RESEARCH METHODS NOTES 1

"All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it
leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention" - Hudson Maxim

Motives for Research

• Intellectual ambition – the desire to know and understand the world, appreciate the good ideals,
and criticize the flawed ones.
• Problem solving – solving of people’s or societal problems.
• It’s a requirement for the award of higher education certificate.

Purpose of scientific and engineering research

The driving force behind engineering research is to;

• Minimise consumption of energy,

• Reduce use of materials
• Offer alternative materials for use,
• higher efficient materials,
• reduce the weight,
• reduce cost,
• reduce pollution,
• help resource challenges with humanities and make life better without sacrificing efficiency and
functionality.
• Maximise conversion of energy from one form to the other, identify, optimise, design highly
efficient processes and systems,

What is research? - A search for knowledge - A scientific and systematic search for
significant information on a specific topic – A careful investigation through search
for new facts in any branch of knowledge – A voyage of discovery – and so on. It is also known as the art
of scientific investigation.

When the unknown confronts us, our inherited instinct of inquisitiveness (curiosity) makes us probe to
attain the full understanding of the unknown. The method we employ to probe for getting the knowledge
of unknown can be called research. Research is defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis
or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and finally testing the conclusions carefully to determine whether they fit the hypothesis
formulated.
Research is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment; the
search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is
Research. The systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory is also
research. Broadly speaking, research refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the
problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solution to the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some
theoretical formulation. This method we employ will vary according to the broader category of
knowledge domains: literature, language, arts, social sciences, science and Engineering.

Research Methods Vs Methodology:

Research methods include all those techniques/methods that are adopted for conducting research. Thus,
research techniques or methods are the methods that the researchers adopt for conducting the research
studies. On the other hand, research methodology is the way in which research problems are solved
systematically. It is a science of studying how research is conducted scientifically. Under it, the researcher
acquaints himself/herself with the various steps generally adopted to study a research problem, along with
the underlying logic behind them. Hence, itis not only important for the researcher to know the research
techniques/ methods, but also the scientific approach called methodology. Research methodology is a
term that basically means the science of how research is done scientifically. It is a way to systematically
and logically solve a problem, help us understand the process not just the product of research, and
analyzes methods in addition to the information obtained by them.

Types of Research:

Descriptive Research vs. Analytical Research

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of
descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. This approach is suitable for
social sciences and business and management studies for descriptive research studies. The main
characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; s/he can only report
what has happened or what is happening. Most research projects of this nature are used for descriptive
studies in which the researcher seeks to measure factors like frequency of shopping, brand preference of
people, most popular media programme etc. Survey methods of all kinds fall under descriptive research,
including comparative and correlation techniques. In analytical research, on the other hand, researcher
makes a critical evaluation of the material by analyzing facts and information already available.
Applied Research vs. Fundamental Research
Research can either be Applied Research or Fundamental Research. The main target of Applied Research
is to find a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial / business organization,
whereas Fundamental or Pure Research is mainly concerned with generalizations and concentrates on the
formulation of a theory. "Gathering knowledge for the sake of knowledge” is termed 'Pure' or 'Basic' or
‘Fundamental’ research. Examples of fundamental research are research concerning some natural
phenomenon or related to pure mathematics; research studies aimed at studying and making
generalizations about human behaviour. While applied research concentrates on discovering a solution for
some pressing practical problem, fundamental research is focused towards formulation of theories that
may have a broad base of applications either at present or for future which adds more materials to the
already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

While Quantitative research is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity,
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often
talk of 'Motivation Research', an important type of qualitative research. Qualitative research is especially
important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human
behaviour.

Conceptual vs. Experimental (or Empirical)

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers
and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, experimental
(empirical) research relies on experiment or observation alone, often without due regard for system and
theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment. In such a research, it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and
actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a
research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable
results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then
sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as
to bring forth the desired information leading to the hypothesis. Such research is thus characterized by the
experimenter's control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to
study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other
variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to
be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
Research Problem: A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be
improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory,
or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation.
What is research problem statement?
A problem statement is the description of an issue currently existing which needs to be addressed. It
provides the context for the research study and generates the questions which the research aims to answer.
The statement of the problem is the focal point of any research.
How do you identify the problem?
Here are seven-steps for an effective problem-solving process.
1. Identify the issues. Be clear about what the problem is.

2. Understand everyone's interests.

3. List the possible solutions (options).

4. Evaluate the options.

5. Select an option or options.

6. Document the agreement(s).

7. Agree on contingencies, monitoring, and evaluation.

Necessity of Defining a Research Problem:

The problem to be researched needs to be described unambiguously as that will help you to discriminate
useful data from the unrelated ones. A proper formulation of research problem will allow the
investigator to be on the track in contrast to an ill-defined problem may possibly create difficulties.
Questions like: What data are to be gathered? What attributes of data are appropriate and need to be
analyzed? What relations should be investigated. What methods should be employed for the purpose? as
well as other questions turn up in the head of the investigator who can well plan his strategy and find
solutions to these kinds of questions only when the research problem has been well defined. Therefore,
defining the problem accurately is a necessity for any research and is a step of the highest value.
In fact, formulation of a problem is often vital than its solution. It is only on thoroughly describing the
problem that we can work out the research design and can efficiently proceed all the consequential steps
needed while doing research.

Important Points to Keep in Mind while Defining the Research Problem

1. The correct question needs to be addressed if research is to help decision makers. A right answer to the
wrong question leads either to bad advice or to no advice.
2. Usually in problem we have an inclination to rationalize and defend our actions once we have started
upon a specific research plan. The perfect time to examine and think about alternative techniques is in the
planning stage. If it is completed unnecessary expense of false start and redoing work may be prevented.

3. An excellent beginning in problem definition is to ask what the decision maker want to know if the
requested information can be gathered without error and without expense.

4. Another excellent rule to follow is “Never settle on a specific strategy” without developing and taking
into consideration at least one alternate option”.

5. The problem definition stage of research is the determination and structuring of the decision maker’s
question. It should be the decision maker’s question and not the researcher’s question.

6. What decision do you face? Unless you have decision to make, there isn’t any research problem.
7. What are the alternatives? In case there are no options to choose, once again there is absolutely no
research problem.

8. What are the factors for selecting the best alternative? Unless you have criteria for evaluation, again
there’s no problem.
9. The researcher should stay away from the acceptance of the superficial and the obvious. Frequently we
all hear that a problem clearly expressed is a problem half solved. This statement indicates the necessity
of defining a research problem in research methodology . This actually also results in a smoother
progress on all the following steps which are needed for finishing a research project.

Research Process
Finding a research Advisor/Guide
The choice of research supervisor is probably the most important one that a research scholarfaces.12
• What to Look for in a Potential Research Advisor/Guide
The ideal advisor might have the following traits:
• Has research interests in common with the scholar.
Work is easier when both you and your advisor find the research area fun.
• Has a national or international reputation among researchers.
Someday the scholar will finish his/her degree work and be looking for a job. Advisor's reputation and
professional colleagues could be key in opening opportunities for the scholar. More immediately, the
advisor will be leading scholar’s research, at least at the beginning, and it is important that the advisor
knows how to do quality research.
• Has grant support for research.
If the scholar is working his/her way through school as a teaching or research assistant, he/she may well
want to be supported as a research assistant by the advisor. Even if the scholar has fellowship support or
an outside job, grant support is a sign of the advisor's skill as a researcher, although in subjects such as
pure mathematics, research assistantships are rare.
• Has successfully directed students in the past.
The scholar is new at research; it helps if the advisor has some experience in dealing with research
students.
• Has a reputation as a fair and reasonable advisor.
No scholar wants to work with an advisor who never shares credit for ideas, who expects every student to
spend 7 years as a research scholar, or who doesn't know how to motivate and encourage students.
• Has a high probability of staying at the university.
If the advisor moves to another university before the scholar finishes his/her degree, while the scholar is
trying to finish his/her works, the scholar will have a severe handicap. The scholar may need to consider
moving with the advisor or changing advisors--a difficult situation at best. Even if the advisor goes
travelling for a year on sabbatical, communication can be temporarily difficult.
• Is someone scholars like and admire.
The scholar will be working closely with this person until his/her graduation, and the relationship will not
end even then. The more comfortable the two of them are with the relationship, the fewer distractions
from the research at hand.
• Has an active research group.
Scholars can learn a tremendous amount from more advanced students, and the opportunity to work in a
group of motivated researchers working on similar topics is quite stimulating. Be aware, though, that if
the group is too big, the scholar will have little time with the advisor, and may be directed by a post-
doctoral student or a more advanced graduate research scholar.

How to Find an Advisor/Guide

Before any scholar come to the university, he/she should have made sure that some faculty members were
active researchers in areas of interest to him/her. Now is the time to consider each of those candidates as a
potential advisor, measuring them up against the criteria in the previous section. Use of departmental
annual reports, Science Citation Index, Math Reviews, or electronic resources will help the scholar to find
recent publications by each advisor. The scholar should read a few of these publications and try to
understand them enough to be able to ask intelligent questions and to see directions for further work.
Scholar should get to know potential advisors by taking courses from them, attending seminar talks given
by them, and by seeing them in their offices (by appointment or during office hours) to talk about their
research interests. The scholar should ask for relevant papers to read. Scholar should talk to other students
about various candidate advisors. Scholar should get advice from faculty members that he/she respects or
from the graduate office of his/her department. Good indicators are strong publications in major journals,
some grant support, and a good teaching record. Once the scholar has a good research advisor, he/she
should ask that person to be the advisor. Don't be discouraged by a ``no''--try a different advisor. Good
advisors are much in demand, and they don't remain good if they stretch themselves too thin.

The Advisor-Advisee Relationship

The best analogy for the relationship between an advisor and a student is probably that between a parent
and a child. At the beginning, the child has little independence, and almost every action is directed by the
parent. Initially, most students need close supervision, being told what papers to read and what tasks to
accomplish. As the child grows, independence develops. A student begins to ask interesting research
questions with minimal prompting and can set the direction of the next week's work. The advisor still
plays a crucial role as catalyst and evaluator of ideas. As adolescence sets in, conflicts arise. The student
realizes that all too soon, school days will end, and it will be essential to be able to function on one's own.
A student eventually may feel that research would be more easily finished without the advisor's
``interference,'' even though the student may lack the detachment necessary to evaluate the work.
Independence is frightening, but dependence is resented, and frustration can run high. In adulthood,
parent and child redefine the relationship. The process of graduate school should transform the advisor's
student into the advisor's colleague. The two may or may not continue to collaborate after the student
graduates, but future contact is ideally built on mutual respect, gratitude from the student to the advisor
for the professional formation, and pride of the advisor in the student's accomplishments. It is important
that the advisor and advisee develop a compatible working style. Some people thrive on regular weekly
meetings between the two that force the student to synthesize the week's accomplishments (or to explain
the reasons for the lack of progress). Others rely on chance encounters in the hall. Some advisors have
weekly group meetings at which each student discusses progress, and everyone can comment. Some
advisors expect students to attend seminars or journal clubs in order to keep up with recent research
results. If the scholar feels that he/she is floundering (as every student sometimes does), should ask
his/her advisor for extra meetings, should send frequent email messages asking for pointers, or discuss
his/her work with another trusted faculty member or student. As in any relationship, conflicts should be
faced and discussed. Cultural and generational differences can lead to misunderstandings that are easily
resolved once they are recognized. Sometimes a fellow faculty member or graduate student can lend some
insight. In rare cases, the relationship just does not work. In such cases, the student should seek another
advisor, leaving the first with as little ill-will as possible.
Finding a Topic and Beginning Research
Finding a research topic is perhaps the biggest obstacle for most students. The characteristics of an
ideal topic are to some extent incompatible: The subject should be timely. Previous groundwork should
leave the scholar’s research problem ripe for completion, and it should be in an active area with potential
for future work and employment. On the other hand, if a field is too crowded, and the subject too
prominent, then the scholar stands a risk being ``scooped" by a more experienced researcher who is able
to work faster than him/her. In this case, the scholar may be forced to start over again (rather disastrous)
or at least publish jointly (possibly a blessing, but surely an inconvenience). The scholar’s work should
lead to a well-defined set of results to which he/she can lay claim. In particular, employment prospects
will be lessoned if the scholar merely completes a small piece of a very large project or piece of software
which is closely identified with his/her advisor, or is published with a long list of collaborators.
On the other hand, it is impossible to work in a vacuum, and the scholar’s task can be significantly harder
if he/she doesn't have a group of people working on closely related problems with whom he/she can
interact and share code. The best theses show a high level of creativity - and are often somewhat
speculative. It is often unclear at first how the ideas will develop. On the other hand, a multiyear plan of
research is a very valuable asset. The scholar should really enjoy the subject and wants to spend the next
several years with it!
On the other hand, an ideal subject is of no use without a thesis advisor who is willing to direct you in it.
Clearly some compromise is necessary here!

Getting Research Ideas

• Becoming an Active Reader and Listener
It is very important to make the transition from the passive mode of learning that traditional lecture
courses encourage to an active and critical learning style. Whenever one reads technical material,
evaluates a piece of software, or listens to a research talk, should ask him/her these canonical questions:
From where did the author seem to draw the ideas?
What exactly was accomplished by this piece of work?
How does it seem to relate to other work in the field?
What would be the reasonable next step to build upon this work?
What ideas from related fields might be brought to bear upon this subject?
One technique that some find helpful is to keep a written log of one’s technical reading and
listening. Review it periodically to see if some of the ideas begin to fit together.
• Exposing Yourself to Research
The scholar should set aside some time every week for trying to generate research ideas.
Some possible catalysts are:
Making a weekly trip to the library to read at least the abstracts from the premier journals in one’s field.
One should choose an article or two to read in depth and critique.
The scholar should make a weekly investigation to find technical reports in his/her field, using electronic
resources or libraries. Read selectively and critique.
The scholar should attend a research seminar or colloquium series. Listen and critique.
The scholar should maintain a log and add these to the log, and ask the canonical questions.
As the scholar reviews the log 6 months from now, he/she may find something that strikes a
chord then but is beyond him/her now.

Directed Study
Which comes first: the thesis advisor or the thesis topic? The answer is, both ways work. If the scholar
has identified a compatible advisor, he/she could ask for an independent study course. Both of them
together set the focus for the course, with the scholar having more or less input depending upon his/her
progress in identifying a subfield of research.

Formulating the Research Problem: Develop the Nucleus of an Idea

There are two types of research problems, problems which relate to states of nature and those which relate
to relationships between variables. In the beginning stage itself the scholar must single out the problem
he/she wants to study, i.e., must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that
he/she would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the
ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to
be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general
topic into a specific research problem constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Understanding the
problem thoroughly and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view
are the very important steps in the process of formulating the research problem. The best way of
understanding the problem is to discuss it with the scholar’s own colleagues or with those having some
expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the scholar can seek the help from an advisor/guide
who is usually an experienced person and has several research problems in mind. Often, the advisor/guide
puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the scholar to narrow it down and phrase the
problem in operational terms.
Once the scholar has identified a topic that looks feasible, he/she should make sure that he/she is aware of
all the literature in the area. The scholar should keep reading and listening and keep distinct in his/her
mind what is different between his/her work and others. If the scholar does not frequently review the
literature, he/she had read months ago, he/she may find him/her unconsciously claiming credit for other
people's ideas. On the other hand, the scholar should not let other people's frame of mind limit his/her
creativity.
The scholar may review two types of literature-the conceptual literature concerning the concepts and
theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one
proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the knowledge as to what data and other materials are
available for operational purposes which will enable the scholar to specify his own research problem in a
meaningful context.

Extensive Literature Survey: A Trap to Avoid

It is possible to spend almost all of one’s time in literature review and seminars. It is easy to convince
oneself that by doing this he/she is working hard and accomplishing something. The truth of the matter is
that nothing will come of it unless the scholar is an active reader and listener and unless the scholar
assigns him/her time to develop his/her own ideas, too. It is impossible to ``finish a literature review and
then start research." New literature is always appearing, and as the scholar’s depth and breadth increases,
he/she will continually see new connections and related areas that must be studied. Active listening and
reading must be viewed as ``continuing education'' that will involve the scholar for the rest of his/her
career.
The scholar should not be fooled into thinking it must be finished before he/she can begin research. Once
the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a scholar
writing a thesis for a Masters or Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the
Doctoral Committee or the Research Board for approval. At this juncture the scholar should undertake
extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing
journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals,
conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the
problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies,
if any, which arev similar to the study in hand, should be carefully studied.

Choosing an Idea
From reading, interacting with the advisor during independent study, or work on a research assistantship,
some possible projects will emerge. The scholar should make a list of open problems and possible
projects that are of interest to him/her and discuss them with potential advisors.

Stay Active
Even after the scholar has decided on his/her initial focus, it is important to continue a routine of reading
new journals and technical reports and attending seminars. All of these sources can contribute to the
development of the scholar’s idea. At this stage the scholar can add one question to the canonical list:
How can these ideas help the scholar solve his/her research problem?
The scholar should remember that often the initial idea is quite far from the final thesis topic. If the
scholar remains active in reading and listening, it will be much easier to generate alternative topics if the
time comes.
Measure of Good Research
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet
on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy
the following criteria:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to
repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective
as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their
effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of
analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for
which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in
research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as follows:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a
specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the
research does not rule out creative thinking, but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in
arriving. at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the
logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the
process of reasoning from a part to that; whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some
premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research
more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real
situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the
study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.