EEE4117 Electrical Machines and Drives

HD in Electrical Engineering

Single Phase Transformer

1
Topics to be delivered,
• Basic construction of a single phase transformer
• Operating principles
• EMF Equation
• Equivalent Circuit
• Impedance Transfer
• Open Circuit and Short Circuit Tests
• Voltage Regulation and Efficiency

References:
1. Sen, P.C. (2013). Principles of Electrical Machines and Power
Electronics. Wiley India Pvt. Ltd..
2. Vincent D.T. (1990). Basic Electric Machines. Prentice Hall
International Editions.
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 Construction
• A simple transformer consists of two coils wound on a
closed iron core as shown below.

Primary Secondary

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 Construction
• Transformer is a static machine that has no moving parts but
is able to transform alternating voltages and currents from
high to low (step-up transformer) and vice versa (step-down
transformer).

• Each coil consists of many turns and are wound on a iron

core. The iron core is insulated and laminated with the
windings to reduce core losses. Silicon-steel laminated core
is commonly used in applications.

• Ferromagnetic core is used to obtain a high magnetic

flux/field.
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 Transformer in T&D System
• Transformers are used extensively in all branches of electrical
engineering from the large power transformer employed in the
T&D network to the small transformer of an electronic
amplifier.

25kV
Alternator

25/400 kV Generator Tx 400/132 kV Tx

Customers

11/0.38 kV Tx
11kV/380V Tx 132/11 kV Tx 5
 Construction

• windings are wound around two legs of a magnetic core.

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 Ideal Transformer

Assumptions:

1. The winding resistances are negligible (R = 0);

2. All fluxes are confined to the core and link both

windings (i.e. No leakage flux);

3. Permeability of the core is infinite (I1= 0);

4. No eddy current and hysteresis losses.

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 Ideal Transformer
• When an A.C. voltage v1 is applied to the primary winding, the
output voltage v2 can be found by

v1 N1
 a
v2 N2 a = turns ratio

i.e. Voltage is proportional to the turns of the windings.

• When a load is connected to the secondary winding, i2 will flow

in the winding and i1 can be found by

i1 N2 1
 
i2 N1 a
i.e. Current is inversely proportional to the turns of the winding.
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 Ideal Transformer
• If the supply voltage is sinusoidal, then in rms values:
V1 N1
 a
V2 N2
I1 N2 1
 
I2 N1 a
V1I1  V2I2

input VA  output VA
• That is, the instantaneous power input to the transformer is
equal to the instantaneous power output from the transformer.
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 EMF Equation

  m sin t

• Instantaneous value of induced emf / turn

d  
  m cos t  m sin  t  
dt  2
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 EMF Equation

• rms value of induced emf / turn

1
=  m  0.707  m  0.707  2f m  4.44 f m volts
2
Hence E1 = 4.44N1fm volts
E2 = 4.44N2fm volts

E1 N1

E2 N2

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Example 1
A 200kVA, 6600/400V, 50 Hz single-phase step-down
transformer has 80 turns on the secondary. Calculate:

(a) the approximate values of the primary and

secondary currents;
(b) the approximate number of primary turns; and
(c) the maximum value of the flux.

Ans: (a) 30.3A, 500A; (b) 1320; (c) 0.0225Wb

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 Practical Transformer

• the windings have resistances;

• not all windings link the same flux because of flux

leakage;

• permeability of the core material is not infinite;

• core losses.

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 Transformer Losses

• Copper losses ( I2R losses ) in primary and

secondary windings
PC = I12 R1 + I22 R2

• Iron losses ( Core losses )

(a) Hysteresis loss Ph

(b) Eddy Current loss Pe

Total iron losses, Pi = Ph + Pe

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 Equivalent Circuit

• Considering the winding resistances and the flux leakage.

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 Equivalent Circuit
• Equivalent circuit obtained when the winding resistances
and the flux leakage are being considered.
Winding Resistance

Flux Leakage Reactance

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 Equivalent Circuit
• Equivalent circuit obtained when the core loss and
magnetizing inductance are being added.
Magnetizing Branch No-load / Excitation Current Magnetizing Current

Core Loss Current

Core Loss
Resistance

Magnetizing Reactance

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 Impedance Transfer

• The impedance of the secondary winding, Z2

V2
Z2 
I2
• Referring Z2 to the primary side,

V1 aV2 2 V2
Z'2   a
I1 I 2 /a I2

 a2 Z2
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 Impedance Transfer

• An impedance Z2 connected in the secondary will appear

as an impedance Z’2 looking from the primary.

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 Impedance Transfer

• An impedance from the primary side can also be transferred

to the secondary side, and in that case its value has to be
divided by the square of the turns ratio.

1
Z' 1  2 Z1
a

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Example 2

A 100 kVA transformer has 400 turns on the primary and

80 turns on the secondary. The primary and secondary
resistances are 0.3 and 0.01 respectively, and the
corresponding leakage reactances are 1.1 and 0.035
respectively. Calculate the equivalent impedance referred
to the primary circuit.

Ans: Req = 0.55; Xeq = 1.975; Zeq = 2.05

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 Referred Equivalent Circuit

• Equivalent circuit when secondary resistance and reactance

are referred to the primary.

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 Referred Equivalent Circuit

• With all quantities (voltages, currents, and impedances)

referred to the primary.

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 Approximate Equivalent Circuit

• since the voltage drop in RS and XS are small, the

branch circuit can be moved to the supply terminal.

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 Open Circuit Test
• this test is performed by applying a voltage to either the HV
side or LV side, whichever is convenient;

• during the test, secondary winding is kept open-circuited;

• the primary current is the exciting current and the losses

measured by the wattmeter are the core losses.

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 Open Circuit Test
• Core losses are essentially a fixed loss which depends on the
maximum value of flux in the core and the supply frequency,
but not the load.
• Core loss resistance and current,
2
𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝑅𝑐 =
𝑃𝑜𝑐
and 𝐼𝑐 =
𝑅𝑐

• Magnetizing reactance and current,

2 𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼𝑜𝑐 − 𝐼𝑐2 and 𝑋𝑚 =
𝐼𝑚
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 Short Circuit Test

• this test is performed by short-circuiting one winding and

applying rated current to the other winding;

• only a small supply voltage is required to pass rated current

through the windings;

• it is usual to perform this test by applying a voltage to the HV

side.

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 Short Circuit Test
• the parameter Req and Xeq can be determined from the readings
of voltmeter, ammeter, and wattmeter;

• because the voltage applied under the short-circuit test is small,

the core losses are neglected and the wattmeter reading can be
taken entirely to represent the copper losses in the windings,
represented by Req.

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 Short Circuit Test

• If the secondary side is short circuited, the equivalent circuit

parameters referred to the primary side can be calculated by,

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Example 3
Tests are performed on a 1, 10 kVA, 2200/220 V, 60 Hz transformer and
the following results are obtained.
Open Circuit Test Short Circuit Test
(High Voltage side Open) (Low Voltage Side Shorted)

Current 2.5A 4.55A

Voltage 220V 150V
Power 100W 215W

(a) By using the approximate equivalent circuit, evaluate the core loss
resistance, magnetizing reactance, equivalent winding resistance
and equivalent flux leakage reactance referred to the LV side and
HV side.
(b) Express the excitation current as a percentage of the rated
current.

Ans: (a) Rc(LV)=484, Xm(LV)=89.4, Rc(HV)=48400, Xm(HV)=8940,

Req(HV)=10.4 , Xeq(HV) = 31.3, Req(LV) = 0.104, Xeq(LV) = 0.313

(b) 5.5% 30
 Voltage Regulation (V.R.)

• Voltage regulation is defined as the change in

magnitude of the secondary voltage as the load current
changes from no load to the loaded condition.

i.e. V2 NL  V2 L
V.R. 
V2 L

• Refer to primary side,

V'2  V'2 L
V.R. 
NL

V'2 L
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 Voltage Regulation (V.R.)

• As the load voltage is normally taken as the rated

voltage,

V1  V' 2 rated
V.R. 
V' 2 rated

• With power transformers, this is important

because there is a legal limit by which the voltage
at the consumer terminals may vary. (i.e.  6 %)

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Example 4

Consider the transformer in Example 3, determine

the voltage regulation for the following load
conditions.

(a) 75% full load, 0.6 power factor lagging.

(b) 75% full load, 0.6 power factor leading.

Ans: (a) 0.0486, (b) -0.0282

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 Efficiency

Output power
Efficiency 
Input power

Output power

Output power  losses

Output VA  power factor

η 
Output VA  power factor  core loss  I 2 R losses

V2 I 2 cosθ 2

V2 I 2 cosθ 2  PC  I 22 R eq2
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 Maximum Power Transfer
• For constant V2 and load power factor angle, maximum
efficiency can be obtained when
d
0
dI 2
• Efficiency will be maximum if the denominator is
minimum.
𝑑
(𝑉2 𝐼2 cos𝜃2 + 𝑃𝑐 + 𝐼22 𝑅𝑒𝑞2 ൯ = 0
𝑑𝐼2
𝐼22 𝑅𝑒𝑞2 = 𝑃𝑐
i.e. copper loss = iron loss

Note: Max. efficiency may not be the full load condition

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 Maximum Power Transfer

• For constant V2 and load current I2, maximum

efficiency can be obtained when
d
0
d 2
• Efficiency will be maximum if the denominator is
minimum.
d
d 2
 
V2 I 2 cos 2  Pc  I 2 Re 2  0
2

 sin  2  0   2  00
i.e. Load power factor = cos 00  1
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Example 5

Consider the transformer in Example 4, determine

(a) the efficiency at 75% rated output, 0.6 power

factor lagging;
(b) power output at maximum efficiency;
(c) the maximum efficiency.

Ans: (a) 0.95, (b) 6820W, (c) 0.97

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