It is called as the “Cold” War because US and USSR did not fight directly in a

war and all the wars fought among third countries remained localized and there
was no general widespread war. During the cold war the world was divided into
two blocs- the communist bloc led by USSR and the capitalist bloc led by the
USA. Europe was itself divided into communist Eastern Europe and capitalist
Western Europe.

factors

Bipolar World: Presence of two equal super powers with two very different
ideologies of state/society/government clubbed with competing military,
political and economic interests.

High role of old suspicions: After the Russian Revolution (1917), Bolsheviks
had tried to export the communist revolution to the rest of Europe and USA
including the colonies of Britain and France, by sending their secret
agents.Also,y, Russia was not invited to the Treaty of Versailles and capitalist
western countries refused to recognize the government in USSR for a long time

Clash of interests of classes in each country was also responsible because each
class had stakes in one form of economic system rather than the other. Thus
workers supported communism while the propertied class supported capitalism

As a Defensive Approach: Cold War was followed as a defensive approach

rather than as an offensive approach. The intention was to preserve one’s own
system (capitalism or communism) and one’s frontiers..

Role of Leaders: For example, Stalin had argued that “peaceful coexistence
with the west is impossible until a final victory over capitalism”. Truman
doctrine has been cited as one of the key reasons for Cold War

Domino Effect-Communism was a threat to the governments of the Capitalist

countries and thus the leaders of these countries feared communism.
Eisenhower (1953-61) feared a Domino Effect whereby if one country was
allowed to become communist then the neighbouring countries would soon
follow the suite, thus threatening capitalism, democracy and US economic &
military interests. It was the fear of Domino Effect that forced US participation
in the Vietnam war (1961-75

Psychological fear of communism among the public due to massive anti-

communist propaganda brought the public in support of the actions taken
during cold war.

8) Failure of UN: Lack of confidence of major world powers in United Nations

to provide a solution to the important problems, lack of impartiality in

functioning of UN and lack of powers available to UN-

Who is to be blamed for the Cold War

) Traditional View: Under the traditional view, Stalin is blamed for the Cold
War. He wanted to spread communism outside USSR and destroy capitalism.
Formation of NATO (1949) and US actions like intervening on the side of
South Korea in the Korean War (1950-53) were only in self-defence of “Free
World”

Revisionist View:. It was now argued that, Stalin acted only in self-defence and
it was Truman (1945-53, American President) who is to be blamed as he
provoked Russian hostility unnecessarily. As per this view Russia had suffered
huge losses during the WW II and therefore it was in self-defence that USSR
tried to ensure formation of friendly governments in Eastern Europe. US and
the West should have accepted Eastern Europe as a Russian sphere of influence
(as was agreed to by Churchill in 1944)

Post-Revisionist view: This view is based on the evidence that came to light

after declassification of government documents. As per this view, both

US/West and USSR share the blame for the Cold War. US economic policies

like Marshall Aid (under Marshall Plan of 1947) were deliberately designed for

increasing US influence in Europe at expense of USSR. Stalin did not have

long term plans to spread communism outside USSR but he was an opportunist

and took advantage of any opportunity that presented itself to increase Soviet

influence

Evolution of Cold War (1945-53 Stalin era)

Yalta Conference (February 1945): It was held before the end of WW II, when
the victory of the Allied Powers was assured, to decide how to deal with the
Axis Powers and was attended by Roosevelt (US), Churchill (Britain) and
Stalin (USSR)

. Following agreements were reached during the conference: 1) Stalin promised

conduct of free elections in all Eastern European nations. This is also known as
“Declaration of Liberated Europe”.
2) United Nations will be formed (established October 1945) to replace the
League of Nations
3) Occupation Zones: Austria, Vienna, Germany and Berlin would be divided
into occupation zones of Britain, US and USSR
4) On Poland: Russia had setup a provisional Polish communist government
after driving out the Germans, but there was also a Polish government in exile
in London
5) On Japan: Stalin agreed to join the war against Japan on condition that it

would get the whole of oil-rich Sakhalin Island (half of Sakhalin Island was

taken by Japan after RussoJapanese

Potsdam Conference ( July-August 1945)

Following agreements were reached-

1) German Disarmament: It was agreed that Germany would be disarmed
) German Economy: a) It was to be ensured that the standard of living in
Germany should not exceed the average standard of living in Europe
man Frontiers: a) Occupation Zones: Germany and Austria and their respective
capitals (Berlin and Vienna) were divided into 4 occupation zones. This was
agreed in principle at Yalta and implemented by Potsdam conference.
b) Oder-Neisse line: Germany's eastern border was to be temporarily shifted
westwards to the Oder-Neisse line. Thus the Oder-Neisse border was temporary
and it was agreed that final delimitation of Germany’s eastern frontier would
take place later (this happened under Treaty of Final Settlement with respect to
Germany (1990))
4) De-Nazification: Nazi Party was to be disbanded and Nazis would be tried as
war criminals. These trials became famous as Nuremberg trials.
5) Altering the Demography: Orderly and humane expulsion of Germans living
beyond the new eastern border of Oder-Neisse line (

ver Japan: During the Potsdam conference, Stalin was not told about the US

plan for dropping nuclear bomb although Churchill was taken into confidence.

The bomb was dropped two days after the conference

Communism established in Eastern Europe:

1) War of words: In February 1946, Stalin gave the infamous speech where he
argued that “peaceful coexistence with the west is impossible until final victory
over capitalism”+
Churchill gave his Iron Curtain speech in March 1946 while on a trip to US. He
said that “an Iron Curtain has descended over Europe”. He called for a western
alliance to counter the communist threat.

Stalin consolidates communism: After Potsdam and use of Nuclear bomb on

Japan, Stalin politically interfered in Eastern Europe and pro-communist
governments were established in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania and
Romania.
By 1947, all states of Eastern Europe, except Czechoslovakia, had
communist governments. Elections were rigged, non-communist members of
coalition governments were expelled
) In Yugoslavia, it was Tito who had led the communists while defeating the

Germans and not the troops from USSR

Truman Doctrine (March 1947):

Truman Doctrine through which US made it clear that it would not revert back
to the Policy of Isolation after the WW II as it did after the WW I. Rather,
Truman Doctrine implied adoption of the Policy of Containment whereby US
would be committed to ‘containment’ of communism not just in Europe but
throughout the world.

features-
It was aimed to “contain” communism from spreading to the Free World (as the
capitalist bloc liked to call itself)
) It was introduced because of the events in Greece where Britain had restored
Monarchy after defeating Germany in WW II,Britain was exhausted fighting
the Greek communists. It appealed to US for help and and withdrew from
Greece in 1947. Consequently President Truman announced the Truman
Doctrine which said that “US will support the free people against subjugation
by armed minorities or by outside pressures”. The US took over the burden and
thereafter supported the Greek government in its fight against communists.

The Policy of Containment in the coming years took the following form:
a) Use of economic measures like aid under Marshall Plan (1947). b
) Military bloc building like NATO (1949).
c) Aiming military superiority by trying to lead in arms and space race.
d) Politically interfering and rigging elections in third countries to ensure that
procapitalist governments come to power.
eg-In Italy: CIA officially accepted giving $ 1 million in aid to Christian
and other anticommunist candidates, who favored a capitalist multi-party
democracy,
In Central America: In Nicaragua, from 1981-90, US through CIA helped
rebels to overthrow a leftist government.
In South America: the US support to brutal right wing governments led

to much violence and instability

Marshall Plan (June 1947

This was officially called the European Recovery Programme. It was aimed at
helping Europe economically to increase its prosperity, increase US influence
in Europe and thus to contain communism. Officially it sought “removing
hunger, poverty and chaos” but it had the hidden political aim of containment.

e impact of Marshall Plan

: 1) It led to quick recovery of western Europe from devastation caused by the
war.
2) It led to prosperity of West Germany and West Berlin that was in stark
contrast to poverty in the East Germany under USSR
) It led to boost in US exports as the growing standard of living, rise in incomes

and economic development of Western Europe provided a market for US

businesses
Stalin’s response to Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan:

Stalin denounced the Marshall Plan of US as “Dollar Imperialism” devised to

increase US influence over Western Europe and interfere in Soviet sphere of
influence (i.e. Eastern Europe). Stalin instead announced Molotov Plan (1947),
Cominform (1947) and Comecon (1949) as a response to the US Truman
Doctrine and Marshall Plan:

1) Molotov Plan (1947): to provide aid to Soviet satellite states.

2) Cominform (Communist Information Bureau 1947-56): It was a successor to
Comintern (1919-43) and included communist parties of Europe. The aim of
Cominform was to increase the Soviet control of its Satellite states in Eastern
Europe
) COMECON (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance 1949-1991): This was

formed to coordinate economic policies of Cominform

Communist takeover of Czechoslovakia (1948):

Division of Germany: Germany and Berlin were divided into 4 occupation
zones (Britain, France, US, USSR) after Yalta Conference (1945).

West Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948-49): US, France and Britain tried for
economic recovery of their occupation zones in Germany while USSR did the
opposite. The result was that:
1) This difference in policy led to a stark contrast between the prosperity of the
western zones and Russian zone in Germany. This put pressure on USSR as
discontent among the natives of its zone increased.
2) US, Britain and France introduced a new currency in the western zones.
USSR found it impossible to have two currencies in the same city (Berlin)
Soon,n US, Britain and France started putting pressure on USSR to
merge the four zones into a united Germany. East Germany seemed to be
slipping out of Soviet hands. The USSR responded with the infamous Blockade
of West Berlin (1948-9)

Airlift: To nullify Berlin Blockade, the western powers especially the US,
airlifted and dropped food supplies into West Berlin for one year. Thus the
Blockade failed and USSR was forced to remove the blockade

Impact of West berlin blockade-

Impact: After the West Berlin Blockade (1948-9) I. The relationship between
US and USSR became bitter
II. US, Britain and France united their zones into German Federal Republic
(1949). USSR also followed suit by declaring its zone as German Democratic
Republic (1949)
III. US formed NATO (1949) after the West Berlin Blockade because the
capitalist bloc found itself unprepared for a military conflict.
Formation of NATO was a turning point because with NATO, US abandoned

its policy of “no entangling alliances” and US for the first time pledged for a

military action in advance.

) Policy of Western nations in West Germany: US, Britain and France tried for
economic recovery of West Germany & West Berlin via following measures:
a) US introduced Marshall Aid in 1947.
b) In 1948, the three powers united their occupation zones in Germany into a
single economic unit.
c) In 1949 after the failed West Berlin Blockade (1948-9), US, Britain and
France took the lead and politically merged their three zones into united West
Germany

USSR’s economic policy in East Germany:

Stalin
a) He treated the Soviet zone as a satellite and drained all of its resources to
Russia.
b) Stalin laid no focus on economic recovery of East Germany. It was treated
only as a source of raw material and as an export market for Russian goods.
c) Another problem was that USSR was not as rich as US to dole out massive

aid and needed resources for its own recovery.

The beginning of the Arms Race

Arms race began in earnest when USSR developed the Atomic Bomb in 1949.
Thereafter, US planned and produced the much more powerful Hydrogen
Bomb. By 1953, USSR also catched up and developed the Hydrogen Bomb.

USSR in Far East:Stalin invaded Sakhalin and the Japanese puppet state of
Manchukuo in August 1945 as agreed during the Yalta Conference (February
1945). This came to be known as Soviet Japanese War (1945). USSR prevented
KMT from entering Manchuria, reserving it for Mao’s CCP. Later USSR kept
the Sakhalin and the Kuril islands but gave full control of all territories in
mainland China to Democratic People’s Republic of China.
The San Francisco Peace Treaty with Japan (1951) states that Japan must
give up all claims to the Kuril islands, but it also does not recognize the Soviet
Union's sovereignty over the Kuril Islands.

China-USSR and China signed a Treaty of Mutual Assistance and Friendship in

1950. These developments alarmed the USA. When North Korea invaded South
Korea in 1950, US did not want emergence of another communist state. It
intervened in favor of South Korea after UNSC approval

McCarthyism (1950-4):McCarthyism is a term used to describe the era after the

WW II when there was high suspicion among many sections in US that Stalin’s
spies have been able to penetrate the US government. Anyone who would
prescribe socialist policies or argued for caution in foreign policy against the
communists was branded as a communist or a USSR sympathizer. Every failure
and any inefficiency of the US administration was attributed to the Soviet spies
Today, McCarthyism is referred to as the practice of making

accusations of disloyalty, subversion, or treason without proper regard for

evidence
Partial Thaw in Cold War post-Stalin (1953)

1) Emergence of new leaders in USSR like Nikita Krushchev and Bulganin

who wanted a better relationship with US.
2) By 1953, both US and USSR had a Hydrogen Bomb. Thus to avoid a nuclear
war, both sides desired a better relationship.
3) Under Krushchev, Russia changed its policy for spread of Communism
4) McCarthy was discredited in US by 1954. The decline in the anti-communist
propaganda, helped create an environment for improvement in relationship

Events that characterized the Thaw:

Russia made some concessions in 1955: a) USSR gave up its military bases in
Finland.
b) It lifted veto and this allowed 16 new nations to enter UN
c) Krushchev tried to improve relations with Yugoslavia by paying a visit to
Tito
d) In 1956, Cominform was disbanded, therefore giving more freedom to Soviet
Satellite countries in trade and economic policies..

3) Agreement on Austria (1955): Austria, like Germany was divided into four
occupation zones. Unlike Germany, Austria was allowed to have its own
government because it was treated as a victim of Nazi aggression rather than as
an aggressor.

USSR and the West were able to resolve their disputes regarding Austria
through the Austrian State Treaty of 1955-Austria was made independent with
1937 frontiers except that the South Tyrol was to remain with Italy (this made
Austria unhappy

“Partial” in the Thaw:

1) Hungarian uprising (1956) by the Hungarian people against their communist
government was crushed by Russian tanks.
2) Warsaw pact (1955) was initiated by USSR in response to NATO admitting
West Germany. It was signed by USSR and all satellite states except
Yugoslavia. Under Warsaw Pact, the members promised to defend each other
against any attack from outside and the armies of all members came under
overall control of Moscow.
3) USSR continued building nuclear warheads and delivery systems.
4) Berlin Wall was erected in 1961.
5) Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) when the world came at the brink of a nuclear

war

Berlin Wall (1961):

In 1961, Krushchev asked the new President elect J.F. Kennedy to withdraw the

Western powers from Berlin. This was a time when USSR was being

continuously embarrassed by the fact that a high number of people were

escaping to West Berlin from East Germany. Thus, when US refused the

Russian demand, USSR erected the Berlin Wall to block the escape route into

West Berlin from East Germany.