LESSON 1 – SYNOPTIC CHARTS

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Explain the distribution of high and low pressure on synoptic charts;
2. Differentiate between cold front and warm front;
3. Identify state of the sky or sky cover; and
4. Identify symbols of front.

SYNOPTIC CHART is the scientific term for a weather map. Synoptic charts
provide information on the distribution movement and patterns of air pressure,
rainfall, wind and temperature.

HOW TO READ SYNOPTIC WEATHER CHARTS:

1. Pressure pattern. The circular lines on the chart are isobars, which join areas
of the same barometric pressure.
2. Cold front and warm fronts
3. Warm and cold fronts
4. Occluded fronts
5. Troughs

ISOBARS are lines on a weather map joining together places of equal atmospheric
pressure. The isobar marked 1004 represents an area of high pressure while the
isobar marked 976 represents an area of low pressure.

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SURFACE ANALYSIS
Analyzed charts of surface weather observations
- Land
- Buoy
- Ship

Sky cover:
Clear
Few
Scattered
Broken
Overcast
Total Obscuration

FAMILY DEPRESSIONS
Synoptic charts often show frontal depressions developing in succession along a
frontal zone forming a family of depressions. The number of members in a family
varies from four to seven. Each depressions forms on the trailing cold front of the
preceding depressions which is in the latter stages of its life cycle. Each follows a
similar life cycle but have a path in lower latitude parallel to that of its predecessor.
The end of depression is marked by the invasion of cold air in the form of
anticyclone into lower latitudes. A new family develops when the frontal zone is
re-established.

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WEATHER DURING COLD FRONT AND WARM FRONT

Cold Front. Cold air moves forward and pushes warm air backward or
southwestward. Its approach is detected first by the increase of southerly or
southwesterly winds in the warm air mass. Altocumulus cloud appear from the
northwest or west. Atmosphere pressure decreases with either cumulus or
cumulonimbus appearing and then accompanied by heavy shower or
thunderstorms of short duration with squalls indicating that the front is near the
vicinity. After the passage of the front, winds become gustier and a marked shifting
of wind appears mostly from the northwest to west, then pressure rises with rapid
clearing and fall of temperature.
Cold front forms between 20° and 75° latitude. At the end, position of the front
extends lower 20° latitude; air mass is modified in the form of light showers and
slight lowering of temperature. Most cases, this tail end of cold front may reach
the vicinity of the Philippines usually dissipating in this area.

Warm Front. Same as cold front in their phase of origin, from 20° to 75° latitude
with general movement toward the northwest. The approach of warm front is
shown by a sequence of clouds; cirrus, cirrocumulus or cirrostratus, altostratus and
altocumulus. Precipitation follows slight at first then increases. Then,
stratocumulus and nimbostratus appear with precipitation becoming heavier and
more outspread and last longer. Pressure decreases as the front approaches the
place. After the passage, there is a marked decrease in cloudiness. Winds in warm
air mass are generally weaker compared with that in the cold air mass.

Front is a sloping boundary surface separating opposing air masses having different
temperatures. They are classified as:
 Cold front – a front where cold air replaces warmer air.
 Warm front – a front where warm air replaces colder air.

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FACTORS OF FORMATION OF LOW PRESSURE AREA

There are many different theories on the formation of tropical cyclones, although
many meteorologists consider two of these theories the most probable. They are
the convection theory and the frontal or counter-current theory.

Convective Theory
A large mass of air becomes convectively unstable or relatively warm and moist
compared with its surroundings resulting in upward motion on a large scale. The
atmospheric pressure then becomes relatively low with the upward motion of air.
Air from the surroundings then flow toward the low-pressure area thus formed.
The rotation of the earth causes a deflection of the inflowing air causing a whirly
spiral motion into the center of the low-pressure area. Thus, cyclone is formed.
Furthermore, both of the earth’s rotation and the centrifugal force developed by
the whirling air streams which retards the movement of air outward from the
center with a further full of pressure. This process continues until a vigorous
cyclonic wind system is developed and an outward flow of air from the center at
high levels also makes the pressure lower.

Tropical cyclone forms only

occasionally even if condition is nearly
always limited to very restricted areas
resulting in local thunderstorm.
Occasionally, an expansion of air takes
place over a relatively large area as a
result of increase in temperature or
vapor density or both. A cyclone forms
if the necessary conditions occur at a
sufficient distance from the equator
such that the deflective effect of the
earth’s rotation is considered enough.

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Frontal or Counter-Current Theory
Recent developments indicate that tropical cyclones form along the ‘front’
between the trade winds and the equator air doldrums. It is believed for a wave to
develop along this ‘front’ and if conditions are favorable, they develop into a
tropical cyclone. The convergence of the two-air current results in an upward
motion that added to the deflective effect of the earth’s rotation, centrifugal force
and divergence at the upper level and will eventually result in a low-pressure area
associated with a spiral circulation toward the center. The cyclone thus formed
often develops into an almost symmetrical system and the slight surface front
dissolves.

TROUGHS AND RIGED IN LOW- and HIGH-PRESSURE AREA

Troughs of low pressure that may be frontal or non-frontal are identified by the
form of the isobars extending outwards along an axis from a center of low pressure.
Frontal troughs exist in frontal depressions and are characterized by the general
angular form of the isobars along the lone of a mark war, cold or occluded front.
Non-frontal troughs have more rounded isobaric forms and normally develop in the
unstable air stream behind a frontal depression. The axis of non-frontal trough
represents an area with a steep pressure gradient and as it advances an observer
in the northern hemisphere can expect the wind increase in speed and to veer at
the axis. A further indication of its passage is the increased cumuliform cloud cover
and precipitation promoting a stable atmosphere at this level. The height at which
the inversion is present varies within an anticyclone and from one anticyclone to
another, depending upon the degree of subsidence.

In the early stages of anticyclonic development, clouds in the upper and middle
troposphere will clear as a result of subsidence; hence, the clear skies associated
with most anticyclones subsequently subsidence and adiabatic warming result in
low relative humidity value which are particularly noticeable at the level of
inversion.

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Ridges of High Pressure
An extension of an anticyclone identified by form of isobars on a surface pressure
chart is termed a ridge, the point of maximum curvature of the isobars denoting its
axis. A ridge may often be a direct extension of a large anticyclone and produces
typical anticyclonic weather while it persists. In contrast, a ridge located between
two frontal depressions moves rapidly over an area, resulting in a short-lived break
in the adverse weather of the depressions. If the axis of the ridges is approached
from the east, decreasing wind speeds are experienced as the pressure gradient
slackens. Clouds cover which increases and progresses from cirrus (Ci) to
cirrostratus (Cs) indicates an advancing frontal depression.

Under Observance
There is convergence, an unaccumulation of air at the surface at 0° and 60° N and
S where the pressure is low. However, there is a divergence, not a loss of air, at
the surface between 30° and 40° N and S, and at the poles where the pressure is
high. In general, when there is convergence at the surface, there is divergence in
the upper troposphere and air ascends between the two levels.
Conversely, air descends where there is divergence at the surface and the
convergence in the upper troposphere. At 60° N and S, two masses of air having
different temperatures converge. The boundary between these masses is called
frontal cone or frontal surface. When it intersects the surface of the earth, it is
called a front. The frontal zone is inclined at an angle to the surface with the warm
air tending to rise over cold air.

The transfer of energy by the general circulation is related to the net radiation
balance of the earth’s atmosphere system, the balance being the difference
between the total incoming solar radiation and outgoing radiation. Annually, there
is a surplus of energy between 40° N and 40° S and a deficient in higher latitudes.
However, the amount of energy transferred varies with the time of the higher.
Some of the major features of the general circulation can be identified on surface
synoptic charts.

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The typical example for the North Atlantic area encompassing the temperature
(40°N - 66°N) parts of the subtropical (23°N - 40°N) and the polar zones (60°N -
90°N) while the subdivision into zones may assist into the analysis of atmospheric
features, it must not be forgotten that is a man-made convention. The pressure
system in the temperate and polar zones play a critical part in determining weather
and sea state conditions. An understanding of the significance of the features on
synoptic and properties (forecast) charts and in weather bulletins is essential.

Quadrant (in storm warning), the designated cardinal point of the compass is the
90 degrees of the storm center. The eight points of the compass rises when
referring to quadrants.

Example:
The north quadrants refer to the sector of the storm from 315° through 360° to 45.
The 180° sector of the storm is centered on the designated cardinal point of the
compass. The four point of the compass rises when it is used to semicircle.

Example:
The south semicircle refers to the segment of the storm from 090° through 180° to
270°.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
ON A CLEAN SHEET OF PAPER, DRAW THE SYMBOLS OF COLD FRONT, WARM
FRONT, OCLUDDED FRONT, AND STATIONARY FRONT. ALSO, INCLUDE THE COLOR
ASSOCIATED WITH EACH FRONT.

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LESSON 2 – RANGE OF INFORMATION AVAILABLE ON AREA WEATHER

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Describe the source of weather information available to shipping;
2. Describe the information generally needed from ships to meteorological offices;
3. State the basic services provided for ships by meteorological offices and
demonstrate ability to utilize this service to obtain relevant information;
4. Describe the type of information received by facsimile machine;
5. Describe the services provided for storm warnings;
6. Use the ship’s code and decode book to decode a reduced report from a shore
station and vice versa; and
7. Use Beaufort abbreviations for present and past weather including clouds.

AREA WEATHER
Six main components of weather
Temperature
Atmospheric Pressure
Wind
Humidity
Precipitation
Cloudiness

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Weather is the combination of four factors – temperature, wind, precipitation, and
sunlight and clouds. These factors are changing all the time, therefore weather is
changing all the time.

Five types of weather:

Sunny
Cloudy
Windy
Snowy
Rainy

SOURCE OF WEATHER INFORMATION

Our latest and modern source of weather information available to shipping is to
link the Global Telecommunications system such as WMO, NMC, WWW, GTS,
GMDSS, etc.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) – To establish a number of

commissions each concerned site created a specific field. One aim of WMO is that
each nation should have an NMC. A main telecommunication network
interconnects three primary centers: Washington, Moscow, and Melbourne with
regional hubs.

National Meteorological Center (NMC) – Each center collecting and processing

observations from its land observing network and voluntary ships on the adjacent
seas. In this way, an NMC cannot only receive any data required, but also use the
GTS to disseminate data to other centers.

World Weather Watch (WWW) – establish rapid and efficient exchange of data.
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Global Telecommunication System (GTS) – Observations are processed;
information is transmitted.

Global Maritime Distress Safety Signal (GMDSS) – Undergo the four areas of
jurisdiction, such as: Area A1; Area A2; Area A3; and Area A4.

INFORMATION NEEDED FROM SHIPS TO METEOROLOGICAL OFFICES

The information generally needed from ships to meteorological offices is to get the
exact analysis and data in the movements of the earth’s surface on inlands, seas or
oceans, and the whole atmosphere. In gathering such data from meteorological
offices, it will serve as one accurate safety factor in ship navigation.

Meteorological Offices for Ships

The basic service of meteorological offices for ships is to have good, clear global
expeditions of all the seafarers aboard in a particular ship. The meteorological
officer, not only transmits the movements of all the atmospheric pressure in all
degrees latitude/longitude of the globe but also introduces them while at ocean
routes and to offer a worldwide service. Most organizations emphasize the
individual nature of the service provided either to the master, owner, or charterer.
In determining the advised route, the expertise of both meteorologist and mariners
is used. Atmospheric conditions and are integral and an important part in selecting
the route while other factors noted are equally important. The present tending is
to emphasize the ship routing aspect by using the less appropriate term of weather
routing.

The effectiveness of routing service depends upon the availability of ship cargo and
relevant operational data. Generally, a representative of the organization visits the
ship to collect this information and discusses the routing service with those on
board ship data including the ship type, draught, trim, stability and speed made
good relative to sea conditions (e.g. wind waves and current). This information is
normally extracted from the deck log or if not available, those obtained from a
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similar type of ship. The organization then constructs for each state of loading a
set of performance curves related to the important characteristics of wave height
and relative direction.

It should be noted that the style of presentation of performance data varies from
one organization to another. For each voyage, the cargo data may relate to factors
such as routing to avoid certain atmospheric conditions and a deck cargo should be
protected from continuous heavy sea. Thus, each passage has a prime objective
that may be less time on voyage (usually the objective in the early days of weather
routing) and less damage to cargo or vessel. The seafarer can request
meteorological information while at sea or in port.

INFORMATION RECEIVED BY FACSIMILE MACHINE

The information received by the facsimile machine is the provision of
meteorological data or a weather bulletin. Facsimile schedules provide information
on the types of charts available from meteorological centers. Of those listed, the
surface analysts and surface prognostic charts are of particular value to the
seafarer. Synoptic reports from land stations and ships may also include the
recommended station plot format, or, if there is insufficient space, only critical
elements may be plotted (e.g. wind direction and speed).ss

Although the chart, essentially synoptic in nature, presents prognostic data for
direction and speed of movement, central pressure values of pressure centers may
also be included. Retrospective data for wind scale may also be shown. The chart
projection is usually given for clarity and quick reference and latitude and longitude
intersections are plotted at frequent intervals. If the chart is a preliminary analysis,
the data shown is that of isobars which illustrate the major pressure system.

The area covered by a facsimile surface analysis varies from one transmitting
source to another and the seafarer can check its limits from the schedule. Surface
analysis from any one source may cover different areas, and while a few
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meteorological offices may issue one chart daily, most issue at least two: one for
0000 GMT and one for 1200 GMT. Generally, the number of charts issued is greater
for the immediate area of interest to the meteorological office compared with the
nearer carrying a larger horizontal area. For example, the UK Meteorological Office
issues surface analysis covering their intermediates are interested for 0000, 0600,
1200, and 1800 GMT. while the circumpolar chart is only issued for 0000 GMT.

Services Provided for Storm Warnings

Forecasters in an NMC, having established from prognostic possibility of high winds
over sea areas, will compile “Storm Warnings”. The anticipated wind force and
direction for the sea area likely to be affected are stated, and if the warning is due
to a tropical cyclone, the position of its center and its past and future movement
are included. Radio stations listed in ALRS Vol. 3 with the sub-heading ‘Storm
Warning’ transmit these messages on their working frequencies, the moods of
transmission being either R/T or W/T or both. The transmission is normally made
at the end of the next silence period after the receipt of the message. In certain
cases, the message is repeated at the interval between broadcasts and the overall
period in which transmissions are made varying from one station to another.

The sub-heading ‘Storm Warnings’ is general rather than specific since the forecast
wind speed may vary from Force 6 (strong breeze) to Force 12 (hurricane). The
message is usually issued in the language of the country of origin and WMO
recommends that it be also used in English. In certain parts of the world, the
national broadcasting service of a country is used as channel for transmitting storm
warnings (ALRS Vol. 3). The transmissions are made as soon as possible after the

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receipt of the warning from the NMC (normally at the first available program break)
and are repeated at the convenient breaks so long as the warning remains in force.
If the seafarer is to gain the maximum benefits of the storm warning service, then,
a policy of regular radio watch is essential. However, delays which may occur
between the original issue of a warning and its receipt on board can seriously
reduce its value which is critical in the case of tropical or temperate zone low
pressure systems since these can develop and deepen rapidly. The information in
a warning is intended to establish concisely the forecast conditions for the sea area
concerned, but is must be interpreted intelligently using onboard observations and
other data as, it may only be applicable to part of the area.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
ON A CLEAN SHEET OF PAPER, DESCRIBE THE AREA WEATHER OF YOUR LOCALITY
TODAY. INDICATE THE VALUE OF THE FOLLOWING:

1. Temperature range ___________________________

2. Humidity ________________________________

3. Atmospheric pressure __________________________

4. wind force and direction ________________________

5. State of the sky ________________________________

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 LESSON 3 – WEATHER FORECASTING

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

1. Apply previous concepts to the interpretation of symbols and isobaric patterns
on weather charts and facsimile charts;
2. Apply previous concepts to the interpretation of synoptic and prognostic chart
to ascertain wind direction, areas of strong winds, clouds and precipitation areas;
and
3. Explain how weather observations from a ship can be used to improve the
forecast derived from synoptic and prognostic charts.

Common Instruments:
Anemometer Table 3-1: 7-DAY FORECAST
Wind vane
Pressure Sensor
Thermometer
Hygrometer
Rain gauge

Forecasting Process:
Observation
Analysis
Extrapolation

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Seven factors that affect weather:
1. Latitude
2. Elevation
3. Nearby water
4. Ocean currents
5. Topography
6. Vegetation
7. Prevailing winds

PREVIOUS CONCEPTS AND INTERPRETATION OF SYMBOLS AND ISOBARIC

PATTERNS ON WEATHER AND FACSIMILE CHARTS
Interpreting symbols and isobaric patterns on weather charts and facsimile charts
are quite difficult if the observers do not understand the oscillations, movement,
and direction of winds and specific symbols assigned to that particular
phenomenon, and the synoptic charts and prognostic charts received by the
facsimile equipment transmitted by television and inflated observation satellites
(TIOS).

In weather forecasting, be sure to understand the symbols and assigned colors of

fronts such as: cold front- color blue line; warm front- color red line; occluded
front- color purple line; stationary front color- alternate red and blue; and the
upper cold front- color pashed blue line.
The motion of the front always obeys the circulation of the wind and the oscillation
of the atmospheric pressure can pinpoint the location of the low pressure area and
high pressure area thru the compression of isobars. In order to have fully
understanding way of analyzing the surface synoptic chart and surface prognostic
charts, there shall be observation and analysis of the previous synoptic charts every
24 hours to confirm the feasibility of the features established.

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PREVIOUS CONCEPTS AND INTERPRETATION OF SYNOPTIC AND PROGNOSTIC
CHARTS
The previous interpretation of synoptic and prognostic charts to a certain wind
direction, areas of strong winds, clouds, and precipitation area is to have a
comparison of both charts. The wind directions are easily targeted because of the
isobaric wave motion and with help of the oscillations of the fronts and the spiral
movement of the low pressure area that counter clockwise in behalf of the weather
hemisphere and clockwise spiral motion in the weather hemisphere.

The area of the strong winds is in the vicinity of about 25 kilometer from the ‘eye’
or vertex, and the same distance of heavy rains precipitated by cumulus and
cumulonimbus clouds. The eye is generally free from clouds since within it, the air
subsides and warms adiabatically, but outside, ascending air contributes to the
development of cumuliform cloud.

HOW WEATHER OBSERVATION CAN BE USED TO IMPROVE FORECAST

Weather observations from a ship can be used to improve the forecast desired from
synoptic and prognostic charts. Weather forecasts are generally based upon
information acquired by observations made at a large number of stations. Ashore,
these stations are located so as to provide adequate coverage of the area of
interest. Most observations at sea are made by mariners wherever they happen to
be. Since the number of observations at sea is small compared to the number
ashore, marine observations are of great importance. Data recorded by designated
vessels are sent by radio to weather centers ashore where they are plotted along
with other observations to provide data for drawing synoptic charts which are used
to make forecasts. Complete weather information gathered at sea by cooperating
vessels to the appropriate meteorological services available worldwide to the
seafarers are documented in the Admiralty List of Radio Signals, Vol. 3, which
identifies the areas either by name, letter or figures to which the broadcast may
relate.

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The provided routine synoptic reports when transmitting areas where few ships are
available to report weather observations to a data collections platform (DCP) are
located on board. This effort is particularly important in the tropics where vessel’s
synoptic weather report may be one of the first indications of a developing tropical
cyclone. Even with satellite imagery, actual reports are needed to confirm
suspicious patterns and prove actual temperature, pressure, and other
measurements. Forecasts can be no better that the data received.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 3
ON A CLEAN SHEET OF PAPER, DESCRIBE THE SEVEN-DAY WEATHER FORECAST AS
SEEN ON TABLE 3-1.

MON TUE WED THU FRI SAT SUN

State of the
sky

Maximum
temperature
Minimum
temperature

Precipitation

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 LESSON 4 – WEATHER SYSTEMS

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

1. Explain the causes and effects of:
 Trade winds
 Monsoon winds
 Land and sea breeze
 Anabatic and katabatic winds; and
2. State the locations and prevailing weather situations in the Doldrums, the
Intertropical Convergence Zone, and the Horse Latitudes.

Weather systems – are simply the movement of warm and cold air across the
globe. These movements are known as low pressure systems and high pressure
systems. High pressure systems are rotating masses of cool dry air. Low pressure
systems are rotating masses of warm moist air.

Weather Patterns
Earth’s orbit around the sun and its rotation on a tilted axis causes some parts of
the earth to receive more solar radiation than others. This uneven heating
produces global circulation patterns. The abundance of energy reaching the
equator produces hot humid air that rises high into the atmosphere.

Depression
Air is rising, forming an area of low pressure at the surface. This rising air cools and
condenses and helps encourage cloud formation, so the weather is often cloudy
and wet. In the Northern Hemisphere, winds blow in counterclockwise direction
around a depression.

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CIRCULATION OF SURFACE WINDS
It will be seen that the pattern of wind circulation is rather complicated. One of
the most obvious features is that the winds are comparatively uniform in latitudinal
belts extending round the world. This is broadly true in spite of local exceptions.
Thus, on or near the equator, there is a belt of rather variable and mainly light
winds (the doldrums). To the north of this belt, roughly between latitude 10°N and
30°N lies the belt of the north-east trades. These fall of northwards in a relatively
narrow belt of light and variable winds which correspond in position with the
subtropical high-pressure belt.
This in turn gives place to a wider belt of mainly westerly or south-westerly winds
extending over most of the region between about latitude 40°N and 63°N.
Between about 63°N and 65°N, there are local areas of variable winds conforming
with the average positions of the Icelandic and Aleutian Lows. Further north, the
wind observations become scanty but in the region north of Iceland, the winds are
mainly north-easterly. In some sectors, however, other directions are reported, for
example, southerly off the central section of the north coast of central Siberia.
In the southern hemisphere, there is a similar sequence of latitudinal belts. To the
south of the doldrums lie the south-east trades between about latitude 10°S and
30°S. After a belt of light winds corresponding with the subtropical high-pressure
belt near latitude 30°S, westerlies become predominant in a wide belt from about
latitude 30°S to about latitude 63°S (the “roaring forties”). Then, variable winds
mark the position of the low-pressure belt off the coasts of Antarctica and give
place poleward to south-easterlies blowing outward from the Antarctic continent.

The globe is divided into a few zones as belts with characteristics in pressure and
prevailing winds.
The following are the different wind zones or belts:
1. Low Pressure Doldrums – This is a narrow zone of low pressure near the equator
with wind generally light and variable and with frequent calm.
2. Trade Zone – This zone extends from the doldrums to the vicinity of 30° latitude
N and S. In the northern hemisphere, this belt is called the Northeast Trade
because the winds are generally from the northeast. In this southern hemisphere,

19
this belt is called the Southeast Trade because the winds are generally from the
southeast.
3. High Pressure Subtropical Anticyclone – These are narrow zones of high
pressure in the vicinity of 30° to 40° latitude in both N and S, characterized by light
and variable winds.
4. The Belts of Prevailing Westerlies – The zones between 40° - 60° latitude in both
hemispheres. In the northern hemisphere, the winds are generally from the
southwest or west; in the southern hemisphere, the prevailing winds are generally
from the northwest or west. This zone is characterized by stormy winds.
5. Low Pressure – These belts of low pressures between 60° and 70° latitude in
both hemispheres characterized by stormy winds.
6. Polar Winds – These are belts at high pressure from 70° latitude to the poles in
both hemispheres with winds generally from the east.

CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF TRADE WINDS; MONSOON WINDS; LAND AND SEA
BREEZE; AND ANABATIC AND KATABATIC WINDS

Trade Winds
Except in the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and China Sea, the trade winds are clearly
prominent over all the major sea areas in both summer and winter as north-
easterlies or south-easterlies (in the northern and southern hemispheres
respectively) with a comparatively high vector mean wind speed. They blow more
or less constantly through the year from the about latitude 30° towards the
equator. In each case, they extend furthest from the equator on the east side of
the relevant high-pressure area and blow round that area towards the doldrums or
the equator, changing direction from north to north-east (south to south-east), to
east-north-east (east-south-east) or even to east.

The trade-wind areas tend to shift northwards and southwards following the sun.
In the southern hemisphere, the movement is small, but in the northern
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hemisphere the zone of the highest trade-wind speed moves through 8 to 10
degrees of latitude in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In the Atlantic, the mean
wind speed of the trades is about 13 to 15 knots, the higher value occurring in the
north-east trade. The highest mean value anywhere (18 knots), the value occurring
in the south-east trades of the Indian Ocean. In general, the trades in each
hemisphere blow most strongly at the end of winter.

Monsoon Winds
The word monsoon is derived from an Arabic word meaning ‘season’. It is used
equally to describe a wind which is characteristic of a season, or to describe a
season so characterized.

The simple sequence of latitudinal wind belts is suppressed in the Asian theatre on
account of the thermal effects of the presence of the great Asian land mass. The
intense cooling which occurs in the interior of this area in winter and the extreme
heating in summer has effect of producing a great anticyclone, normally centered
over Mongolia, in winter, and an intense depression, normally centered near
Himalayas, in summer. These two great pressure systems dominate the whole
Asian region and extend roughly to the equator in the Indian Ocean and over all the
China Seas and the seas around Japan. Because of them, the wind blows with great
regularity in a clockwise circulation around the Mongolian high in winter and with
similar regularity in an almost opposite direction around the continental low-
pressure area in summer. Although there is a considerable shift in the position of
the center of lowest and highest pressure from summer to winter, the more
important consideration for the mariner is that winter implies high pressure inland
on the continent and low pressure at sea. Summer reverses this position so that
the low pressure is now inland and the high pressure at sea.

In accordance with this distribution, the winds roughly follow the main lines of the
Asiatic land mass, blowing slightly off the land in winter and towards the land in
summer. Thus, for example, between south Japan and the Philippines, the winds
are predominantly north-north-easterly in winter and south to south-south-

21
westerly in summer. In the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, the winds are mainly
north-easterly in winter and south-westerly in summer. In these areas, the south-
west monsoon is stronger and stormier than the north-east monsoon. In the China
Seas, however, the winds are stronger and steadier in the north-east or winter
monsoon. In general, the monsoon winds when fully established tend to be
somewhat stronger than the trade winds. The south-west monsoon of the Indian
Ocean brings copious rainfall, particularly to the windward coast of India and south-
east Asia, and is sometimes associated with poor visibility, which is not as a rule
persistent.

For the most part, the weather associated with the north-east monsoon is fine and
clear. An exception occurs near the coasts of South China and Vietnam where spells
of overcast, drizzly weather with poor visibility are frequent. Such spells may
persist for up to ten days along the South China coast in February to April, where
they are known locally as crachin and are an important climatic feature in that
season.

Sea and Land Breeze

The main wind systems of the world may be modified by local causes, of which
differential heating of land and sea is one of the most important. This gives rise to
land and sea breezes which, by their reaction on the general wind distribution, may
modify it appreciably.

During daylight hours, the land warms up much more rapidly that the sea, partly
because the specific heat of soil and rock is less than that of water and partly
because the sun’s rays penetrate to a greater depth in water than on land, and
therefore have to heat a greater mass of water than of land. Thus, the air near the
surface warms up more rapidly and rises more easily over land than over water. Air
flowing in from seaward to replace this rising air forms the sea breeze which under
favorable conditions may set in well before midday, but often does not appear until
the afternoon.

22
At night, the reverse action takes place. The air over the land cools more rapidly
by radiation and, becoming heavier, flows down the slope to the surface of the sea.
It displaces and forces upward the air already over the sea, which flows landwards
at a higher level to complete circulation. The land breeze, which is impeded by
inequalities in the ground, trees, houses, etc., is much weaker than the sea breeze.

Sea and land breezes, especially the former, appreciably modify the climate near
the coast. The diurnal range of air temperature on the coast is usually appreciably
smaller further inland.

Sea breezes are important near coast where their effect is usually confined to
within some 10-20 n.m. They are most noticeable in fair or fine conditions when
the general winds over a larger area are light. It is then quite common to observe
force 4 winds on the coast when the winds further inland are only force 2. The
direction of the coastal winds may be quite different from that of the inland winds.

In the tropics, the effect of the land breeze is often felt several nautical miles to
seaward, and the sea breeze can affect win direction over the sea for 20 n.m. off
the coast.

Anabatic Wind and Katabatic Wind

Anabatic winds (Greek ana = up, baino – to move). This is the name given to winds
which blow up the slopes of a mountain or the sides of a plateau in calm, sunny
condition. They are found most commonly on steep-sided islands and bare
mountain slopes in the cloudless arid regions of the tropics and subtropics.
Anabatic winds can be considered as part of the convection currents which form in
the day-time over a mountain heated by sunshine. At a later stage, clouds may be
formed over the mountain and showers may occur.

Katabatic winds (Greek kata = down, baino – to move). During the night,
particularly with a clear sky, heat is radiated from the surface of the earth, which
cools and consequently cools the air immediately above it. Where the ground is
23
sloping, gravitation causes this cooler, dense air to flow down the slope, forming a
katabatic wind, which may be have no relation to the distribution of atmospheric
pressure. In mountainous countries, these winds can be violent; for example, in
Greenland, katabatic winds up to storm force locally, sometimes blow down the
slopes to the sea.
LOCATION AND PREVAILING WEATHER SITUATION IN THE DOLDRUMS, THE
INTERTROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE, AND THE HORSE LATITUDE

The doldrums is the name given to the zone of light and variable winds, often
associated with heavy rain thunderstorms, which form a narrow, roughly
latitudinal, belt occupying a position between the equator and about latitude 12°N,
which varies with longitude and with season. In the days of sailing-vessels, the zone
was dreaded on account of the risk of being becalmed. This is the zone where the
trade-wind systems of the northern and southern hemispheres converge together
and where, after prolonged heating over the equatorial ocean, some of the air
finally ascends vertically.

Intertropical Convergence Zone

The Intertropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) is the area in low latitudes in
which the trade winds of the two
hemisphere converge. In this zone,
the horizontal convergence and
subsequent ascent of air in the
troposphere results in cloud
development. Analysis of satellite
images show that while cloud
development is a feature of this zone,
it is not continuous in the horizontal
plane at any given time, nor is it a
persistent feature at any particular
24
point over a period. The cloud type is cumuliform ranging from cumulus to
cumulonimbus with diameters between 1 to 10 km. A collection of these clouds
termed a convective all, may have a diameter in the range of 10 to 100 km. A
number of such cells may form a cold cluster which may have a diameter in the
range of 100 km and 1000 km. weather conditions may be light, squalls, and
showers (Cu cloud), or thunderstorm and heavy precipitation (Cb cloud). In
contrast, clear skies indicate that there is no convergence of air with its resultant
ascent.

The intermittent nature of convergence, both in time and space, has resulted in the
use of an alternative term intertropical confluence. Confluence implies the nearer
approach of adjacent streamlines in the direction of airflow. A streamline being a
curve plotted, is parallel to the instantaneous direction of the wind vector. The
technique of streamline analysis is of great value in tropical meteorology since
areas of surface convergence can be defined. The convergence flow may be that
associated with a tropical depression that, under suitable conditions, may later
develop into a tropical cyclone.

The position of ITCZ varies throughout the year, progressive north between January
and July, and south in the latter half of the year. The range of latitude covered
varies from one longitude to another, being greatest in the Indian Ocean and least
at the eastern side of North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans where it does not
move south of the equator. In the South Atlantic, its progress south of the equator
is minimal, a factor which may partially account for the lack of tropical cyclones in
the ocean.

Horse Latitude (Subtropical High-Pressure Belt)

These zones of light and variable winds and fine, clear weather marking the central
regions of the subtropical high-pressure belt. They are mainly located in about
latitude 30-35°N and S. The name refers to the occasional necessity, in sailing-ship
days, of throwing overboard horses being carried to America and the West Indies,
because of shortage of water and fodder, when the ship’s passage was unduly
prolonged due to the light winds.

25
THE SHIP’S CODE AND DECODE BOOK
The potential value of both surface and upper air observations in the production of
a forecast depends not on the use of standardized observing procedures but also
on the rapid transfer data to the NMD. In order to facilitate transfer, standard
international codes of fine five figure groups have been developed, the number of
groups used depending upon the nature of the observations.

There are several methods and channels through which the data may be
transferred. On land, Manned observing stations feed their data through a
communication network via a subordinate center to NMC. At sea, voluntary
observing ships transmit their data by W/T to coastal radio station designated to
receive weather reports [see the Admiralty List of Radio Signals (ALRS) Vol. 3 (a) for
station details]. On occasions, the relay of data via this route may be delayed, thus,
reducing its value to the NMC.

And alternative means of data transfer, called the Meteorological Observing

System for Ships (MOSS), has therefore been introduced on a limited scale. In this
system the NMC supplies the vessel with equipment which enables the observer to
key in and subsequently transfer coded observations to a data collection platform
(DCP) located on board. The DCP is then interrogated by a satellite at set times
which subsequently transmit the data to a surface receiving station. Currently, a
geostationary meteorological satellite is used for this purpose. The current method
of data collection from buoys employs polar orbiting satellites as these establish
the position of the drifting buoys being interrogated.

TTT – air temperature in tenths of a degree Celsius

PPP – pressure at mean sea level in tenths of a hectopascal omitting the thousands
digit.
VVW – horizontal visibility at sea surface.
W1 – past weather.

26
Wm – forecast weather.
PWPW – period of wind waves in seconds.
HWHW – height of the waves.
DW – two directions in tens of degrees from which swell waves are coming.
D5 – two direction of resultant displacement of the ship during the 3 hours
preceding the time of observation.
V5 – ships average speed made good during the 3 hours preceding the time of
observation
DW1DW1 – two directions in tens of degrees from which swell waves are coming.
PW1PW1 - period of swell waves in seconds.
HW1HW1 – height of the swell waves in the same units as HWHW.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 4

ON A CLEAN SHEET OF PAPER, DRAW A SKETCH OF THE EARTH AS A GLOBE AND

INDICATE AN IDEALIZED CIRCULATION OF THE SURFACE WINDS.

27
 LESSON 5 – WEATHER CONDITION AND WAVE HEIGHT
AND FORMATION OF SEA WAVES AND SWELL

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

1. Explain the formation of wave;
2. Explain why waves travel in groups and describe the variation in wave height
within a group;
3. Describe how duration and fetch influence the significant wave height;
4. Illustrate the difference between waves and swell;
5. Explain wave refraction in shallow water;
6. Explain how the decreasing depth in shallow water causes an increasing wave
height and eventually breaking news.

FORMATION OF WAVES
When the height of the wave is small compared with its length, the wave profile
can be adequately represented by a simple line curve. As the height becomes
relatively greater, however, it is seen that the crests become sharper and the
troughs much more rounded, the precise profile being a curve known as a trochoid.
This is the curve that would be tracked on a bulkhead by a marking point fixed to
the spoke of a wheel, if we imagine the wheel to be rolled along under the deck-
head.

28
The large circle represents the wheel, the marking point on a spoke, the distance
from the axle being called the tracing arm. The arrow shows the direction in which
the circle rolls and in which the wave is supposed to be travelling.

In an ideal wave, each water particle revolves with uniform speed in a circular orbit,
perpendicular to the wave ridge (the diameter of the orbital circles being the height
of the wave) and completes a revolution in the same time as the wave takes to
advance its own length. At a wave crest the motion of the particles is wholly
horizontal, advancing in the same direction as the wave; at mid height on the front
slope it is wholly downwards. This motion may be seen by watching a floating
object at the passage of a wave. The object describes a circle but is not carried
bodily forward by the wave.

The disturbance set up by wave motion must necessarily extend for some distance
below the surface but its magnitude decreases very rapidly in accordance with a
definite law, the trochoids becoming flatter and flatter as the depth increases, and
the water particles revolving in ever-decreasing circles. At a depth of one wave’s
length, the disturbance is less than a 500th part of what it is at the surface, so that
the water at that depth may be considered undisturbed. The motion associated
with the largest ocean waves is appreciable at even moderate depths.

Waves actually observed at sea seldom present the simple picture described above.
Instead, a complicated wave more resembles what is commonly observed.

The profile show the wave form recorded by a sophisticated instrument called a
wave recorder. At present, wave recorders can only be effectively used from the
shore or from stationary ships, buoys, or from drilling platforms, but within the
relatively short period since their introduction they have already provided much
useful information. The complex trace shown in the said figure can be regarded as
due to the superposition of a number of simple regular wave motions having
different wave lengths and periods.

29
WHY WAVES TRAVEL IN GROUNDS
Waves generally travel in groups with patches of dead water in between, the wave
height being a maximum at the center of each group. Wave motion can be
regarded as a build up from a number of simple waveforms. For example, the
superposition of two simple wave motion having the same height but slightly
different periods. If the crests of the two wave motion are made to coincide at the
initial point of observation, the height of the resultant wave will be twice that of
each component wave. To each side of the point, the additive effect becomes less
until a point is reached where the heights of the component waves, being of
different sign, completely annul each other’s effect.

Beyond the point, the heights again become additive until the troughs of the
component wave coincide. In other words, there is a variation of height
superposed on the ordinary wave motion. It can only be shown that two simple
wave trains moving in slightly different directions give a resultant pattern
composed of ‘short-crested’ waves as distinct from the ‘long crested’ waves of
simple wave motion.

The speed of a wave group is not the same as that of the individual waves
comprising it. Each individual wave in its turn emerges from the dead water in the
rear of the group, travels through the group, and subsides in the dead water ahead
individual wave. Both theoretical considerations and experience show that the
wave groups travel at one-half the speed of the individual wave.

Variation in Wave Height Within a Group

As the wind blows over the sea surface, waves develop and increase in height with
time. There is a limit to the average height of the waves so produced because of
the instability that arise when the steepness (the ratio of height to length) of the
wave exceeds a certain value (about 1 to 13). When the limiting value is reached,
surplus energy from the wind is dissipated by the breaking of the waves at the
crests (formation of ‘white horses’). For this reason, the mean maximum height of
sea waves is roughly proportional to their length 130 meters would not be expected
to have a mean maximum height greater than 10 meters. The foregoing limit in
30
terms of steepness applies to persistent waves. It does not apply to the occasional
transitory wave that arises from the change coincidence of two or more crests.

Determining wave height by visual observation is not a simple matter. It is obvious

that if comparable results are to be obtained, the observer must follow a definite
procedure. The flat and badly formed waves between the wave groups cannot be
observed accurately by eye and different observers would undoubtedly get
different results if an attempt were made to include them in the record. The
method to be adopted, therefore, is to observe only the well-formed waves in the
center of the wave groups. Reliable average values can only be obtained by
observing at least 20 waves. A few must be selected from each succeeding wave
group until the required number has been obtained.

HOW DURATION AND FETCH INFLUENCE SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT

The height of sea waves is determined by the following variables:
1. wind speed;
2. duration of the win; and
3. wind fetch

Assuming a constant wind blowing for a long period, e.g. more than 48 hours, then
the wind speed determines the value of the significant wave height produced. If
the win is varying over the period, an average value can be assumed. It is found in
practice that given an initial and final value of the forecast win, it is better to take
the final value less a quarter difference between the initial and final values, rather
than using a simple average.

Assuming that the initial conditions are flat sea and no wind, then the introduction
of the wind has small effect initially which increases with time. In other words, the
height of the waves is also the function of the duration of the win. A further
variable is fetch. This is defined as the distance up-wind from the point of
31
observation over which the win blows constantly and uninterruptedly over the sea.
For example, with a steady westerly wind over the whole region, the fetch at a
point 100 nautical miles to the east of an extensive north-to-south coastline in the
picture and the steady wind could be traced back in the direction from which it was
blowing for 500 nautical miles from the point of observation before reaching a
position beyond which there was a major change in direction, then the fetch would
be 500 nautical miles.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WAVES AND SWELL

The distinction between the two is as follows: Sea waves are those generated by
the wind blowing at the time, and in the recent past, in the area of observation.
Swell waves are waves that have travelled into the area of observation after having
been generated by previous winds in other area. For example, in a given sea area,
the wind at the time of observation might be calm. This means that from the above
definition, there may well be no sea waves. There may well be an appreciable wave
motion on the sea surface, typically having a long wavelength in proportion to its
height. This is called swell. An oily unbroken surface is another characteristic of
the pure swell wave. These waves are commonly due to the action of strong winds
in some distant area and may have travel thousands of miles from their origin
before dying away. The energy associated with waves of short wavelength is more
rapidly dissipated than that associated with longer waves. Hence, in general, it
follows that swell waves are long in comparison with the wind-driven waves at the
place of observation.

As swell travels, its height decreases. If R is the distance in nautical miles from the
point of generation, then the amplitude at distance R is (300/R) ½ of that point of
generation. Thus, a swell would lose one-half of its height in travelling a distance
of 1,200 nautical miles. The long swells are the greatest travelers.

The onset of swell, particularly in tropical and subtropical latitudes is often a first
indication of a storm or hurricane in the vicinity. Undulations of the surface of the
water, called waves, are the most widely observed phenomenon at sea and
32
possibly the least understood by the average seaman. The mariner equipped with
knowledge of the basic facts concerning waves is able to use them to his advantage
and either avoid hazardous conditions or operate with a minimum of danger if such
conditions cannot be avoided.

While it is easy to distinguish between ‘sea’ and ‘swell’ in terms of definition, it is

rarely easy to make the distinction in practice. The great majority of sea states
present a mixture of the two phenomena which is difficult to unravel. Clearly, if
one experiences a succession of waves of long wavelength and with height of, e.g.
3 meters when the wind has not exceeded 10 knots, these waves must be classed
as swell because the local wind is not strong enough to be responsible. Their
direction of motion may provide a further clue. If it does not accord with local wind,
then the waves must be described as swell.

Frequently, two wave trains can be recognized, having different direction. Even if
the wave heights are commensurate, the waves whose direction agrees with the
local wind can safely be described as ‘sea’ and the other series should be reported
as ‘swell’. Particularly with stronger winds, when there is a considerable sea, it is
difficult to distinguish between sea and swell if there is not much difference
between their directions of motion. In cases in which it becomes too difficult to
differentiate between the two wave types, it is best to regard the combined motion
as being due to sea waves.

WAVE REFRACTION IN SHALLOW WATER

All the previous remarks refer to waves in deep water. When a deep-water wave
enters shallow water, it undergoes profound modification. Its speed is reduced, its
direction of motion may be changed and finally, its height increases until reaching
a certain limiting depth and the wave breaks on the shore. Water may be regarded
as shallow when the depth is less than half the length of the wave.

33
The decrease in speed when a wave approaches the shore accounts for the fact
that the wave fronts become, in general, parallel to the shore prior to breaking.
The same reasoning may be applied to explain how waves are enabled to bind
round headlands and to progress into sheltered bays.

HOW DECREASING DEPTH IN SHALLOW WATER CAUSES INCREASING WAVE

HEIGHT AND EVENTUALLY BREAKS
When a wave encounters shallow water, the bottom, resulting in reduced wave
speed, restricts the movement of individual particles of water. In deep water, wave
speed is a function of period. In shallow water, the wave speed becomes a function
of depth. The shallower the water, the slower is the wave speed. As the wave
speed slows, the period remains the same so the wavelength becomes shorter.
Since the energy in the waves remain the same, the shortening of wavelengths
results in increased heights. This process is called shoaling. If the wave gets any
higher than the 1:7 ratio for its wavelength, it will break and excess energy from
the wind will be dissipated as turbulence, hence, the whitecaps or comburs
associated with a fully developed sea. As the wind waves mature into swell, their
wavelengths somewhat increase and the ratio of wavelength to wave height
becomes greater. The waves become less steep. Swell continues in this rounded-
top shape until they break on shore.
Wave breaks against the shore in different ways depending in part on the slope of
the bottom. The break can be violent and toppling, leaving an air-filled channel
between the falling crest and the foot of the wave. These are plunging waves from
when waves approach a steeply sloping bottom. A more gradually sloping bottom
generates a milder spilling wave as the crest slides down the face of the wave.
Surging waves occur when an abrupt beach slope prevents a proper break and
water simply rushes ashore. Along with some wind waves, a storm surges and
seismic sea waves form surging waves. Slope alone does not determine the
position and nature of the breaking wave. The contour and composition of the
bottom can be also important. Gradually, shoaling bottoms can sap waves of their
strength because of their strength because of prolonged friction against the bottom
of the lowest elliptical water orbits. Energy may be lost even more rapidly if the
bottom is covered with loose gravel or irregular growths of coral. Masses of
growing seaweed or jostling chunks of sea ice can also extract energy from a wave.

34
In few rare cases, the shore is configured in such a way that waves do not breath
at all. The waves have lost virtually all their energy by the time their remnants
arrive at the beach.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 5
GIVEN:
MARINE WEATHER FORECAST ‘SEAS 10 FT’
SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT Hs = 10 ft.

ON A CLEAN SHEET OF PAPER, COMPUTE FOR THE HEIGHT OF THE FOLLOWING:

1. H (mean)

2. H (most probable)

3. H 1/10 (10% highest waves)

4. H 1/100 (1% highest waves)

5. H max (highest wave you should be on alert)

35
 LESSON 6 – OCEAN CURRENTS

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

1. Explain the interrelations between the global wind systems and the current
systems of the ocean;
2. Explain the main causes of ocean currents, wind-drift currents, and gradient
currents;
3. Explain the effect of evaporation and the effect of a wind blowing a coastline
and how these effects influence the current;
4. Explain the characteristics of ocean currents;
5. Describe how to observe ocean current;
6. Use available information and estimate the speed and direction of the ocean
current for a given position at a given time; and
7. Explain the various methods of charting the currents.

THE GLOBAL WIND SYSTEMS AND THE CURRENT SYSTEMS OF THE OCEAN
The action of the wind in creating ocean currents is the stress of wind blowing
across the sea that causes the surface layer of water to move. This motion is
transmitted to each succeeding layer below the surface, but due to internal friction
within the water, the rate of motion decreases with depth. The current is called
Ekman wind current or simply wind current. Although there are many variables, it
is generally true that a steady wind for about 12 hours is needed to establish such
a current.
A wind-driven current does not flow in the direction of the wind being deflected by
Coriolis force due to rotation of the earth. This deflection is toward the right in the
northern hemisphere and toward the left in the southern hemisphere. The Coriolis
force is greater in higher latitudes and is more effective in deep water. In general,
the difference between wind direction and surface in current direction varies at
about 15° along shallow coastal areas to a maximum of 45° in deep oceans. As the
36
motion is transmitted to a successive deeper layers, the Coriolis force continues to
deflect the current. At several hundred fathoms the current may flow in the
opposite direction to the surface current. This shift of current directions with depth
combined with the decrease in velocity with depth is called the Ekman spiral.
The speed of the current depends upon the speed of the wind, its constancy, the
length of time it has blown, and other factors. In general, however, about two (2)
percent of the wind speed or a little less is a good average for deep water where
the wind has been blowing steadily for at least 12 hours.

MAIN CAUSES OF OCEAN CURRENTS, WIND-DRIFT CURRENTS, AND GRADIENT

CURRENTS
Ocean Currents
The process that cause ocean currents are complex and are not yet fully
understood. In most cases, there is more than once factor contributing to the
existence of a particular current. Frequently, there is a long chain of recurrent
cause and effect wherein it is difficult to identify a beginning or an end. Two main
causes of ocean currents may be distinguished. These are:
(1) wind stress acting on the water surface; and
(2) pressure gradients within the water.
The currents resulting from these two causes are described as wind-drift currents
and gradient currents respectively.

Wind-Drift Currents
Wind blowing over a water surface tends to drag the uppermost of water in the
direction towards which the wind is blowing. As soon as any motion is imparted
however, the effects of the earth’s rotation (the Coriolis force) is to deflect the
movement towards the left in the southern hemisphere. Although theory suggests
that the resulting effect should produce a surface flow (or win-drift current) in a
direction inclined at 45° to the right of the wind direction in the northern (southern)
hemisphere, observations show the angles to be less in practice. Various values
between 20° and 45° have been reported. An effect of the movement of the
surface water layer is to impart a lesser movement to the layer immediately below
37
in a direction to the right (left in the southern hemisphere) of that of a surface layer.
Thus, with increasing depth, the speed of the wind-induced current gradually
increases. Many investigators have endeavored to determine the ratio between
the speed of the surface current and the speed of the wind responsible. This is a
complex problem and many different answers have been put forward. An average
empirical value for this ratio is about 1:40 (or 0.25). Some investigators claim a
variation of the factor with latitude but the degree of any such variation is in
dispute. If the variation with latitude is comparatively small in view of the other
uncertainties in determining the ratio, it can be disregarded for most purposes. The
production of a current in responsible to the wind is not an instantaneous reaction.
Initially, the response is slow and it takes time for a steady state to become
established. This time varies according to the latitude but is something like twenty-
four (24) hours. It would seem reasonable to expect that hurricane force wind
might give rise to currents in excess of knots, but it is rare for such winds to persist
for more than a few hours without a change in direction. With such, high winds
observations of wind-drift currents are not usually available. Strong currents have
indeed been reported in connection with hurricanes but these have been
complicated by secondary effects such as the piling-up of water against the coast,
which leads to the production of gradient currents.

Gradient Currents
These are caused by pressure gradients in the water. They occur whenever the
water surface develops slope, whether under the action of win, or through a
juxtaposition of water of differing temperature and/or salinity. The initial water
movement is downslope, but the effect of the earth’s rotation causes it to deflect
the movement at 90° to the right (left in the southern hemisphere) of this direction.
An interesting example of a gradient current occurs in the Bay of Bengal in
February. In this month, the current circulation if clockwise around the coasts of
the bay, the flow being north-easterly along much of the east coast of India. With
the north-east monsoon still blowing, the current here sets against the wind. The
explanation of this phenomenon is that the cold wind blowing off the land cools
the density, thus, a difference is created and slope develops downhill towards the
north. The resulting northward flow is deflected to the right, i.e. eastwards, and so
sets up the general clockwise circulation.

38
EFFECT OF EVAPORATION AND WIND BLOWING OVER A COASTLINE
Effect of Evaporation
Evaporation may, in some cases, contribute to current formation. For example, in
a relatively shallow sea like the Mediterranean, the rate of evaporation is high and
the inflow of water from rivers is not sufficient to maintain the level of the sea.
Water therefore flows in from the Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar to make
good of the deficiency.

The effect of the earth’s rotation tends to divert the east-going flow through the
strait to the south. There can be no actual deflection within the strait because of
its narrowness but further east, the inflow is deflected against the African coast
and thus produces a counter-clockwise circulation. It therefore sinks and the
excess of this denser bottom water emerges over the sill forming the shallow strait
of Gibraltar and below the incoming water.
Effect of Wind Blowing Over a Coastline
The direct effect of the wind produces a surface current setting roughly towards
the west (i.e. 30° to the left of the direction towards which the wind is blowing).
However, the indirect effect, taking account of the sub-surface layer, causes a
transport of water towards the SW and this by establishing a gradient from SW to
NE leads to gradient current NW’ly (90° to the left of NE). The resultant of this and
the direct current is roughly WNW’ly which removes water from coastal regions.
This is made good by the upwelling of water from lower levels. Thus, the water
brought to the surface is cold in comparison with the sea surface temperatures
appropriate to these latitudes. The area of upwelling is revealed on maps of sea
surface temperature as an area of low temperature surrounded by higher
temperatures.

CHARACTERISTICS OF OCEAN CURRENTS

Currents vary considerably from one occasion to another. Large proportions of
surface currents are wind-induced and the winds are known to be highly variable
and this might seem to follow naturally. Recent detailed measurements seem to
indicate a higher variability than can be ascribed to the win. Thus, significant
current variations occur even when the winds are comparatively constant. Even in
39
the open ocean, the water flow may show rapid variation in both speed and
direction such as what might be expected in the random eddies of a shallow stream.
Some of the stronger currents that are associated with thermal gradients, such as
the Gulf Stream, are liable to considerable variations both in position and strength
from time to time. These streams are subject to meanders which sometimes
develop into eddies. Whereas in the open ocean in regions of variable winds, the
current may set with varying speed in any direction. In some other regions the
direction of set is comparatively stable. Near extensive and relatively straight
coastline, particularly in the trade-wind belts the water is constrained to flow
almost parallel with the coast.

In equatorial regions, largely as a result of the converging trade winds, current

directions are comparatively stable, with westerly sets predominating over
extensive latitudinal belts. In some regions such as the Northern Indian Ocean, the
regular seasonal (monsoon) reversal of prevailing winds produces a corresponding
seasonal variation in the predominant current.
Three Characteristics of Current Distribution
A. The frequency distribution typical of a region of strong and fairly constant
current.
B. A sort distribution that is characteristics of trade-wind area where the degree of
predominance is less marked.
C. The characteristics of a region of variable currents where there is no dead-end
predominance.

HOW TO OBSERVE OCEAN CURRENT

Strength of Currents
Over large areas of the open ocean in the middle and higher latitudes, the most
frequently reported current speed is around ½ knots. In certain other regions, the
general level of speed is higher and the extremes correspondingly so. For example,
in some equatorial regions (notably in the mid-Pacific and western Atlantic), the
mean speed is in the range of 1 – 1 ½ knots and speed in excess of 3 knots have
been reported. Rather, similar values occur in the Gulf Stream but speed of up to
40
5 ½ knots have been recorded in Florida Strait. Still, higher speed are reported in
the Somali Current during south-west monsoon. Here, from about June through
September, average speeds are above 2 knots and on one occasion, a speed of 7
knots was reported.

Warm and Cold Currents

In general, currents that set continuously eastward or westward acquire
temperatures appropriate to the latitude concerned. Currents which set
northwards or southwards over long distances, however, transport water from the
region of origin. The Gulf Stream, for example, transports water from the Gulf of
Mexico to the central parts of the North Atlantic where it gives rise to temperature
well above the latitudinal average. Between Gulf Stream and the American coast,
the water is much colder since it drives from Arctic regions by way of the Labrador
Current. The transition from this cold water to the much warmer water of the Gulf
Stream is marked by a very strong gradient of sea surface temperatures. Both here
and elsewhere, strong temperature gradients indicated by sea temperatures,
isotherms can be used to detect the boundaries between currents. Among the
principal warm currents are:
 Gulf Stream
 Macambique Current
 Kuko Shio
 Agulhas Current
 Brazil Current
 East Australian Coast Current
The principal cold currents are:
 Labrador Currents
 Oya Shio
 East Greenland Current
 Falkland Current
 California Current
 Peru Current
 Kamahatka Current
 Beguela Current

41
Seasonal and Monsoon Currents
In many regions, the average current experienced varies according to the seasons.
Where monthly data are available, many varieties of seasonal variation may be
detected. One of the most familiar patterns is that in which there is relatively little
change for several months in the winters followed. After a brief transition in spring
(by a period of several summer months), the current flow differs markedly from
that of the winter period. In general, the difference between wind direction and
surface wind current direction varies from about 15° along shallow coastal areas to
a maximum of 45° in the deep oceans. As the motion is transmitted to successive
deeper layers, the Coriolis Force continues to deflect the current. At several
hundred fathoms, the current may flow in the opposite direction to the surface
current. This shift of current directions with depth combined with the decrease in
velocity with depth is called the Ekman spiral.
SPEED AND DIRECTION OF OCEAN CURRENTS
The navigator is only concerned with the currents in that depth of water in which
his vessel is floating (i.e. in layer extending to a depth equal to the vessel’s draught).
In general, the current varies with depth that is vessel’s response to the current
literally at the surface and that at the depth of the ships draught. Consequently,
currents measured by determination of a vessel’s set and drifts are normally
regarded as being applicable to a depth equal to half of the vessel’s draught. Most
of the information about the so-called surface currents come from a variety of
ship’s various draughts. Such observations may all be representing ‘surface’
currents although in the main they apply to depths varying between about 3 meters
to 10 meters.

The speed of current depends upon the speed of the wind, its constancy, the length
of time it has blown, and other factors. In general, however, about 2 percent of
the wind speed is a good average for deep water where the wind has been blowing
steadily for at least 12 hours.

It is generally true that a steady wind for about one hour is needed to establish
such a current. A wind-driven current does not flow in the direction of the wind
being deflected by Coriolis force due to rotation of the earth. This deflection is

42
toward the right in Northern hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern
hemisphere. The Coriolis force is greater in higher latitudes and is more effective
in deep water.

CHARTING OF CURRENTS
Ocean currents may be depicted in a variety of ways to suit various requirements.
In some parts of the world, the variation of the current according to the time of
year is sufficiently small to justify the production of a mean annual chart showing
the general circulation. In most regions however, it is necessary to distinguish
between the different times of the year, preferably by means of separate charts for
each month. Some of the most meaningful forms of representation required a
large number of observations and for this reason, it has often been necessary to
combine monthly observations into three monthly periods because of the lack of
sufficient observations to justify a monthly representation.
Whatever the period chosen (monthly, seasonal, or annual), there are three forms
of display that are most commonly used. These are: (1) the vector mean current;
(2) the predominant current; and (3) the current rose of these. The first two
represent different kinds of average current, while the third is in fact a frequency
distribution which shows a relative frequency of reports in each direction and of
specified speed ranges within each direction.

Vector Mean Chart

The vector mean (or resultant) current, as the name implies, is the average of all
the individual observations for the place and time intervals (e.g. month) concerned,
taking both speed and direction into account. In this method of evaluating the
mean, currents in oppose direction tend to cancel each other out. Accordingly, if
the observations are well-distributed around the compass, the resultant speed is
small even though all the individual speed may be large. Many cases occur in which
the mean speed, with respect to direction, is about one knot but the vector mean
speed is about a quarter of a knot because of the extent to which opposing currents
counterbalance each other.
The vector mean value represents the overall movement of the water over a
considerable period. A vector mean chart is therefore the best to consult when
43
considering the average drift of boats, derelicts, icebergs, etc. over a prolonged
period. It does not represent the likely current on any particular occasion. On
charts, it is common to indicate the direction by an arrow pointing towards the
direction in which the current is setting with a figure beside it to indicate the speed
that is usually expressed in nautical miles per day or in knots. Another figure may
be added to give the number of observation upon which the mean based. In some
charts, the length and/or thickness of the arrow is varied according to the range of
speed to be indicated. Then, the eye can detect at a glance regions and weaker
currents.

Predominant Current Chart

For many purposes the predominant current is more useful than the vector mean
because it represents an approximation to the most frequent or most likely current.
It may be defined as follows: First, the number of current observation whose
directions fall within successive overlapping 90° sectors, each displaced 15° from
its predecessor is determined. The mid-direction of the sector with the greatest
number of observations is defined as the predominant direction. The
predominant speed is the arithmetic mean of all the individual speeds within the
90° sector of greatest frequency. The ‘constancy’ of the predominant current may
be defined as the percentage of the number of observation within the selected
(maximum frequency) sector to the total number of observations.
Constancy is indicated by the thickness of the arrow according to the legend of the
chart. In regions where the constancy is high, there is relatively little difference
between the vector mean current and the predominant current. As the constancy
decreases, the difference between the two increases. As in the case of the vector
mean, the predominant current is normally indicated by an arrow pointing in the
direction towards which the current sets while a figure beside the arrow gives the
mean speed, usually in nautical miles per day or in knots.

44
Current Rose Charts

The two foregoing models of

representation both have their
uses, but neither gives the full story
regarding the possible range of
variation of the current at a
particular place and time of year.
The current rose fills this need by
showing not only the relative
frequency with which the current
sets in each direction, but also the
relative frequency of various
categories of speed within each
direction.

In the current rose chart, the total frequency of observation which falls within a
particular (non-overlapping) sector of the compass determines the length of an
arrow extending in this direction from the center of the rose. Most commonly,
either observation within various speed categories can be indicated. Thus,
inspection of a current rose may indicate, for example, that most of the sets (35%)
are north-easterly, but that an appreciable number (25%) are in the opposite
direction. Of the north-easterly sets, it might show that 3% of the overall total was
of speed in excess of 2 knots, 12 % were of speeds between 1 and 2 knots, and 20%
were speeds below 1 knot. Similar data would be available for each point of the
compass.

Although the current rose provides more information than the other common
forms of representation, there are practical difficulties in its use for a rose to show
frequencies which are representative and it must be based on a large number of
observations, preferably, several hundreds. Also, this large number must be
concentrated within a relatively small area because there may well be variation
between the different parts of the general area. Consequently, in the production
of rose charts, there is often the need to compromise between the desire to make
45
the area covered by a particular rose small enough to embrace sufficient number
of observations to produce a representative distribution.
If one wants to know what current to expect at a particular place and time, both
the predominant current chart and the rose chart should be consulted. The former
will show what is most likely, but the latter will qualify this by indicating the degree
of likelihood and what the alternative possibilities are. Thus, the rose chart may
show within that there is little likelihood of appreciable departure from the values
shown on the predominant current chart, r, it may show that the currents are very
variable and that the predominant vector is only marginally more frequent than a
variety of widely differing vectors.

46
MAIN CURRENT SYSTEM OF THE OCEANS
A. NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN
Main Circulation
The main circulation of the North Atlantic is clockwise. The southern part of this
circulation includes the fairly constant west-going North Equatorial Current south
of about latitude 23°N. Further north, the westerly flow gradually becomes more
variable and ceases to be recognizable north of about latitude 30°N. Eastwards of
the Caribbean Sea, the North Equatorial Current is joined by the South Equatorial
Current of the South Atlantic, which flows past the north coast of Brazil. The
combined Equatorial Current flows westwards through the Caribbean Sea and
emerges through the Yucatan Channel. It then flows north-eastwards along the
north-west coast of Cuba and into the Florida Strait. Then the stream flows
northwards and is known as the Florida Current from Florida Strait to about
latitude 29°N. Between about this latitude and the southernmost part of the Grand
banks of Newfoundland, the strong mainly north-easterly current forming the
western flank of the main North Atlantic circulation is known as the Gulf Stream.

The northernmost part of the North Equatorial Current, together with the more
variable westerly flow further north, is diverted to the north of the West Indies and
flows north-westwards along the northern coasts of the Greater Antilles to
converge with the Florida Current and the Gulf Stream. This north-westward flow
is sometimes referred to as the Antilles Current.

In a narrow belt north of the equator, the Equatorial Counter-Current flows

eastwards between the North Equatorial Current of the North Atlantic and the
South Equatorial Current of the South Atlantic. Its longitude of origin varies, being
about 52°W in August to October and about 20°W in February to April. This
counter-current flows past Cape Palmas and sets along the coast of the Gulf of
Guinea to the Bright of Biafra and is known as the Guinea Current. The subsequent
course of the Guinea Current is not known; most of it probably recurves westwards
and joins the South Equatorial Current.
The warm waters of the Florida Current and Gulf Stream, between Florida Strait
and Cape Hatteras, follow the course of the 100-fathom line, outside but near
47
which lies its axis of greatest strength. Immediately of north of Cape Hatteras, the
Gulf Stream begins to leave the 100-fathom lone and gradually turns eastwards
into the ocean, southwards of the Georges and nova Scotia Banks. The inshore
edge of the Gulf Stream, south of Cape Hatteras, thus gradually becomes the
northern edge, northwards, and eastwards of the tape. This northern edge is
relatively sharply defines at all times of the year, owing to the convergence along
it of the cold Labrador Current.

Eastwards of about the 46th meridian, the Gulf Stream ceases to be well-defined
current. It weakens by fanning out up the east side of the Grand Banks of
Newfoundland. The resultant north-east and easterly flow across the ocean is
towards the British Isles and the adjacent European Coasts; this is known as the
North Atlantic Current.

The southerly part of the North Atlantic Current turns gradually clockwise to south-
easterly and, later, to south-westerly directions; it does so east of about longitude
40°W. This southerly flow forms the eastern flank of the main North Atlantic
circulation. It is most marked off the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula
(sometimes called the Portugal Current) and off the north-west coast of Africa
where the south-westerly flow is called the Canary Current. This finally turns
westwards to pass into the North Equatorial Current in the vicinity of the
Arquipelago de Cabo Verde.

Northward Extension of the Main Circulation

The more northerly part of the North Atlantic Current does not recurve
southwards, but flow north-eastwards off the west coasts of the Hebrides and
Shetland Isles and thence to coast of Norway. It continues north-eastwards along
this coast. In about latitude 69°N this current divides and the left branch, the West
Svalbard Current, (formerly West Spitsbergen Current) sets northwards to the
west of Svalbard and thence into the Arctic Basin. The right branch is called the
North Cape Current follows the coast past Nordkapp into the Barents Sea, finally
setting towards the north of Novaya Zemlya; a branch of it continues along the
Murmansk coast as the Murmansk Current.

48
The branch of the North Cape Current which flows into the Barents Sea towards
and around the northern extremity of Novaya Zemlya continues south-westwards
in the Kara Sea along the east coast of Novaya Zemlya, where it is known as the
Novaya Zemlya Current. Part of this re-enters the Barents Sea along the northern
shore of Proliv Karskiye Vorota, forming the Litke Current.

A small part of the warm North Atlantic Current turns northwards in the longitude
of Iceland to form the Irminger Current. Closely south-west of Iceland it divides,
and the main branch turns westwards and passes into the East Greenland Current
south of Denmark Strait. A smaller branch makes a clockwise circulation of Iceland.

The chief outflow of water from the Arctic Basin is the cold, ice-bearing current
which sets south-westwards along the east coast of Greenland, the East Greenland
Current. A part of this diverges south-eastwards from the main body of the current,
north of the latitude 70°N. This flows south-eastwards across the region to the
north-east of Iceland and gradually turns eastwards and finally north-eastwards to
join the general north-easterly flow off Norway.

The East Greenland Current rounds Kap Farvel and passes northwards along the
west coast, where it is called the West Greenland Current. This loses volume by
fanning out on its seaward side, but part of it circulates round the head of Baffin
Bay and, reinforced by water flowing eastwards through the Jones and Lancaster
Sounds, sets southwards along the Hudson Strait and becomes the Labrador
Current which flows south-eastwards along the Labrador coast.

After Belle Isle Strait and the east coast of Newfoundland have been passed the
Labrador Current covers the whole of the Grand Banks except, during the summer,
the extreme southern part. A large branch of the current follows the eastern edge
of the Banks and thus carries ice southwards to reach the trans-atlantic shipping
tracks. Another branch round Capre Race and sets south-westerly. The bulk of the
water on the Banks also sets in this direction, so that the Labrador Current fills the
region between the south coast of Newfoundland, the south-east of Nova Scotia
and the northern edge of the Gulf Stream. The Labrador Current continues
49
southwards as a cold current along the United States coast. Its greatest southern
extension is to about latitude 36°N, closely north of Cape Hatteras, in November to
January; its least extension is to about latitude 40°N in August to October. The cold
Labrador Current and the warm Gulf Stream converge along the northern edge of
the latter.
Water also emerges from the Arctic Ocean into the northern part of the Barents
Sea, forming the East Svalbard Current (formerly East Spitsbergen Current), which
flows south-westwards on the eastern side of Svalbard and after passing the
southern extremity of the latter, curves north-westwards into the West Svalbard
Current. A similar current, further south, is directed towards Bjornoya, and is
known as the Bjornoya (Bear Island) Current. Part of this recurves northwards into
the West Svalbard Current and part southwards.

Associated Regions
1. North Sea and English Channel
This region is one of tidal streams and variable currents depending on the present
or recent wind. After subtracting the tidal streams there is, in the long run, a week
current circulations as follows. From north-eastwards of the Shetland Isles a
branch of the North Atlantic flows, southwards down the east coast of Scotland and
England to the Thames estuary, where it curves eastwards. It is there joined by a
branch of North Atlantic Current that passes up the English Channel and through
the Dover Strait. The combined current flows along the Belgian and Netherlands
coast and west coast of Jutland. It continues counter-clockwise round the
Skagerrak and then sets northwards along the west coast of Norway.
Only a portion of the current on the west side of the North Sea reaches as far south
as the Thames estuary and water fans out eastwards from this current all along its
length.

2. Bay of Biscay
Off the mouth of the Bay of Biscay of current trends south-eastwards, and later
flows southwards along the west coast of the Iberian Peninsula. A branch enters
the Bay and recourse westwards along the north coast of Spain the region this
current near Cabe Fenisterre.
50
3. Mediterranean
Part of the water from the Portugal Current enters the Strait of Gibraltar and floes
along the north coast of Africa. Beyond Cap Bon, it continues in general south-
easterly and later easterly direction towards Port Said. The water turns northwards
at the eastern end of the Mediterranean and the counter-clockwise circulation is
completed by a more variable return current along the northern coasts. In
following the coast, this forms counter-clockwise loops in seas such as the Aegean
and the Adriatic.

4. Black Sea
The general circulation is counter-clockwise. There is an almost constant surface
flow of water from the Black Sea to Aegean through the Bosporus, the Sea of
Marmara, and the Dardanelles. There is a sub-surface return current below this,
from the Aegean to the Black Sea.

5. Gulf of St. Lawrence

Water enters the gulf on the northern side of Cabot Strait and flows northwards
along the west coast of Newfoundland. It then turns south-westwards, along
Quebec coast and is west-going southwards of Anticosti. The Gaspe Current sets
south-westwards from the Gaspe Peninsula. Water emerges from the Strait by the
Cae Breton Current.

6. Gulf of Mexico
Part of the water passing through Yucatan Channel turns westwards and follows
the gulf coast in clockwise direction. Another branch sets northwards across the
middle of the gulf of the region of the Mississippi delta where it turns eastward and
joins the coastal current. The combined current passes into the Florida Current
between Cuba and Florida.

51
B. SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN
Main Circulation
The main surface circulation of this ocean is counter-clockwise. The South
Equatorial Current, flowing westwards across the ocean, extends across the
equator to about latitude 4°N. South of about latitude 6°S the constancy and
strength of the westerly flow gradually decreases southwards. The main
concentration of the South Equatorial Current is between about latitudes 6°S and
4°N.
The eastern side of the circulation is formed by the relatively cool Benguela Current
flowing north-westerly along the south-western coasts of Africa. From about
latitude 30°S, water from the Benguela Current fans out west-north-westerly and
westerly on its seaward side.
While most of the South Equatorial Current flows along the north coast of Brazil
and across the equator to join the North Equatorial Current, the westerly flow on
its southerly flank is directed towards the Brazilian coast, southwards of Cabo de
Sao Roque. A small part of this turns northwards along that coast and passes round
Cabo de Sao Roque to join the South equatorial Current; the bulk of it flows
southwards along the Brazilian coast. This warm current, known as the Brazil
Current, forms the west side of the South Atlantic circulation.
The Southern Ocean Current flows all around the globe in the southernmost parts
of the South Atlantic, South Indian, and South Pacific Oceans, and forms the
completion, on the southern side, of the counter-clockwise circulation in these
oceans. The Southern Ocean Current is restricted in width by passing through
Drake Passage, between Cabo de Hornos and Graham Land. Eastwards of this
passage it becomes very wide, its northern part fanning out north-eastwards past
the southern and eastern coasts of the Falkland Islands, to reach to about the 40°
parallel in the central longitudes of the South Atlantic.
Further north, the southern part of the main circulation is added to by water from
the seaward side of the Brazil Current curving south-eastwards and eastwards
between latitude 28°S and 40°S. In mid ocean part of the resultant easterly flow
runs north of and parallel to the colder water of the Southern Ocean Current. East
of about longitude 15°W and south of the 30th parallel, the east-going water turns
north-east and north to converge with the westerly flow which fans out from the
seaward side of the Benguela Current.
52
Nearer the South African cost, between longitudes 10°E and 15°E, a branch of the
Southern Ocean Current turns northwards directly into the Benguela Current. The
water of the Benguela Current is, however, mainly derived by the upwelling of
water off the south-west coast of Africa. A branch of the Agulhas Current of the
South Indian Ocean, which rounds the south coast of Africa, also enters the
Benguela Current.
The Falkland Current does not form part of the main circulation; it branches
northwards from the Southern Ocean Current near Staten Island and passes west
of the Falkland Islands. Part of it continues to the Rio de la Plata estuary; the
remainder branches eastwards in about latitudes 40°S to 42°S and rejoins the
northern part of the Southern Ocean Current. During May to October, a northerly
extension of the Falkland Current continues north of Rio de la Plata. From May to
July this may extend as far as Cabo Frio.

C. NORTH INDIAN OCEAN

Monsoonal Effects
The currents in the greater part of the North Indian Ocean, including the Arabian
Sea and the Bay of Bengal, are reverses in direction seasonally by the monsoons.
The north-east monsoon current circulation occurs during the height of that
monsoon from November to January. During the latter part of this monsoon,
February to April, the circulation changes. The south-west monsoon circulation
prevails from May to September. October is a transitional month. The currents are
therefore described below for the three periods, November to January, February
to April, and May to September.

North-east Monsoon Circulation (November to January)

In the open waters of the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, the current sets in a
westerly direction. These westerly sets extend southwards beyond the equator.
Near the coasts of the Arabian Sea, there is a weak circulation in a counter-
clockwise sense following the coasts. In the northern part of the Bay of Bengal
there is a clockwise circulation. A stronger current sets southwards down the east
53
coast of Africa from Ras Hafun to about latitude 2°S. The Somali Current turns
eastward between about latitudes 2°S and 5°S, from the beginning of the
Equatorial Counter Current. Between Ras Hafun and Ras Asir (C. Guardafui) the
current is northerly.

Later North-east Monsoon Period (February to April)

The flow in the open waters of the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal remains westerly,
through the currents are more variable than from November to January. Towards
the equator, westerlies which are well-marked in February becomes less so in
March, and in April the flow changes to easterly. The coastal circulations of the
Arabian Sea, however is reversed to a clockwise direction. In February, the Somali
Current flows south-westwards along the African Coast to about latitude 3°S.
During March the flow becomes variable, and by April it reverses to north-easterly.

South-east Monsoon Circulation (May to September)

In the open waters the drift is easterly. The coastal circulations of the Arabian Sea
and Bay of Bengal remains clockwise and is strengthened. Somali Current
continues to flow northwards, from Cabo Delgado to Ras Asir (C. Guardafui), and is
greatly strengthened. It divides in about latitude 7°N; part continues along the
coast to Ras Asir (C. Guardafui), but the bulk turns eastwards and passes south of
Socotra into the general easterly current. The current south of Socotra in July to
September is the strongest known in the world in the open ocean and rates up to
7 knows have been recorded.

Red Sea and Gulf Aden

The current conforms to the monsoon. During the north-east monsoon, it sets
westwards at the Gulf of Aden and passes through the Straits of Bab-al-Mandab to
flow up the axis in the Red Sea. During the south-west monsoon, the current in the
Gulf of Aden sets eastwards; in the Red Sea and the water flows down the axis of
the sea and into the Gulf of Aden.

54
D. SOUTH INDIAN OCEAN
Main Circulation
The main circulation of the South Indian Ocean is counter-clockwise. The northern
flank of the circulation is formed by the west-going South Equatorial Current which
occupies an analogous position to the South Equatorial Currents of the other main
ocean. In this ocean however, the South Equatorial Current lies well south of the
equator and this respect differs from the corresponding currents of the Atlantic and
Pacific which extend to a few degrees north of the equator. Its northern boundary
is usually between latitudes 6°S and 10°S but it varies according to longitude and
season.

The South Equatorial Current, after passing the northern extremity of Madagascar,
meets the African coast near Cabo Delgado. Here it divides and some of the water
flows northwards along the coast. The remainder flows southwards to form a
strong coastal current which, from Cabo Delgado to Lourenco Marques, is known
as the Mocambique Current. Its southward continuation is the Agulhas Current.
This is reinforced by water from the South Equatorial Current setting past the
southern extremity of Madagascar.

Some of the water of the Agulhas Current recurves to south-eastwards between

about longitudes 25°E and 35°E and enters the northern part of the Southern Ocean
Current. The remainder of the Agulhas Current continues along the coastline, and
passing over the Agulhas Bank, enters the South Atlantic Ocean, where it joins the
Benguela Current.

The southern side of the main circulation is formed by the cold water of the
Southern Ocean Current, setting in a generally easterly direction in latitudes south
of about 35°S. There is no defined northern boundary of the Southern Ocean
Current; the predominance of easterly sets decreases with decreasing latitude
towards the middle of the ocean. Here the center of a rather weak counter-
clockwise circulation lies somewhere between latitudes 22°S and 35°S and between
longitudes 70°E and 95°E.

55
The east side of the circulation is not well marked. In the northern winter months,
the Southern Ocean Current turns northwards as it approaches Cape Leeuwin and
forms a north-going current close inshore. In the northern summer, the Southern
Ocean Current off south-western Australia sets easterly and turns southerly
towards the coast in latitudes south of latitude 26°S. Between about latitudes 20°S
and 26°S the current near the coast runs southwards from about March to August
but is northerly in other months. The bulk of the Southern Ocean Current continues
its easterly course, south of Australia and Tasmania, into the South Pacific.

Equatorial Counter-current
In the other main oceans of the worlds, the Equatorial Counter-current consists of
a relatively narrow belt of easterly currents lying between the North Equatorial and
South Equatorial Currents of the ocean in question. In the Indian Ocean, also, the
Equatorial Counter-current is readily distinguished during the north-east monsoon
when it forms a belt of easterly currents lying between about latitudes 2°S and 8°S.
In the southwest monsoon however, the criterion for determining the northern
boundary of this belt disappears, since easterlies are then more or less continuous
north of about latitude 8°S. This easterly flow tends to be lighter and more variable
in the south and to become more pronounced further north. In July and August,
the currents are light and rather variable between about latitudes 8°S and 2°N with
more decided easterly flow further north, but in June and September the region of
marked easterly flow extends southwards as far as latitudes 2°S to 4°S.

Extreme Eastern Part of the Ocean

The currents her, including those of the Arafura Sea, are not well known, owing to
the scarcity of observations. Eastwards of Christmas Island, between the parallels
of about 10°S and 12°S, there is a predominance of westerly sets during most of
the year and they form the most easterly part of the Equatorial Current.

56
E. NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN
Main Circulation
The main circulation of the North Pacific resembles that of the North Atlantic.
Observations are inadequate to give detailed information about the currents over
large parts of this ocean, owing to its size and the limited shipping tracks. This
especially applies to the middle longitudes, both near the equator and in the
variable current region further north.

The southern part of the main circulation is formed by the west-going North
Equatorial Current. Immediately south of this, the Equatorial Counter-current
flows eastwards across the ocean, but its limits are not exactly known and they may
be subject to some seasonal variation. During the latter half of the year, the
southern limit appears to be nearer the equator in the west than in central or
eastern longitudes. Over most of the ocean, the counter-current is usually found
between latitudes 4° or 5°N and 8° or 10°N. The South Equatorial Current, the
northern limit of which reaches to about latitude 4° or 5°N, is described under the
South Pacific.

The North Equatorial Current has no defined northern limit. This west-going
current lessens in strength as the predominance of trade winds decreases, until it
is lost in the variable current region lying to the northwards. The latitude to which
some predominance of westerly current extends appears to vary with the season.
In mid ocean it is between latitude 20°N and 24°N in winter and in about latitude
30°N in the late summer or autumn.

The Equatorial Counter-current flows eastwards throughout the year across the
whole ocean. During March to November, this counter-current is formed by the
recurving of the South Equatorial Current northwards and part of the North
Equatorial Current southwards down the east coasts of the Philippines. In
December to February, the North Equatorial Current is the only source of the
counter-current. During these months the South Equatorial Current, north of the

57
equator, turns south in about longitudes 140°E to 150°E and finally south-
eastwards, and thus makes no contribution to the counter-current. In all seasons,
part of the North Equatorial Current enters the Celebes Sea and emerges in a north-
easterly direction to join the counter-current. The counter-current appears to be
strongest in its most westerly portion, from northwards of Halmahera (between
New Guinea and Celebes) to about longitude 145°E.

To continue the main circulation, a considerable part of the water from the North
Equatorial Current turns north-eastwards when east of Luzon and flows up the east
coast of Taiwan to form the Kuro Shio, a warm current corresponding to the Gulf
Stream of the North Atlantic. Southwards of the Japanese Islands the Kuro Shio
flows north-eastwards. This current then fans out to form the North Pacific
Current, which sets eastwards across the ocean toward the North American coast.
It is joined by cold water from the Bering Sea, flowing down the east coast of
Kamchatka and turning south-east and then east.
The while forms a broad of variable currents with a predominance of easterly sets,
filling most of the area between latitudes 35°N and 50°N, across the ocean. The
colder part of this is known as the Aleutian Current and in the middle longitudes of
the ocean is found northwards of about latitude 45°N.

Water fans out to the south-east and south from the southern part of the North
Pacific Current, and passes into the central region of variable currents. Eastwards
of about longitude 150°W, the remainder of the North Pacific Current and the bulk
of the Aleutian Current turn southwards and south-westwards and finally merge
with the North Equatorial Current. Near the coast this southwards current is called
the California Current.

The California Current does not actually meet the coast; from November to
February a relatively cold counter-current, known as the Davidson Current, runs
northwards, close inshore, to at least latitude 48°N. During the rest of the year, the
space between the California Current and the coast is filled by irregular current
eddies.

58
In the extreme eastern part of the Equatorial Counter-current, seasonal variations
occur off the Central American coast and numerous eddies are formed which seem
to vary from year to year. In most months, the counter-current will be met
between altitudes 5°N and 10°N, and it generally turns north and north-west along
the Central American coast, finally to enter the North Equatorial Current. Early in
the year, part of the counter-current branches south and enters the South Pacific.

Associated Regions
1. Northern Part of the Ocean
The Bering Sea current are not well known, but there is a counter-clockwise
circulation round the coasts, northwards on the east and southwards on the side.
The cold southern current flows along the east coast of Kamchatka as the
Kamchatka Current, and then past the Kuril Island where it is known as the Oya
Shio*. The Oya Ship continues along the east coast of the main Japanese Island of
Honshu, until meets the northern edge of the Kuro Shio in about latitude 36°N. The
Oya Shio thus, corresponds to the Labrador Current of the North Atlantic. It is
joined by water emerging through Tsugaru Kaikyo. Water fans out south-east and
east all along the course of the current from Kamchatka southwards. The resultant
easterly current flows parallel and adjacent to the North Pacific Current and forms
the Aleutian Current. The more northerly part of this, as it approaches the
American coast, sets north-east and then north-west past Queen Charlotte Islands
and along the coast of the south-east Alaska. This is the Alaska Current. It follows
the Gulf of Alaska coastline to set to the westwards across the head of the gulf and
then along the south coast of the Aleutian Islands. West of longitude 155W to
160W, some water recurves from the Alaska current to the south and south-east
and rejoins the east-going Aleutian Current; the remainder recurves northwards
and enter the Bering Sea and thence it turns north-eastwards and later northwards
to form the east side of the Bering Sea circulation, referred to previously.
*The whole of the cold current from the Bering Sea is sometimes referred to as the
Oya Shio, especially by American writers.

59
2. China Seas and other Regions Westwards of the Main Circulation
In the China Seas and Java Sea the currents are monsoonal. During the south-west
monsoon, the general direction of current is westerly in the Java Sea and north-
easterly in the China and Eastern Seas. In the Yellow Sea, the currents are complex
and variable. During the north-east monsoon the currents become mainly
southerly in the Yellow Sea, south-westerly in the Eastern and China Seas and
easterly in the Java Sea. In the southern part of the China Sea there is a variable
current area west of Borneo and Palawan in monsoons, but weak monsoonal
current runs along the west coasts of these islands, alternating between north-
easterly and south-westerly during the year. The eastern part of the Eastern Sea is
occupied by the Kuro Shio.

In the China Seas, the north-easterly current is found from May to August inclusive.
September is the transitional month, but the north-easterly current still persists in
the southern part. In October, the south-westerly current still persists in the
southern part.

In the Java Sea the westerly current runs from June to September and the easterly
current from November to March. April, May and October are transitional months.
In the Japan Sea, the circulation is counter-clockwise all year. The north-going
current on the east side of the sea, known as the Tsushima Shio, is a branch of the
Kuro Shio that has passed through Korea Strait. Part of the Tsushima Shio branches
off through Tsugaru Kaikyo and flows into the Oya Shio, and another part branches
off through Soya Kaikyo. The south-going current on the west side of the sea, past
Vladivostok, is called the Liman Current.

In the central parts of the Sea of Okhotsk the currents are available. Nearer the
coasts, there is a counter-clockwise circulation, but along the west coast of
Kamchatka the flow is known as the East Sakhalin Current.

60
F. SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN
Main Circulation
The main circulation is counter-clockwise. Less is known about the South Pacific
currents than those of the other oceans south of the equator, because of its great
size and on account of the large areas, particularly in the east, which are not
frequented by shipping.

The South Equatorial Current of the Pacific, though lying mainly south of the
equator extends to about latitude 5°N though varying according to longitude and
season. Its northern limit is defined by the east-going Equatorial Counter-current
of the North Pacific, immediately north of it.

South of about latitude 6°S, the strength of the current gradually decreases
southwards while the direction becomes more south-westerly. Some westerly
component persists at least to latitude 20°S. Between about longitudes 90W and
135W there is a weak southerly flow between latitudes 20°S and 30°S.

On the west side of the ocean, the course of the South Equatorial Current varies
seasonally. In June to August the while current follows the north coast of New
Guinea to the north-westwards and then recurves north and north-eastwards,
entering the east-going Equatorial Counter-current of the North Pacific. In
December to February the South Equatorial Current does not pass into the counter-
current, it recurves south-westwards and southwards and flows past the north
coast of New Guinea in a south-easterly direction. There is thus a complete reversal
of current along this coast during the year.

The west side of the main circulation is not well marked, except along the Australian
coast from Great Sandy Island to Cape Howe, where the East Australian Coast
Current sets southwards.

61
In the region of the Great Barrier Reef, the flow is south-easterly in the northern
winter but in the northern summer, north of about latitude 18°S, the flow is north-
westerly and continues westwards through the Torres Strait.
The south side of the main circulation is formed by the Southern Ocean Current
which sets to the east or north-east. Observations are scanty over most of this
region.
Between Australia and New Zealand easterly sets predominate. The bulk of the
East Australian Coast Current mixes with water of the Southern Ocean Current and
flows eastwards towards New Zealand. The current sets north-eastwards along
both the west and east coasts of South Island, New Zealand.
The bulk of the Southern Ocean Current enters the South Atlantic couth of Cabo de
Hornos. The northern part of this current however, meets the coast of Chile
between Isla de Chiloe and Golfo de Peñas, where it divides: part goes northwards
to form the beginning of the Peru Current and part follows the coast south-
eastwards to rejoin the Southern Ocean Current south of Cabo de Hornos.
The east side of circulation is formed by the relatively cool Peru Current, formerly
known as the Humbolt Current. It follows the coastline northwards to somewhere
near the equator. Between the Golfo de Guayaquil and the equator the bulk of the
Peru Current trends seawards and passes into the South Equatorial Current. The
Peru Current has a width of perhaps 300 nautical miles or more.
A branch of the Peru Current continues northwards up the coast during most of the
year and enter the Gulf of Panama.
During the northern winter in the eastern North Pacific, the east-going Equatorial
Counter-current extends further south than at another seasons. A branch of this
current then turns southwards along the coast of Ecuador into the South Pacific,
but in most years, its southern limit is only a few degrees south of the equator. This
is called El Niño or the Holy Child Current, as in some years it begins to flow about
Christmas time, although it is more regularly observed in February and March. In
exceptional years, it extends down the coast of Peru, occasionally to beyond Callao,
when the intrusion of this warm water into a region normally occupied by the cool
Peru Current kills fish and other marine life.

62
Central Oceanic Region
Between about latitudes 20°S and 40°S, and longitudes 90°W and 180°W there is a
vast area where observations are scanty and where, as far as is known, the currents
are mainly light and variable. The center of the general counter-clockwise
circulation of the South Pacific lies somewhere in this region and there may well be
several eddies with centers located not far from latitude 30°S.

63
G. ARCTIC OCEAN
The main inflow of water into the arctic Basin is from the West Svalbard Current. A
much smaller quantity enters through Bering Strait. Fresh water is added to the
Arctic Basin from rivers, notably those of Siberia, and by an excess of precipitation
over evaporation.
The East Greenland Current forms the main outflow of water from the Arctic
Ocean. Small outflows occur due to the East Svalbard and Bjornoya (Bear Islands)
Currents which flow south-westwards in the northern part of the Barents Sea and
the current which flows eastwards between the islands of the Arctic Archipelago
towards Baffin Bay.

Within the eastern longitudes of the Arctic Basin, there is a weak westerly current,
as shown by the drift of the Fram and other ships in the ice. This current emerges
to the south-west between Svalbard (Spitsbergen) and Greenland to form the East
Greenland Current.
Along the Siberian coast, the current generally flows eastwards from the Kara Sea
to Bering Strait.

H. SOUTHERN OCEAN
The east-going Southern Ocean Current completes, on the south side, the counter-
clockwise circulation in each of the South Atlantic, South Indian, and South Pacific
Oceans. The southern limit of this current is not clearly defined. In general, the
easterlies decrease and become more north-easterly by about latitude 60S. Some
easterly component continues southwards to latitudes, varying with longitude and
season, between about latitudes 62S and 67S. Further south, westerly components
increase and there is finally a westerly current setting around the coasts of the
Antarctic continent. These coastal westerlies are interrupted in the north Graham
Land where the restricted nature of Drake Passage produces a north-easterly flow
throughout its width.

64
LEARNING ACTIVITY 6

ON A CLEAN SHEET OF PAPER, DESCRIBE THE MAIN CURRENT SYSTEM OF THE

FOLLOWING. TAKE A PHOTO OF YOUR OUTPUT AND SUBMIT IT TO OUR
HOMEPAGE (MET-02) IN THE PAMMA OED PLATFORM.

1. NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

2. SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN
3. NORTH INDIAN OCEAN
4. SOUTH INDIAN OCEAN
5. NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN
6. SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN

65
 LESSON 7 – TYPES OF FLOATING ICE AND SAFETY OF NAVIGATION ON ICE
After reading this lesson, you will be able to state areas where fast ice is expected.

AREAS WHERE FAST ICE IS EXPECTED

Sea ice forms by the freezing of sea water.
The first indication is greasy or oily
appearance of the surface, with a peculiar
gray or leaden tint. The small individual
particles of ice, called spicules, then become
visible. As the number increases, the
mixture of water and ice is soupy or mushy,
having about the consistency of wet snow.
At this stage, it is called slush. The height of
wave is noticeably reduced. As the individual
particles freeze together, a thin layer of highly plastic ice forms. This bends easily
and moves up and down with the waves. A layer of two-inch fresh-water ice is
brittle but strong enough to support the weight of heavy man. In contrast, the
same thickness of newly-formed sea ice will support not more than about ten
percent of this weight, although its strength varies with the temperature at which
it is formed, very cold ice supporting a greater weight than warmer ice. When snow
falls into sea water which is near its freezing point but colder than the melting point
of snow, it does not melt but floats on the surface, drifting with the freezing point
of the sea water, the mixture of snow and water freezes quickly into a soft ice
similar to that formed when snow is not present. As it ages, sea ice becomes harder
and more brittle.
Close to land, the ice may be attached to the shore as an ice foot. The width of this
fast ice varies considerably, but in an area with many irregularities in the coast line,
especially if there are offshore islands or shoals, and relatively shallow water, it
may extend to several miles to seaward. Although the width generally varies from
2 to 20 miles, a maximum of about 270 miles has been observed in the vicinity of
Novosibirskiye Ostrova (New Siberian Islands). On an exposed, abrupt coast
bordered by deep water, there may be no ice foot at all.
In a bay or other sheltered area, ice formed on the surface of the sea, often
augmented by snow and land ice, may build up a shelf which remains attached to
66
the land for many years. In the Ross Sea in Antarctica, this shelf ice attains a
thickness of 500 to 1,000 feet. At the outer edge, large pieces eventually break
away, forming tabular icebergs, with dimensions measured in miles. The
expression ‘tabular iceberg’ is not applied to northern hemisphere bergs, but
similar formations are there called ice islands. These are believed to originate
when shelf ice breaks up north of Canada and Greenland.

Sea ice is exposed to severe force, including currents, wave motion, tides, wind,
and temperature differences. In its early stages, its plasticity permits it to conform
readily to virtually any shape required by the forces acting upon it. As it becomes
older, thicker, and more brittle, exposed sea ice cracks and breaks under the strain.
Under the influence of wind and current, the broken pieces may shift position
relative pieces around them.

A single piece of relatively flat, sea ice is called an ice cake. When ice is formed in
the presence of considerable wave motion, circular cakes several feet in diameter
are formed, rather than a single large sheet. These circular cakes are called
pancakes, and a collection of pancakes are called pancake ice. Wave motion may
cause the pancakes to break into smaller pieces. With continued freezing,
individual pieces unite into floes, and floes into ice fields which extend over many
miles.

When one floe encounters another, or the shore, the individual pieces may be
forced closer together into a thickly-compacted mass. If the force is sufficiently
plastic, bending takes place, or tenting if the contacting edges of individual cakes
force each other to rise above their surroundings. More frequently, however,
rafting occurs as one cake override another. Sea ice having any readily observed
roughness of the surface is called pressure ice. A line of ice piled haphazardly along
the edge of two floes which have collided is called a pressure ridge. Pressure ice
with numerous mounds or hillocks which have become somewhat rounded and
smooth by weathering or accumulation of snow is called hummocked ice, each
mound being called a hummock.

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The motion of adjacent floes is seldom equal. The rougher the surface, the greater
the effect of wind, since each piece extending above the surface acts as a sail. Some
floes are rotary motion as they tend to trim themselves into the wind. Since ridges
extend below as well as above the surface, the deeper ones are influenced more
by deep-water currents. When a strong wind blows in the same direction for a
considerable period, each floe exerts pressure on the next one, and as the distance
increases, the pressure becomes tremendous. Near land, the result is an almost
unbelievable chaotic piling of ice. Individual ridges near the shore may extend as
much as 60 or 70 feet above surrounding ice and have a total thickness of 150 to
200 feet in extreme cases. Far from land, the height and thickness seldom exceed
half these figures.

The continual motion of various floes results in separation as well as consolidation.

A long, narrow, jagged crack may appear and widen enough to permit passage of a
ship, when it is called a lead. In winter, a thin coating of newly-formed ice usually
covers the water, but in summer the water remains ice-free until a shift in the
movement forces the two sides together again. Before this occurs, lateral motion
usually takes place between the floes, so that the no longer fit, and unless the
pressure is extreme, numerous patches of open water remain. A large one is called
polynya.

A large mass of sea ice, consisting of various floes, pressure ridges and openings, is
called a pack. In the Arctic, the main pack extends over the entire Arctic Ocean and
for a varying distance outward from it, the limits receding considerably during
summer. Each year a large portion of the ice from the Arctic Ocean moves outward
between Greenland and Norway, into the North Atlantic, and is replaced by new
ice. Relatively, little of the pack ice is more than 10 years old. The ice pole, the
approximate center of the arctic pack, is at latitude 83.5° N, longitude 160° W,
north of western Alaska and about 390 miles from the North Pole. In the Antarctic,
the pack exists as relatively narrow strip between the continent of Antarctica and
the notoriously stormy seas which hasten the pack’s destruction.

68
The alternate melting and freezing of the surface of the pack, producing weathered
ice, combined with the various motions to which the pack is subjected, result in
widely varying conditions within the pack itself. The extent to which it can be
penetrated by a ship varies from pace to place and with changing weather
conditions. In some areas, the limit of navigable water is abrupt and complete, as
at the edge of shelf ice. Such ice is called a barrier.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 7
ENUMERATE 8 DANGERS OF NAVIGATION ON ICE.
1. _________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________________
4. _________________________________________________________
5. _________________________________________________________
6. _________________________________________________________
7. _________________________________________________________

8. _________________________________________________________

69
 LESSON 8 – DANGERS AND REMEDIES OF ICE ACCRETIONS

After reading the lesson, you will be able to:

1. State the limits and movements of arctic and Antarctic ice bergs.
2. Explain the dangers of sailing on ice and ice berg areas.
3. State the normal signs of being in an ice berg area.
4. Describe the conditions in which accumulation of ice on ships occur.

Distribution of Fast Ice in the Northern Hemisphere

During the winter, some ice become
firmly attached to the coast. The width of this
fast-ice belt is greatly dependent upon the
water depths. The outer limit often coincides
with the 25-meter contour so that, where the
sea bottom shelves steeply, the fast-ice belt is
very narrow or sometimes non-existent.
Where the water is shallow for a considerable
distance off shore, the fast-ice belt may be extensive as in the Laptev Sea where it
reaches from the continental coast to a position just northwards of the
Novosibirskiye Ostrova.

The fast-ice limits are important as the recurring polynyas which form there due to
off-shore winds and have a considerable effect on the summer break up.

Distribution of Fast Ice in the Southern Hemisphere

The fast-ice belt around Antarctica is discontinuous and relatively narrow. Its exact
width is difficult to determine since its inner edge is often fast to ice shelves that

70
sometimes extends to a considerable distance offshore. The outer limit of the fast-
ice, however, approximated to the position of the 300-meter depth contour within
which a vast number of icebergs ground, thus, forming anchoring points for the sea
ice to become fast. The shape of the fast-ice boundaries is therefore liable to
change in detail from time to time as calving as the distribution of the grounder
bergs is altered as some bergs eventually drift away.

Polynya occurs in places at the outer limit of the fast-ice (or at the ice front, or coast
where there is no fast-ice). They occur throughout the winter owing to the action
of the offshore winds that prevail around the coast of Antarctica. These off-shore
winds are sometimes interrupted in places by northerly winds associated with the
depressions that frequently affect the pack-ice zone. Where they occur, these
northerly winds temporarily prevent the formation of the polynyas and close those
which have already formed. Thus, at any one time there is no continuous ring of
open water close in to the coast; there are instead a number of unconnected
polynyas surrounding the continent. The polynyas that have formed due to the off-
shore winds become covered over with new and young ice whenever wind speeds
become light. Subsequently, strengthening of the offshore winds reopens the
polynyas, resulting in the northward displacement of the pack ice, thus, directly
contributing to the northward advance of the outer ice edge during the winter.

LIMITS AND MOVEMENTS OF ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC ICEBERGS

Arctic Icebergs
The icebergs of the Arctic region originate almost entirely from the Greenland ice-
cap that contains about 90% of the land produced from the east coast glacier,
particularly in the region of Scoresby Sund and carried south in the East Greenland
Current. Most of those surviving this journey drift round Kap Farvel and melt in the
Davis Strait, but some follow south or south-east tracks from Kap Farvel,
particularly in the winter half of the year so that the maximum limit of icebergs
(occurring in April this region) lies over 400 nautical miles south-east of Kap Farvel.
However, a much larger crop of icebergs is derived from the glaciers which
terminate in Baffin Bay. It has been estimated that more than 40,000 bergss may

71
be present in the Baffin Bay at any one time. By far, the greater number of bergs
are located close in to the Greenland coast between Disko Bugt and Melville Bugt
where most of the major parent glaciers are situate. Some of the vast number of
bergs become grounded in the vicinity of their birthplace and never leave their
source region; others drift out into the open waters (in summer) of Baffin Bay and
steadily decay, but a significant proportion each year is carried by the predominant
current pattern in a counter-clockwise direction around the head of Baffin Bay. Of
these some grounds in Meville Bugt and along the eastern shores of Baffin Island
and there slowly decay. The remainder slowly drift south with the Baffin land
Current and later the Labrador Current, their numbers constantly decreasing by
grounding or, in summer, melting in the open sea so that, on average, only a little
over 200 icebergs pass south of the 48th parallel on the Grand Banks of
Newfoundland each year.

The iceberg season on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland begins, on average, in

February and ends in July. The mean iceberg limit moves southwards from latitude
48°N in February to its mean furthest south limit at latitude 42°N in water in the
vicinity of the Tail of the Bank; the survivors fan out in directions between wet
through south to north-east, chiefly under the influence of the meandering Gulf
Stream.

Little is known about the production of bergs in European and Asiatic longitudes.
With the exception of small glaciers in Ostrova De-Longa, it is probable that not a
single berg is produced along the North Siberian coast east of Mys Chelyuskina.
Severnaya Zemlya probable produces more bergs that Svalbard or Zemlya Frantsa
losifa; bergs from its eastern side of Poluostrov Taymyrskiy. The small bergs typical
Zemlya Frants losifa and Svalbard which do not reach height of more than about 15
meters are probably not carried far by the weak currents of this region, though
some may enter the East Greenland Current. Svalbard bergs, probably those from
the east coast of Nordaustlandet, also drift south-west in the East Svalbard and
Bjornoya Currents and are usually found in small numbers on the Bjornoya
neighborhood from May to October. The northern half of Novaya Zemlya produces
some small bergs.

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The fjords and their immediate vicinity on the coasts of the Gulf of Alaska are
sometimes affected by locally calved icebergs; this is the only region in the Pacific
sector where icebergs sometimes occur.
Antarctic Icebergs
It has been estimated that the ice-cap covering the continent of Antarctica contains
about seven times as much ice as that which covers Greenland. Since theses ice-
caps are the source of icebergs it is not surprising then, that many more icebergs
occur in the Antarctic region than in the Arctic. On approaching the continent,
isolated icebergs at a considerable distance from its coastline give the first
indication of the generally hazardous ice conditions which lie ahead. It is not
possible to quote total numbers of icebergs, but it is likely that a ship making a
direct approach to the continent of the Antarctica may expect to sight upwards of
300 bergs.

The largest concentrations of icebergs are to be found close in to their sources –

the ice-shelves, ice-tongues, and glaciers which are a frequent feature of the
Antarctic coastline where, owing to their great draught, many bergs will be
grounded in depths less than about 300 meters. Beyond these depths, there is a
sharp decrease in iceberg concentration though still many thousands of icebergs
will be found floating in deeper water. For some considerable distance offshore,
there is little melting of icebergs since the sea temperature remains at, or just
below, 0°C. Their concentration, however, decreases as the distance between the
meridian increases.

The prevailing current pattern of the region carries the bergs in a west to west-
north-west direction away from their source region until the latitude of about the
Antarctic Circle where their tracks become more and more northerly. North of
about latitude 63°S the icebergs move in a more east to east-north-easterly
direction under the influence of the east-setting Southern Ocean Current.

The extreme maximum limit lies furthest north in the central South Atlantic where
an iceberg has been sighted in latitude 26°. It encloses the extreme southern coast
of South America, almost grazes the Cape of Good Hope and lies close to the south
73
coasts of Australia and New Zealand. Then ‘mean maximum limit’ lies between
latitude 46° to 53° S in the Atlantic sector (although it extends to latitude 60°S in
the Drake Passage), latitude 46° to 59°S in the Indian Ocean sector and between
latitudes 57° and 63°S in the Pacific sector. In fact, both iceberg limits and pack-ice
limits lie farther south in the Pacific sector than elsewhere. Though
oceanographical and meteorological factors undoubtedly influence the position of
these limits, this spatial variation is in part due to the fact that the cold continental
land mass is not evenly distributed about the South Pole; the coastline, in general,
lies much further south in the Pacific than in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean sectors.

TABULAR: An iceberg with steep sides and flat top having a length-to-height ratio
greater than 5:1. Many show horizontal banding.
NON-TABULAR: Describes all icebergs that are not tabular shaped as described
above. This category is further subdivided to include the specific shapes described
below. If no other description applies, the iceberg is simply referred to as a non-
tabular.
BLOCKY: An iceberg with a flat top and steep vertical sides.
WEDGE: An iceberg having a steep vertical side on one end and sloping on the
other.
DRY-DOCK: An iceberg that has eroded so a slot or channel is formed.
PINNACLE: An iceberg with one or more spires.
DOME: An iceberg with a rounded top.
Little is known of the seasonal and annual variations in the positions of the mean
maximum limit. Though the calving of the larger tabular bergs is probably related
to earthquakes and tsunamis, other bergs are probably calved at a more or less
uniform rate throughout the year. Owing to the vast numbers of bergs which are
to be found around the Antarctic coastline and to the fact that they probably
survive for several years before disintegration in lower latitudes, it is thought that
there is little seasonal variation in the position of ‘mean maximum’ iceberg limit. It
is more likely that there are significant variations in the position of this limit from
one year to another as is suggested by the relatively great distances between the
‘mean maximum’ and extreme maximum limits.

74
Movements of icebergs
Since about 9/10 of the volume of an iceberg is submerged, it follows that its
movement is chiefly controlled by the water movement or current. However,
strong winds may exert a considerable influence on the movement of icebergs
partly by direct action on the berg, and partly through their effect upon the current.
Off Newfoundland, the chief factor governing the severity of any iceberg season
(March to July) is the frequency of north-north-westerly winds along the Baffin
Island and Labrador coasts during the month immediately preceding and early in
the season.

DANGER OF SAILING IN ICE AND ICEBERG AREAS

Ice is of direct concern to the navigator because it restricts and sometimes controls
his movements; it affects his dead reckoning by forcing frequent and sometime
inaccurately determined change of course and speed. It affects his piloting by
altering the appearance or obliterating the feature of landmarks and by rendering
difficult the establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation including his use
of electronics by its affect upon propagation of radio waves and the changes it
produces both in surface feature and radar returns from such features. His celestial
navigation is also affected by altering the reflection and obscuring his horizon and
celestial bodies either directly or by the weather it influences and his charts by
introducing various difficulties to the hydrographic surveyor.
Because of his direct concern with ice, the prospective polar navigator will do well
to acquaint himself with its nature and extent in the area he expects to navigate.
To this, he should consult the sailing directions for the area and whatever other
literature may be available to him including reports of previous operation in the
same area. The preparation of a vessel for polar operations is of extreme
importance and the considerable experienced gained from previous operations
should be drawn upon to bring the ship to optimum operating condition. At the
very least, operations conducted in ice-infested water require that the vessel’s hull
and propulsion system undergo certain modifications. The equipment necessary
to meet the basic needs of the crew and to insure the successful and safe

75
completion of the polar voyage should not be overlooked. A minimum list of
essential items should consist of polar clothing and footwear, food, vitamins,
medical supplies, fuel, storage batteries, antifreeze, explosives, detonators, fuses,
meteorological supplies and by the US Coast Guard which is responsible for the
observations and dissemination of information concerning ice conditions in the
North Atlantic.
In regions of strong currents, icebergs should always be given a wide berth because
they may often travel upwind at a great speed under the influence of contrary
currents, wrecking heavy pack in their paths and endangering those vessels that
are unable to work clear. In these situations, open water will generally be found of
the iceberg with piled up pack ice to windward. Where currents are weak and
strong wind predominates, similar conditions will be observed as the wind-driven
ice pack overtakes an iceberg and piles up to windward with an open water area
lying to leeward.

NORMAL SIGNS OF BEING IN AN ICEBERG AREA

Safe navigation in the polar seas depends on a number of factors, not the least of
which is accurate knowledge of the location and amount of sea ice that lies
between the mariner and his destination. Sophisticated electronic equipment such
as radar, sonar, and the visible, infrared, and microware radiation remote sensors
on board earth orbiting satellites have joined forces with the polar traveler’s own
eyesight and in some cases, hearing to aid him in detecting ice in the sea. As ship
proceeds into higher latitudes, the first ice it encounters is likely to be in the form
of icebergs because such large pieces require a longer time to disintegrate.
Icebergs can easily be avoided if detected soon enough. The distance at which an
iceberg can be seen visually depends upon meteorological visibility, height of the
iceberg, or the size of the iceberg. Due to its brilliant luster, icebergs might be
sighted at a distance of almost 35 kilometers. With a low-lying haze around the
horizon, one half may reduce this distance. In light fog or dazzle, the distance is
further reduced from 1.85 to 5.5 kilometers.
In a dense fog, an iceberg may not be perceptible at a distance of over 100 meters
or until it is close aboard where it will appear in the form of a luminous, white object
if the sun is shining; or as a dark, somber mass with a narrow streak of blackness at
76
the waterline if the sun is not shining. If the layer fog is not too thick, an iceberg
may be sighted from a loft sooner than from a point lower in the vessel but this fact
should not be considered justification for omitting a bow lookout. The diffusion of
light in a fog will produce a blink or area of whiteness, above and at the sides of an
iceberg that will appear to increase the apparent size of its mass.
On the dark, clear nights, icebergs may be seen at a distance from 1.85 to 4
kilometers, appearing as either white or black objects with an occasional light spot
where a wave breaks against it. Under such conditions of visibility, growlers are a
greater menace to vessels and vessel’s speed should be reduced and a sharp
lookout maintained. If an iceberg is in the process of disintegration, its presence
may be detected by cracking sounds as a piece breaks off, or by a thunderous roar
as a larger piece falls into the water. The appearance of smaller pieces of ice in the
water often indicates the presence of an iceberg nearby. In calm weather, such
pieces may form a curved line with the parent iceberg on the concave side. As the
ship moves closer towards areas known to contain sea ice, one of the most reliable
sign that pack ice is being approached is the absence of swell or wave motion in a
fresh breeze or a sudden flattening of the sea especially from leeward. The
observation of iceberg in itself is not a good indication that pack ice will be
encountered soon since icebergs may be found at a great distance from pack ice.
If the sea ice is approached from windward, it is usually compacted and the edge
will be sharply defined. However, if it is approached from leeward, the ice is likely
to be lost and somewhat scattered, often in long narrow arms.
Another reliable sign of the approach of pack ice not yet in sight is the appearance
of a pattern or sky map on the horizon or on the underside of distant, extensive
cloud areas, created by the varying amounts of light reflected from different
materials of the sea or earth’s surface. A bright white glare or snowblink will be
observed above a snow-covered surface or snowblink will be observed above a
snow-covered surface. When a circulation of distant ice causes the reflection on
the underside of clouds, the glare is a little less bright and is referred to as an
iceblink. A relatively dart pattern is reflected on the underside of clouds. This is
known as land sky. The darkest pattern will occur when the clouds are above an
open water area, and is called water sky. A mariner experienced in recognizing the
sky maps detailed above will find them useful in avoiding ice or searching out
openings which may permit his vessel to make progress while proceeding through
an ice field.

77
Another indication of the presence of sea ice is the formation of thick bands of fog
over the ice edge as moisture condenses from warm air as it passes over the colder
ice. An abrupt change in air or sea temperature or sea water salinity is not a reliable
sign of the approach of icebergs or pack ice. However, a drop in the seawater
temperature to 1.1°C may be an indication that a ship is within 90 kilometers of
pack ice. Large, vertical-sided tabular icebergs of the Antarctic and Arctic ice islands
are usually detected by radar at ranges of 28 to 55 kilometers. Whereas a large
iceberg is almost always detected by radar in lines to be avoided, a growler large
enough to be a serious menace to a vessel may be lost in the sea return and recap
detection. If an iceberg or growler is detected by radar, tracking is sometimes
necessary to distinguish it from a rock, islet, or another ship. Echoes from the ship’s
whistle or horn will sometimes indicate the presence of icebergs; such echoes can
give an indication of direction. If the time interval between the sound and its echo
is measured, the distance in meters can be determined by multiplying the number
of seconds by 168. However, echoes are not a reliable indication because only
those pieces of ice with large vertical areas facing the ship return enough echoes
to be heard. Also, echoes might be received from land or fog bank.
Ice in the Polar Regions is best detected and observed from the air either from
aircraft or by satellite remote sensing surveillance systems. Fixed-wing aircraft
have been utilized extensively for obtaining detailed aerial ice reconnaissance
information since early 1930’s and will no doubt continue to provide this invaluable
service for many years to come. Some ships, particularly icebreakers, proceeding
into high latitude carry helicopters that are invaluable in locating ice and in
determining the relative navigability of different portions of ice pack. If these
helicopters, their support vessels, or aircraft flying reconnaissance can be
contacted by radio, much useful information may be obtained from them. Ice
reports from personnel at arctic and Antarctic coastal shore stations can also prove
to be valuable to polar mariners.

78
CONDITIONS IN WHICH ACCUMULATION OF ICE ON SHIPS OCCUR
Ice and snow accumulation on portions of the vessel pose a definite safety hazard.
Therefore, mallets, hammer, and scrapers to aid in the removal of heavy
accumulations of ice, together with a supply of snow shovels and stiff brooms from
snow removal, should be provided. Upon the approach to pack ice, a careful
decision is needed to determine the best action. Often, it is possible to go around
the ice rather than through it. Unless it is quite loose, this action usually gains
rather than loses time. When skirting an ice field or an iceberg, do so to windward
if a choice is available to avoid projecting tonnages of ice or individual pieces that
have been blown away from the main body of ice.

Having entered the pack, always work with the ice, not against it, and keep moving
but do not rush the work of negotiating the pack. Patience may pay big dividends.
Respect the ice but do not fear it. Proceed at slow speed at first, staying in open
water or in areas of work ice if possible. The vessel’s speed may be safely increased
after it has been ascertained how it will be handled under the varying ice conditions
encountered.
Ice conditions may change rapidly while the vessel is working in pack ice.,
necessitating some quick maneuvering. It must never be forgotten that
conventional vessels, even though they are strengthened, are not built for ice
navigation. The vessels should be conned to first attempt to place it in leads or
polynyas, giving due consideration to wind condition. The age, thickness, and size
of ice that can be broken depend upon type, size, strength, and shaft horsepower
of the vessel employed. If the contact with an ice floe is unavoidable, never strike.
Glancing a floe may cause the ship to veer off in a direction that will swing the stern
into the ice. If possible, seek weak spots in the floe and hit it head-on at slow speed.
Unless the ice is rotten or very young, do not attempt to break through the floe but
rather make an attempt to swing it aside as speed is slowly increased. Keep clear
of corners and projecting points of ice but do so without making sharp turns that
may throw the stern against the ice which may cause the propeller, propeller shaft,
or rudder to be damaged. The use of full rudder in non-emergency situations is not
recommended because it may swing either the stern or mid-section of the vessel
into the ice. Keep a sharp watch on the propellers and rudder, fending off with long
ice pole pieces that might damage these vital parts. Stop the propellers only if ice
cannot be avoided.
79
If the vessel is completed halted by pack ice, it is best to keep the rudder amidships
and the propellers turning at slow speed. The way of the propellers may clear ice
away from the stern, making it possible to back down safely. When the vessel is
stuck fast, as in the case when the bow is forced up onto a massive ice floe, an
attempt first should be made to free the vessel by going full speed astern. Either
transferring water from ballast tanks causing the vessel to list or may also free the
vessel by alternately flooding and emptying the fore and aft tanks.

When vessel becomes so closely surrounded by ice that all steering control is lost
and is unable to move, it is beset. It may then be carried by the drifting pack into
shallow water or areas containing thicker ice or icebergs with their accompanying
dangerous underwater projections. If ice forcibly presses itself against the hull, the
vessel is said to be nipped whether or not damage is sustained. When this occurs,
the gradually increasing pressure may be capable of holing the vessel’s bottom.
When the vessel is beset or nipped, freedom may be achieved through the careful
maneuvering procedures, and the physical efforts of the crew or by the use of
explosives similar to those previously detailed. Under severe conditions, the
mariner’s best ally may be patience since there will be many times when nothing
can be done to improve the vessel’s plight until there is a change in meteorological
conditions. It is a time to preserve fuel and perform any needed repairs to the
vessel and its engines. Damage to the vessel while it is beset is usually attributable
to collisions or pressure exerted between the vessel’s hull, propellers or rudder
assembly, and the sharp corners of ice floes. These collisions can be minimized
greatly by attempting to align the vessel in such a manner as to insure that the
pressure from the surrounding pack ice is distributed as evenly as possible over the
hull. This is best accomplished when medium or large ice floes encircle the vessel.

80
LEARNING ACTIVITY 8
ENUMERATE AND DESCRIBE THE 7 TYPES OF ICEBERGS.

1. _________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

3. _________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

4. _________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

5. _________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

6. _________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

7. _________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

81
 LESSON 9 – TIDAL CONDITIONS

After reading the lesson, you will be able to:

1. State the types and characteristics of tides;
2. Explain the classes of tides.

TIDE
Tide is the periodic rise and fall of the water accompanying the tidal phenomenon
and at places, it occurs twice daily. The tide rises until it reaches a maximum height
called high tide or high water, and then falls to a minimum level called low tide or
low water.

Tide tables are published annually by most of the maritime nations of the world.
They consist primarily of two parts. The first contains predictions of the time and
height of each high and low water for every day of the year for many important
ports called reference stations. The second part contains tidal differences for
thousands of other places called subordinate stations, and specifies the reference
station to which the differences are to be applied in order to obtain time and height
of tide for any day at the subordinate station. The type of tide at a subordinate
station is the same as at its reference station.

Nodal Period is a
period when the
lunar cycle affects
the tidal cycle for
about 19 years. The
oscillations of a
certain lunar day or
tidal day is about 50
minutes longer than
the solar day;
therefore, in one (1) hour, the solar day will oscillate for about ten (10) minutes,
while the lunar day oscillates for fifty (50) minutes on that particular hour.

82
Types of Tide:
1. Diurnal – only a single high and single low water occur each tidal day.
2. Semi-diurnal – two high and two low waters each tidal day, with relatively small
inequality in the high and low water heights.
3. Mixed – the diurnal and semi-diurnal oscillations are both important factors and
the tide is characterized by a large inequality in the high water heights, low water
heights, or in both.
Range is the difference in height between consecutive high and low waters.
Stand is the period at high or low water during which there is no sensible change
of level.

Classes of Tide:
1. Apogean tide – occurs when the moon’s orbit is farthest from the earth (at
apogee).
2. Perigian tide – occurs when the moon is at the point in its orbit nearest the earth
(at perigee) which causes the lunar semi-diurnal range to increase.
3. Neap tide – occurs when the moon and sun oppose each other, as at the
quadratures.
4. Spring tide – occurs when the moon and sun are in line and pulling together, as
at new and full moon (the term ‘spring’ has nothing to do with the season of the
year).
5. Tropics tide – occurs when the moon is at its maximum semi-monthly declination
(either North or South) in which the diurnal effect is at the maximum.
6. Equatorial tide – occurs when the moon crosses the equator in which the diurnal
effect is at the minimum.

83
Priming of Tide
Priming of tide will occur when the moon is in between new and first quarter and
in between full and third quarter or when the moon is in position of 45° and 225°.

Priming of tide is one of the quick guide methods to pinpoint the high or higher
high water datum, or the low or lower low water datum to any particular place. In
this point, the rising and setting of the moon is positively pin pointed. The third
quarter, new moon, first quarter, and the full moon should be obtained by counting
seven days synchronously except the distance days of the third quarter and full
moon when eight days should be counted.

84
CHARACTERISTICS:
Tide changes proceed via the following stages:

 Sea level rises over several hours, covering the intertidal zone; flood tide.
 The water rises to its highest level, reaching high tide.
 Sea level falls over several hours, revealing the intertidal zone; ebb tide.
 The water stops falling, reaching low tide.

Oscillating currents produced by tides are known as tidal streams. The moment that
the tidal current ceases is called slack water or slack tide. The tide then reverses
direction and is said to be turning. Slack water usually occurs near high water and
low water. But there are locations where the moments of slack tide differ
significantly from those of high and low water.

Tides are
commonly semi-
diurnal (two high waters
and two low waters each
day), or diurnal (one tidal
cycle per day). The two
high waters on a given
day are typically not the
same height (the daily
inequality); these are
the higher high
water and the lower high
water in tide tables.
Similarly, the two low
waters each day are
the higher low water and the lower low water. The daily inequality is not consistent
and is generally small when the Moon is over the Equator.

85
Definitions
From the highest level to the lowest:

 Highest astronomical tide (HAT) – The highest tide which can be predicted to
occur. Note that meteorological conditions may add extra height to the HAT.
 Mean high water springs (M\HWS) – The average of the two high tides on the
days of spring tides.
 Mean high water neaps (MHWN) – The average of the two high tides on the
days of neap tides.
 Mean sea level (MSL) – This is the average sea level. The MSL is constant for any
location over a long period.
 Mean low water neaps (MLWN) – The average of the two low tides on the days
of neap tides.
 Mean low water springs (MLWS) – The average of the two low tides on the days
of spring tides.
 Lowest astronomical tide (LAT) and Chart datum (CD) – The lowest tide which
can be predicted to occur. Some charts use this as the chart datum. Note that
under certain meteorological conditions the water may fall lower than this
meaning that there is less water than shown on charts.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 9
DEFINE THE FOLLOWING:

1. SPRING TIDE _______________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

2. NEAP TIDE _______________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

86
 LESSON 10 – NAUTICAL PUBLICATIONS

After reading the lesson, you will be able to:

1. State the meaning of nautical publication;
2. State the significance of the lists of lights and radio signals;
3. State the significance of American Practical Navigator;
4. State the significance of Pilot Volumes and Sailing Directions.

Nautical publications is a technical term used in maritime circles describing a set

of publications, either published by national governments or by commercial and
professional organisations, for use in safe navigation of ships, boats, and similar
vessels. Other publications might cover topics such as seamanship and cargo
operations. In the UK, the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office, the Witherby
Publishing Group and the Nautical Institute provide numerous navigational
publications, including charts, publications on how to navigate and passage
planning publications. In the US, publications are issued by the US government and
US Coast Guard.

The marine environment is subject to frequent change and the latest publications
should always be used, especially when passage planning.

Hydrographic officers who produce of nautical publications also provide a system

to inform mariners of changes that effect the chart. In the US and the UK,
corrections and notifications of new editions are provided by various governmental
agencies by way of Notice to Mariners, Local Notice to Mariners, Summary of
Corrections, and Broadcast Notice to Mariners. Radio broadcasts give advance
notice of urgent corrections.

A convenient way to keep track of corrections is with a Chart and Publication

Correction Record system, either electronic or paper-based. Using this system, the
navigator does not immediately update every publication in the library when a
87
new Notice to Mariners arrives, instead creating a 'card' for every chart and noting
the correction on this 'card'. When the time comes to use the publication, the
navigator pulls the publication and its card, and makes the indicated corrections to
the publication. This system ensures that every publication is properly corrected
prior to use. Various and diverse methods exist for the correction of electronic
nautical publications.

List of Lights and Radio Signals

List of lights, including lighthouses and other prominent lights and also lists of radio
stations used for navigation and communication are used in passage planning.

In the US, the United States Coast Guard Light List is an

American navigation publication in seven volumes made available yearly by
the U.S. Coast Guard which gives information on lighted navigation aids, unlighted
buoys, radiobeacons, radio direction finder calibration stations, daybeacons and
racons.

In the UK, the Admiralty List of Lights and the Admiralty List of Radio signals are
split into separate volumes

The List of Lights, Radio Aids, and Fog Signals is a navigation publication produced
by the United States Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/Topographic Center.
The book is usually referred to as the List of Lights, and should not be confused with
the U.S. Coast Guard's Light List. The List of Lights is published in seven volumes, as
Publication numbers 110 through 116. Each volume contains lights and other aids
to navigation that are maintained by or under the authority of other governments.

88
The American Practical Navigator
The American Practical Navigator, written by Nathaniel Bowditch, is an encyclo-
pedia of navigation, valuable handbook on oceanography and meteorology, and
contains useful tables and a maritime glossary. In 1866
the copyright and plates were bought by the Hydrographic Office of the United
States Navy, and as a U.S. Government publication, it is now available for free
online. The US Coast Guard.

Pilot Volumes/Sailing Directions

These provide a variety of information for the mariner, including details of

harbours, ports, navigational hazards, local information and pilotage requirements.

In the UK, the Admiralty issues 76 volumes covering the world and these are used
frequently by most merchant ships.

In the US, the United States Coast Pilots is a nine-volume

American navigation publication distributed yearly by the National Ocean Service.
Its purpose is to supplement nautical charts of US waters. Information comes from
field inspections, survey vessels, and various harbour authorities. Maritime officials
and pilotage associations provide additional information. Coast Pilots provides
more detailed information than Sailing Directions because the latter is intended
exclusively for the oceangoing mariner. Each volume of Coast Pilots must be
regularly corrected using Notice to Mariners.

Sailing Directions is a 47-volume American navigation publication published by

the Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/Topographic Center. It consists of 37
Enroute volumes and 10 Planning Guides. Planning Guides describe general

89
features of ocean basins; Enroutes describe features of coastlines, ports, and
harbors. Sailing Directions is updated when new data requires extensive revision of
an existing text. These data are obtained from several sources, including pilots
and Sailing Directions from other countries.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 10
ON A CLEAN SHEET OF PAPER, STATE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FOLLOWING:

1. NAUTICAL PUBLICATION

2. LISTS OF LIGHTS AND RADIO SIGNALS

3. AMERICAN PRACTICAL NAVIGATOR

4. PILOT VOLUMES SAILING DIRECTIONS

90
Congratulations! you’re almost through with your module but before celebrating,
make sure to answer this post-assessment. Don’t worry, it will not affect your
grade. So, are you ready?

POST-ASSESSMENT
I – MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. When a warm air mass is adjacent to a cold air mass, the separation between
the two is called a/an:
a) Front
b) Isobar
c) Isotherm
d) Isogonic

2. Which is true concerning speed of a front?

a) Cold fronts move faster than warm fronts.
b) Cold fronts move slower than warm fronts.
c) Cold fronts and warm fronts move with equal speed.
d) Cold fronts move slower at the northern end.

3. When a cold air mass and a warm air mass meet, and there is no horizontal
motion of either air mass, it is called a/an:
a) Cold Front
b) Occluded Front
c) Stationary Front
d) Warm Front

91
4. An air mass is termed “warm” if:
a) It is above 70° F.
b) The ground over which it moves is colder than the mass.
c) It originated in a high pressure area.
d) It originated in a low pressure area.

5. When warm air mass overtakes a retreating cold air mass, the contact surface is
called:
a) Line squall
b) Water spout
c) Cold front
d) Warm front

6. Warm air mass is characterized by:

a) Stability
b) Instability
c) Gusty winds
d) Good visibility

7. On the approach of a warm front, barometric pressure usually:

a) Falls
b) Is steady
c) Is uncertain
d) Rises

92
8. When cold air is displacing warm air, you have a/an:
a) Cold Front
b) Occluded Front
c) Stationary Front
d) Warm front

9. What types of clouds are associated with a cold front?

a) Alto-stratus and fracto-cumulus
b) Alto-stratus and cirrus
c) Cirrus and cirrostratus
d) Cumulus and cumulonimbus

10. On a working copy of a weather map, a cold front is represented by what color
line?
a) Red
b) Blue
c) Purple
d) Alternating red and blue

11. On a working copy of a weather map, an occluded front is represented by what

color line?
a) Red
b) Blue
c) Purple
d) Alternating red and blue

93
12. On a working copy of a weather map, a stationary front is represented by what
color line?
a) Red
b) Blue
c) Purple
d) Alternating red and blue

13. On a working copy of a weather map, a warm front is represented by what

color line?
a) Red
b) Blue
c) Purple
d) Alternating red and blue

14. A line on a weather chart connecting places which have the same barometric
pressure is called an:
a) Isotherm
b) Isallobar
c) Isobar
d) Isotope

15. A source of an air mass labelled mTw is:

a) The equator
b) The Gulf of Mexico
c) Alaska
d) Canada

94
16. The probability of a sudden wind may be foretold by:
a) A partly cloudy sky.
b) An overcast sky.
c) A fast approaching line of dark clouds.
d) The formation of cumulus clouds in the sky.

17. In the N. hemisphere, a wind that shifts in a counterclockwise manner is a:

a) Veering wind c) Reverse wind
b) Backing wind d) Chinook wind

18. In reading a weather map, closely spaced pressure gradient line would indicate:
a) High wind and seas in the area.
b) Settled weather in that area.
c) Calms in that area.
d) Fog in the area.

19. The direction of the surface wind is:

a) Directly from high pressure towards low pressure.
b) Directly from low pressure towards high pressure.
c) From high pressure toward low pressure deflected by the earth’s rotation.
d) From low pressure toward high pressure deflected by the earth’s rotation.

95
20. A steep barometric gradient would indicate:
a) calm
b) Light winds
c) Strong winds
d) Precipitation

21. The wind flow from the horse latitudes to the doldrums is deflected by:
a) The Coriolis Force
b) The mid-latitude semi-permanent high
c) Differing atmospheric pressure
d) The prevailing westerlies

22. The consistent winds blowing from the horse latitudes to the doldrums are
called the:
a) Trade winds
b) Prevailing westerlies
c) Polar easterlies
d) Roaring forties

23. The primary cause of wind is:

a) The unequal heating of the earth’s surface
b) The force of gravity
c) The rotation of the earth
d) Low pressure flowing to high pressure at the surface

96
24. The wind direction around a low-pressure area in the N. Hemisphere is:
a) Clockwise and inward
b) Counterclockwise and inward
c) Clockwise and outward
d) Counterclockwise and outward

25. According to Buy Ballot’s Law, when an observer to the N. Hemisphere

experiences a northeast wind, the center of the low pressure is located to the:
a) Northeast
b) West-southwest
c) Northwest
d) South-southeast

26. When facing into the wind in the N. Hemisphere, the center of low pressure
lies:
a) Directly in front of you
b) Directly behind you
c) To your left and behind you
d) To your right and behind you

27. In the N. Hemisphere, tropical cyclones are most prominent in the month of:
a) January
b) March
c) May
d) September

97
28. The inner clouds bands of a hurricane when viewed from a distance form a
mass dense, black cumulonimbus clouds called:
a) Eye of the storm
b) Bar of the storm
c) Front
d) Funnel

29. Isobars on a synoptic chart are useful in predicting:

a) Dew point
b) Temperature
c) Relative humidity
d) Wind velocity

30. Low pressure disturbances, which travel along the intertropical convergence
zone, are called:
a) Permanent waves
b) Tidal waves
c) Tropical waves
d) Tropical storms

98
II - IDENTIFICATION
1. What is synoptic chart? ______________________________________

__________________________________________________________

2. What is a trough? __________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

3. What is an isobar? __________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

4. What is cold front? _________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

5. What is warm front? ________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

6. What is a swell? ____________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

7. What current carries warm water from the equation towards the poles?

__________________________________________________________

8. What is a floating ice? _______________________________________

__________________________________________________________

9. What is an iceberg? _________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

99
10. What current is responsible for the movement of iceberg in the North
Atlantic Ocean? ___________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

11. What is tide? ____________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

12. Differentiate diurnal from semi-diurnal tide?

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

13. What are used in passage planning?

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

14. What is a nautical publication?

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

15. Who produces nautical publication?

__________________________________________________________

100
 REFERENCES

Agustin, Anthony S. and Antojado, Danilo S., Meteorology and Oceanography

Cormish M., Ives E. Reeds Maritime Meteorology, Revised Edition Adearvd Cokes, 2010

Darius Jr., Richard A., Principles of Oceanography 2nd Edition

Meteorological Office, Marine Observers Handbook, 11 th Edition, London HMSO

Meteorological Office, Meteorology for Mariner’s 3 rd Edition

101