors burn in the Earth's atmosphere?
12.9 Describe the uses of the Earth's satellites.
12.10 What are geostationary satellites? What are their functions?
12.11 Describe the key milestones in space technology.
12.12 Think and answer.
You can also get help from your school library, teacher and internet.
(i) When do comets appear?
(ii) Is water on comets in the frozen form? Explain.

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Glossary

Abiotic component of the environment: - The non-living things of an environment.

Absorption: - Absorption of light in an object.
Allotropy: - The existence of a substance and especially an element in two or more different
forms (as of crystals) usually in the same phase. graphite, charcoal and diamond
are all allotropic forms of carob.
Asteroid: - Rocky matter which revolves around the Sun in between the Mars and the Jupiter.
Atmosphere: - The blanket of air around the Earth.
Atom: - An extremely small particle of matter which cannot exist independently.
Aqueous solution: - A solution in which solvent is water.
Auditory nerve: - The nerve which sends the messages or signals from ear to brain.
Biomass: - Organic matter produced from animals and plants.
Biotic components of the environment: - The living things of an environment.
Carnivores: - The animals that eat the flesh of other animals.
Cell: - Unit of life.
Centre of curvature: -The centre of that sphere from which a spherical mirror is formed.
Chlorophyll: - Green coloured pigment which is present in plant cells.
Chloroplast: - The bag like structures present in the plant cell which contain green coloured
pigment chlorophyll.
Circulatory system: -The system of circulating blood in the body.
Comets: - The large balls made of frozen gases, ice and dust which revolve around the Sun.
Compound: - The substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more than two
elements.
Concave mirror: - The spherical mirror whose inner surface is reflecting.
Concentrated solution: - A solution in which large amount of solute is dissolved.
Convex mirror: - The spherical mirror whose outer surface is reflecting.
Desert: - Dry area where there is very low rain fall.
Digestive system: - A system which changes the complex food molecules into smaller units.
Dilute solution: - A solution with less amount of solute dissolved in it.
Dry ice: - Carbon dioxide in solid form.
Element: - Matter consisting of one kind of atoms only.
Energy: - The ability to do work.
Energy converters: - Machines that change one form of energy to other forms.
Environment: - The living and non-living things which surround an organism.
Epidermis: - The outer protective layer of the plant leaf.
Excretory system: - A system of getting rid of wastes from the body of an organism.
Gear: - Two toothed wheels which are interlocked with each other.
Geothermal energy: - Heat energy present inside the Earth.
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 Glossary

Glucose: - The initial food product obtained as a result of photosynthesis.

Herbivores: - The animals that eat plants.
Host: - The organism in the body of which a parasite lives.
Hydropower: - The energy of flowing water.
Kinetic energy: - The energy possessed by an object due to its motion.
Medium for sound to travel: - The object through which sound waves can travel.
Mesophyll: - The internal tissue of the leaf where photosynthesis takes place.
Meteorite: - Meteoroid that hits the Earth's surface.
Meteoroids: - Rock or metal pieces which revolve around the Sun other than asteroids.
Meteors: - Meteoroids that burn completely after entering the Earth's atmosphere.
Microscope: - The instrument used to see an enlarged view of very small objects like cells.
Mitochondria: - Cell organelles present in the cytoplasm of the cell where respiration takes
place.
Mixture: - Impure matter obtained by combining two or more than two substances physically.
Molecule: - The particle of matter which can exist independently.
Mutualism: - The friendly relationship between the two organisms due to which both of them
get benefit from each other.
Nervous system: - A system of sending messages within the body.
Noble gases: - Inert gases.
Olfactory nerve: - A nerve which sends messages or signals from nose to brain.
Omnivores: - The animals which eat both the plants and the flesh of other animals.
Optic nerve: -The nerve which sends messages or signals from eye to brain.
Organ: - The part of an organism consisting of different tissues.
Organ system: - A group of organs working together to perform a particular function.
Ozone: - A protective layer 25 – 30 km above the surface of Earth.
Parasite: - An organism living in the body of another organism.
Photosynthesis: - The food making process in plants.
Pole: - Centre of a spherical mirror.
Potential energy: - The energy present in an object due to its position.
Predation: - Feeding relationship between the predator and the prey.
Predators: - The animals which hunt the other animals for food.
Preys: - The animals that are hunted by other animals for food.
Principal axis: - Line joining the pole and centre of curvature.
Principal focus: - The point through which rays coming parallel to the principal axis pass after
reflection from the concave mirror.
Pulley: - A wheel wrapped by a rope.
Rain forests: - The areas which have plenty of rain fall throughout the year.
Receptors: - Sensory cells in the skin.
Reflection: - The bouncing back of a light ray when it hits a surface.

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Respiration: - The process of producing energy from food.

Respiratory system: - A system of supplying the body with oxygen for oxidation of food and
getting rid of carbon dioxide produced in the body.
Satellite: - Heavenly bodies which revolve around a star or a planet.
Saturated solution: - A solution in which further solute cannot dissolve at a particular
temperature.
Sense organs: - Eye, Ear, Nose, Tongue and Skin by which we observe our surroundings and
get information.
Solar energy: - Energy of the Sun.
Solubility: - The amount of solute in grams which is required to make the saturated solution in
100 grams solvent at a fixed temperature.
Solute: - The part of the solution which is present in less quantity.
Solution: - Homogeneous mixture of two or more than two substances.
Solvent: - The part of a solution which is present in large quantity.
Sound: - A form of energy.
Spherical mirror: - Mirror which is part of a sphere.
Stomata: - Tiny pores present in the lower epidermis of plant leaves through which exchange
of gases takes place.
Suspension: - A mixture in which solute particles do not dissolve but remain suspended in the
liquid solvent.
Taste buds: - Sensory cells for taste.
Tissue: - Group of similar cells.
Transmission: - Passage of light through an object.
Unsaturated solution: - A solution in which more quantity of solute can be dissolved at a given
temperature.
Vascular bundles: - Bundles of xylem and phloem tissues which transport water and food in the
plants.
Wheel and axle: - A system consisting of a small wheel fitted with the large wheel in such a way
that small wheel works as axle and the large wheel works as wheel.
Vibrations: - Back and forth fast movements of the object.
Wind energy: - Energy of blowing air/wind.

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 Index

Index
A Meteoroids 172
Absorption 143 Meteor 172
Atom 68 Mesophyll 37
Allotropic 73 Mutualism 62
Asteroid 169 N
Aqueous solution 103 Nervous system 16
Auditory nerve 26,164 Noble gases 91
Abiotic component of the O
environment 53 Optic nerve 28
Air 88, 89 Ozone 89
B Olfactory nerve 24
Biomass 121 Omnivores
Biotic components of the Organs 13
environment 51 Organ system
C P
Circulatory system 15 Principal axis 152
Centre of curvature 152 Principal focus
Cell 2 Predators 61
Chloroplast 8 Predation 61
Chlorophyll 37 Preys 61
Compound 74 Pulley 129
Concentrated solution 103 Potential energy 113
Concave mirror 152 Photosynthesis 37
Convex mirror 153 R
Converters 119 Rain forest 143
Comets 170 Reflection 143
D Respiration
Digestive system 14 Receptors
Dilute solution 103 S
Dry ice 95 Sound 161
Desert 56 Saturated solution 103
E Stomata 36
Energy 112 Suspension 105
Energy converters 119 Spherical mirror 152
Element 69 Solution 100
Environment 51 Solar energy 120
G Solvent 100
Geothermal energy 121 Solute 100
Gear 132 Satellite 169
H Saturated solution 103
Hydropower 120 T
Herbivores 52 Transmission 142
Host 52 Tissue 11
K Taste buds 25
Kinetic energy 112 U
M Unsaturated solution 103
Medium of sound for travel 163 V
Mitochondria 8 Vibrations
Microscope 3 Vascular bundles 37
Mixture 75 W
Meteorite 173 Wind energy 121
Wheel and axle 127

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