Information System Design

UNIT 2 INFORMATION SYSTEM DESIGN and Development

AND DEVELOPMENT
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 System Design
2.2.1 Principles of a Well Designed System
2.2.2 Steps in Systems Design Process
2.3 System Development Cycle
2.3.1 Definition of Objectives
2.3.2 Definition of System Requirements
2.3.3 Design Phase
2.3.4 Implementation Phase
2.3.5 Evaluation Phase
2.4 Systems Flowchart
2.4.1 Flowcharting Symbols
2.5 System Implementation
2.6 System Evaluation
2.7 System Documentation
2.8 Summary
2.9 Answers to Self Check Exercises
2.10 Keywords
2.11 References and Further Reading

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reding this unit you will be able to:
l understand the implication of the General Systems Theory in information system
design;
l prepare a framework for systems design;
l know about the system life cycle;
l analyse an existing information system;
l carry out system implementation; and
l evaluate a system.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Information systems are required to be managed effectively if they are to give a
useful service. The emphasis should be upon the various stages associated with the 27
System Analysis and Design development and implementation of a new system . There is also need to manage
such the system regularly on day to day basis. The system analysis is an important
aspect in system development.
System design is very much linked to the systems analysis phase of any project or
activity. We have already discussed in the previous unit that systems analysis is the
study of an existing system for the purpose of designing a new or improved system.
During the analysis phase, the user’s information needs are identified, system
performance criteria are defined, a design proposal is prepared, based on
requirements and finally approved by the systems team.
The basic approach to information systems design is to make available a broad base
of comprehensive information, flowing on a timely basis to those in organizations
who can make effective decisions.
In this unit, we will study the design phase in a system project which is possible only
after understanding the existing system and the requirements of the new systems.
Once the system has been designed, the next step is implementation which involves
acquisition and integration of physical and conceptual resources that produce a
working system.
A system needs to be evaluated to examine whether it is feasible or not. If not, a
new design may be required. Finally, once a system is designed, it is necessary to
develop system documentation referred to as communication, which is prepared by
the system analyst throughout the developmental cycle of the information system.

2.2 SYSTEM DESIGN

You have already studied in the previous unit about system analysis and understood
that system analysis leads to the design of a system. System design includes the
organization of people, equipment, money and procedures to process the information.
System analysis and design draw heavily on the General Systems Theory as a
conceptual background. Given below are the general system theories and the
importance of each one in the content of information system design.
General Systems Theory Importance for information
system design
1) Components of a system interact. Delineate components and their
interrelations during analysis
2) A system is a whole. Be sure to define the entire system
before examining subsystems.
3) Systems are goal seeking. What is the goal of an information
system?
4) Systems have input and output. A major design task is to specify input
and output.
5) Systems transform input to yield A major design task is to specify
output processing to output. Produce from
input.

28
6) Systems yield entropy. Information processing is critical to an Information System Design
and Development
organization’s success.
7) Systems must be controlled. Information systems help control the
organization, information systems have
to have feedback on their own
performance and be controlled.
8) Systems form a hierarchy. Information systems design is a hier-
archical task, systems consist of
hierarchies of subsystems.
9) Systems exhibit differentiation. Information systems have many
specialized parts.
10) Systems exhibit equifinality. It is better that it is explained through
example. There are many ways to design
a system to achieve desired goals.

2.2.1 Principles of a Well-designed System

Just as in systems analysis, systems design too needs effective management and is
the result of a series of principles. These underlying principles along with the need
for creativity are as below:
1) Principle of acceptability
The success of a new system is highly dependent upon its acceptability by
organizational personnel or the persons for whom it is designed. For a successful
system, the people who use it should participate in its analysis, design and
development.
2) Principle of enhancing the decision-making process
The new system should enhance the decision-making ability of organizational
personnel. This design approach allows more effective decisions.
3) Principle of economy
For economy in the new system, no information service should be provided that
cannot be cost-justified.
4) Principle of flexibility
The new system should be adaptable in a changing environment by allowing easy
expansion or contraction.
5) Principle of reliability
Reliability in a new system refers to consistency over an extended period of operation.
A high degree of reliability can be designed into the system by including good internal
controls.
6) Principle of simplicity
The simplicity of a system can be affected by providing a straight-line flow from one
step to the next, avoiding needless backtracking. Additionally, a simplified system is
easier to understand and use than a more complex system.
29
System Analysis and Design
2.2.2 Steps in System Design Process
The key steps in the systems design process are:

a) Review new system requirements

Systems design, devising new system approaches, centers on determining the

requirements for a new system. This initial step in systems design management takes
into account the information compiled to date on the present system. After system
analysts have reviewed appropriate date, they must specify the following:

— New policies consistent with the organization objectives

— Planned inputs

— New methods and procedures

— Data files to be maintained

— Output needs

— Internal control considerations

— Equipment considerations

The foregoing requirements for newly designed systems are not complete until the
human factors are considered.

b) Design the new system

It is recommended that a methodical approach to systems design be undertaken

initially during this critical phase. Recommended is the modular or building block
approach wherein major system functions are successfully separated into distinct
minor functions. When the functional analysis is complete, the systems analyst creates
a structure for the functional modules that is capable of operating within whatever
hardware constraints are imposed. The net result of the modular approach is that
duplicated activities are eliminated and the complexity of the overall systems is
reduced.

c) Flowchart and document the new system

An important step is preparation of the final system flowcharts for the recommended
system, without specifying the equip-ment. Accuracy, simplicity and ease of
understanding are the essential components since non-technical personnel may be
reviewing and evaluating them.

d) Consider and review system design alternatives with proper personnel

e) Select the more promising alternatives with the help of properly experienced
personnel

f) Compare the tangible and intangible benefits of the promising alternatives. Cost
factors, volumes and requirements for equipment and personnel should be
carefully analysed to check the validity

g) Select the system design from among the promising alternatives that best meets
30 the study’s requirements
h) Prepare the final system specifications for the recommended systems design. Information System Design
and Development
Relate the systems design to other appropriate parts of the information system
i) Document the final design.
One of greatest contributions of following the above steps in systems design is that
the right hand knows what the left is doing. The final step remains the selection of
the equipment.
Self Check Exercise
1) Give the importance of the General Systems Theory in the context of information
system design.
2) Enumerate and discuss the principles of a well-designed system.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this unit.
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2.3 SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT CYCLE

A system can be seen as a life-cycle that passes through a number of standard
phases. In each of these phases, different management activities are involved. The
basic phases of a system’s life cycle are shown in the figure below.
Analysis Design Implementation Operation evaluation Decay Replacement

The System Life Cycle

First an analysis should be conducted in order to establish system requirements and
options available in system design. In system design a specific system will be
developed to match the application. Implementation leads to operation evaluation
during which the system fulfills its objectives and is modified from time, to time to
reflect changes, if any, in requirements. With time the system becomes less effective,
either due to any faults or because the system environment changes and the system
is not able to meet its objectives. Thus, decay sets in and this calls for planning a new
system. The final stage of the system’s life cycle, thus, is its replacement.
The duration of each of these stages varies from system to system but the operation
evolution phase is usually the longest, many times lasting a few years. The other
stages like analysis usually last for a very short period. Rapid changes in the technology
and the environment are the cause of the decay and eventually call for replacement
of the system.
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System Analysis and Design The various stages in system development are:
1) Definition of objectives
2) Definition of system requirements
3) Design phase
4) Implementation phase
5) Evaluation phase
Let us study each of these stages in detail.

2.3.1 Definition of Objectives

The first step is to engage in discussions leading to defining the objectives of any
new system. This phase is valuable as it helps not only in evolving guidelines and
requirements which may be invaluable later in the project, but also in commencing
the communication process and ensuring that all points of view are considered. This
phase should review established practices and procedures and attempt to identify
where, when and why and how a change in system might be helpful. An initial conduct
of needs analysis in cooperation with staff whose activities are going to be affected
by any change is helpful.
The next step is to start gathering information on how to achieve the objectives
identified in the first phase. This is basically about information gathering both from
internal and external sources. This collected information should facilitate a decision
about the type of system that is available to meet the requirements of the organization.
The definition of objectives therefore helps in establishing the terms of reference to
be developed, initial needs analysis, evaluation of options and analysis of existing
systems.

2.3.2 Definition of Systems Requirements

After having complete knowledge of the options available, and some insight into
how the various solutions might be applied to meet the requirements in a specific
application, it is necessary to go back and develop a full system specification. Usually
this phase should seek to answer aspects like, the operations the system is likely to
cover, regular users of the system, kind of information sought from the system, kinds
of required records, vital features etc.
System Specification
The objective of the analysis phase of a systems analysis and design exercise is the
establishment of the requirements for the system that is to be acquired, developed
and installed. The analysis and logical design of a system can be summarized in a
system specification, or specification of operational requirements. Usually such a
specification will include:
— Background information about the organization
— Details of the facilities to be provided by a computerised system, identifying
which are mandatory and which are optional
— Details of the environment in which the system will operate, including any
standards, protocols
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— The size of the system in terms of the numbers of records and transactions to Information System Design
and Development
be handled, the number of workstations
— A timetable for implementation of the system
— Mandatory questions to be answered by suppliers, such as size of the hardware,
systems support arrangements, costs, etc.
— Information concerning any specific constraints
— Information about terms or forms of contract and any acceptance tests.
The system requirements specification sources both as a communication document,
as it supports discussion and development amongst those concerned with the system,
and also a reference document during implementation, maintenance and review.

2.3.3 Design Phase

The design phase is concerned with the analysis, flowcharting and other charting of
the functions and operations that the system must perform. The design phase also
includes the logical systems model, physical systems model, choice and ordering of
hardware and software configuration.

2.3.4 Implementation Phase

This phase involves planning and preparation, education and training of personnel,
database creation, system installation and switch-over from old system to the new
system.

2.3.5 Evaluation Phase

The last stage of this exercise is a long way from the initial establishment of
requirements, but after successful implementation it is necessary to complete the
exercise by going back to the specifications and assessing the extent to which the
system is meeting its stated objectives. This kind of assessment leads to improvements
and refinements in the way in which a system is used or it may lead to decision for a
new system. This phase also helps in maintenance and evolution.
Self Check Exercise
3) List the System specifications required in the system life cycle.
4) Enumerate of the stages in systems development.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this unit.
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System Analysis and Design
2.4 SYSTEMS FLOWCHART
In each phase of the information system’s development process the systems analyst
relies on specific tools or techniques for accomplishing the goals and objectives.
These include interview, questionnaire approach, observation, sampling and document
gathering, charting on decision tables. Of these, charting is a technique which pictorially
represents some dimension of the organization or an organizational activity. Of all
the techniques utilized by systems personnel, charting is one technique most closely
identified with systems efforts. Indeed it is not only an important fact finding technique
but also a valuable one for performing analysis, synthesis and communication.
Amongst the most important of all charting techniques available to the analyst is the
flowchart. A flowchart is a set of symbols representing an activity. Flowcharts are
widely used in systems work because they can graphically represent the
interrelationships among elements in a system to varying degrees of detail.
Consequently, flowcharts can be used in problem definition, anlaysis, synthesis,
communication and documentation. Three broad classifications of flowcharts are:
a) The Systems Flow-chart (as its name implies) is a chart which depicts the
system as a whole with only subsystems or major elements shown.
b) The Procedural Flowchart is a graphic representation of a specific operation
or data flow with the system.
c) The Logic Flowchart is the most specific of all the flowcharts. The intent of
this type of flowchart is to provide an in-depth analysis of a given set of logical
processing steps.
2.4.1 Flowcharting Symbols
For drawing flowcharts, a variety of symbols are used to represent certain logical or
processing operations. The systems personnel for a number of reasons use these
symbols:
— The symbols have specific connotations attached to them
— These connotations are standard among computer and technical persons, and
— These symbols can be drawn quickly
Although it is not necessary to use special symbols when flowcharting, the use of
symbols can enhance the viewer’s understanding.
Some of the important flowcharting symbols are:

Flowchart Preparation

Process

Flow lines
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 Information System Design
and Development

Decision

Input/Output

Delay

Terminal

Document

Connector

Flowcharting Symbols
Flowchart illustrating steps and process of systems analysis used in problem solving

User/Analyst
Interface

Problem
Definition

Develop
Alternatives

Alt
meet require No
ments

Yes

Construct Model

Determine costs

No
Economically
Justified

Yes

Make Recomme

No Accept Yes Implementant

as is? ion of 35
System Analysis and Design
2.5 SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION
Implementation refers to the entire change effort associated with a new system. We
design a system to improve information processing, and improvement implies that
we must change existing information processing procedures. Implementation is the
part of the process of designing a system and considerable time should be spent in
planning the installation and implementation of the system. Implementation can be
lengthy and it is important not to under underestimate the impact that the
implementation of a new system may have on working practices and customer service.
The installation phase starts with a review of the way in which the system will affect
the existing operations of the organization. If a thorough analysis has been made in
the earlier stages of the systems analysis exercise, many of the jobs, issues and other
matters concerned with the installation of the system will have been identified and
planned already. At this point it is necessary to gather a quantitative picture of the
work to be done in order to achieve implementation and to identify specific staff
responsibilities.
A detailed timetable of training, installation and other activities needs to be agreed
and finalized. Implementation process involves:
a) Preparation and planning the implementation
Various preparatory activities involving a good understanding of the work necessary
to implement the system design help in developing a detailed implementation plan.
b) Installing hardware
The system design is made available to the suppliers of the computing equipment
contained in the approved configuration. This includes the computer itself and the
various workstations, as well as other peripherals.
c) Installing software
After installation of the hardware, the software is to be installed, run and tested on
small trial databases.
d) Preparation of the database
Once the hardware and the software start performing satisfactorily, preparation of
the database commences. In some cases, it will be necessary to gather new data,
and in others it will be necessary to reformat existing data to conform to the new
system design. Once these tasks are completed, the data is entered into the database.
e) Educating the participants and the users
The new system will most likely affect many people. Some will make the system
work. These are the participants, which include data entry operators, coding, and
other administrative personnel. Others will use the system’s output. All these people
must be educated about their roles in the system.
f) System conversion
There are a number of implementation strategies that can be adopted for moving
from one system to another. The options include:
— Complete changeover which involves the old system being replaced by a new
36 system on a specified date. This is risky if the system is central to the organization’s
 operations and should only be contemplated if all aspects of the new system Information System Design
and Development
have been carefully tested and the changeover has been very carefully planned.
— Phased approach, in which the total system is divided into sections. Each
section is installed individually and the sections are introduced one at a time.
This approach allows staff to change gradually but on occasion there can be
difficulties associated with maintaining parts of the old system, whilst introducing
a new system.
— Parallel running, where both old and new systems are operated in parallel for
is some period of time, until there is confidence in the new system and the old
system can cease to operate. Although this is a secure approach, it is expensive
and staff can easily become impatient at having two systems.
— Pilot operation of a system in a more controlled environment, such as a smaller
department, before full introduction at all sites. Pilot running allows the system
to be tested in operation in a controlled environment upon which systems staff
can focus their support, as a means of testing the system before it is released
system-wise.
Besides the above, three more types of conversions with which an analyst should be
familiar are the equipment conversion, the data processing method conversion and
the procedural conversion. Once the system has been implemented, the systems
analyst plays the role of a consultant.
Self Check Exercise
5) Enumerate the four approaches to system conversion.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this unit.
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2.6 SYSTEM EVALUATION

System evaluation is the last stage of the systems analysis and design process. Although
it is a long way from the initial establishment of the requirements, it is important to
emphasise that after successful implementation, it is necessary to complete the exercise
by going back to the specifications and assessing the extent to which the system is
meeting its stated objectives. Such an assessment may lead to improvements and
refinements in the way in which a system is used.
The evaluation process also includes testing of the equipment as systems analyst,
while selecting equipment, must be aware of modularity, compatibility, reliability,
maintainability and vendor support. Here, vendor support refers to availability of 37
System Analysis and Design training facilities; installation support; system development, conversion and testing
assistance; experience level and competence; availability of a user group and
availability of specialized software systems.
Evaluation helps to assess whether the operational characteristics of the sub-systems
have been made compatible with interrelated subsystem and with the overall system.
While evaluating, the effectiveness of the system can measured only after the following
have been accomplished:
l Identification of user requirements at all levels of system design
l Measurement of subsystem and subsystem performance at all levels of operation.
The system user too dictates the criteria for evaluation. System effectiveness can be
measured in terms of reliability, supportability, survivability, mobility, capability and
dependability. Another aspect to be considered in evaluation is the costs both direct
as well indirect. The various costs include the computer configuration costs,
environment costs, physical installation costs, cost of conversion, cost of operations,
programme and programme testing costs, training costs and documentation costs.
Self Check Exercise
6) Explain the need for system evaluation.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this unit.
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2.7 SYSTEM DOCUMENTATION

System analysts and users usually develop procedures concurrently with module
coding and testing. A complete written set of manual procedures is developed by
documenting all manual processes to be performed by the user and data processing
personnel in the actual operation of the system. The procedures cover such items as
input preparation, control and balancing, error correction, and computer operator
instructions. Collectively, these procedures form a critical part of the system’s
documentation.
Documentation is sometimes the most neglected aspect of the systems development
life cycle. Organizations frequently depend on a key individual or group of individuals
to design and operate an information system. If these people rely on their memories
for programming, systems and operating information and leave the organization for
38 some reason the organization has to study and document the existing system before
work can begin on modifying it or designing a new one. Rarely anyone remember all Information System Design
and Development
the detailed design information of a complex computer information system.
Adequate system documentation includes the following:
l All the specifications in the systems development life cycle
l Data flow diagrams and structure charts
l Data dictionaries
l Hardware specifications
l Performance specifications
l Joy descriptions
l Procedure manuals
A successful documentation programme requires goals and procedures for creating
and updating documentation. Some specific goals include a simplified yet
comprehensive method for creating and updating documentation; a standard
development of a manual whose format and organization would be a model for all
documentation and a standardized approach to documenting all systems.
Self Check Exercise
7) List the kinds of system documentation required in organizations.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this unit.
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2.8 SUMMARY
The system design brings together the separate elements into a viable whole and by
doing so shows how something can be accomplished. Knowledge required to perform
the design phase encompasses the organizational resources, user information
requirements, system requirements, data processing methods, data operations and
design tools.
An important aspect of the overall design of an information system is the establishment
of effective controls. During the design phase, the systems analyst must identify and
implement various controls to ensure the integrity and reliability of the information
system. Specific design activities necessary for the development of an information
system too are to be considered.
39
System Analysis and Design A frequently used tool for a systems analyst while designing a system is a flowchart.
Flowcharts are widely used in systems as they can graphically represent the
interrelationships among elements in a system to varying degrees of detail.
Evaluation of a system helps an analyst to decide the merits of a system before its
actual implementation. In order to implement a new system successfully, there are a
few activities to be performed by the systems analyst. These include training and
educating personnel, testing of the system, system conversion and finally a follow-
up to implementation.

2.9 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

1) The General Systems Theory and the importance of each one is discussed
below:
General Systems Theory Importance in information
system design
a) Components of a system Delineate components and their
interact. interrelations during analysis.
b) A system is a whole. Be sure to define the entire system
before examining subsystems.
c) Systems are goal seeking. What is the goal of an information
system ?
d) Systems have input and output. A major design task is to specify
input and output.
e) Systems transform input to yield A major design task is to specify
output. processing to Produce output from
input.
f) Systems yield entropy. Information processing is critical to
an organization’s success.
g) Systems must be controlled. Information systems help control
the organization, information
systems have to have feedback on
their own performance and be
controlled.
h) Systems form a hierarchy. Information systems design is a
hierarchical task, systems consist of
hierarchies of subsystems.
i) Systems exhibit differentiation. Information systems have many
specialized parts.
j) Systems exhibit equifinality. There are many ways to design a
system to achieve desired goals.
2) The principles leading to the development of a well-designed system are:
— Principle of acceptability
40
 — Principle of enhancing the decision-making process Information System Design
and Development

— Principle of economy
— Principle of flexibility
— Principle of reliability
— Principle of simplicity
3) The system specification usually includes:
— Background information about the organization
— Details of the facilities to be provided by a computerised system, identifying
which are mandatory and which are optional
— Details of the environment in which the system will operate, including any
standards, protocols
— The size of the system in terms of the numbers of records and transactions
to be handled, the number of workstations
— A timetable for implementation of the system
— Mandatory questions to be answered by suppliers, such as size of the
hardware, systems support arrangements, costs, etc.
— Information concerning any specific constraints
— Information about terms or forms of contract and any acceptance tests.
4) The stages in the systems development are:
a) Definition of objectives
b) Definition of systems requirements
c) Design phase
d) Implementation phase
e) Evaluation phase
5) There are a number of implementation strategies that can be adopted for moving
from one system to another. The options include:
a) Complete changeover involves the old system being replaced by a new
system on a specified date.
b) Phased approach, in which the total system is divided into sections, each
section is installed individually and sections are introduced one at a time.
c) Parallel running, where both old and new systems are operated in parallel
for a period of time, until there is confidence in the new system and the old
system can cease to operate.
d) Pilot operation of a system in a more controlled environment, such as a
smaller department, before full introduction at all sites.
6) The system evaluation is a stage of the systems analysis and design process.
For successful implementation, it is necessary to complete the evaluation exercise 41
System Analysis and Design by going back to the specifications and assessing the extent to which the system
is meeting its stated objectives. Such an assessment may lead to improvements
and refinements in the way in which a system is used.
7) Adequate system documentation includes the following:
l All the specifications in the systems development life cycle
l Data flow diagrams and structure charts
l Data dictionaries
l Hardware specifications
l Performance specifications
l Joy descriptions
l Procedure manuals.

2.10 KEYWORDS
Flowchart : A flowchart is a set of symbols representing an
activity. Flowcharts are widely used in systems work
because they can graphically represent the
interrelationships among elements in a system.
Systems Analysis : It is the study of an existing system for the purpose
of designing a new or improved system.
Systems Approach : It is a philosophy of structure which coordinates, in
an efficient manner, the activities of an organization
or a system.
System Conversion : It is a changing process from one system to another
and occurs when the old system is completely
abandoned upon implementation of the new system.
System Design : System design is the determination of the processes
and data a new system will require. When the system
is computer-based, the design can also include a
specification of the types of equipment to be used.
System Development : The complete process from planning, analysing, then
Life Cycle designing and then implementing the computer
processes.
System Documentation : Documentation is a comprehensive documenting
method for creating and updating and maintaining
the system a standards manual whose format and
organization would be a model for all documentation
to be developed; and a standardized approach to
documenting all systems.
System Evaluation : It is the process that helps a systems analyst decide
the merits of a system before its final implementation
and also assess the performance of the system from
42 time to time.
System Implementation : System implementation is the acquisition and Information System Design
and Development
integration of the physical and conceptual resources
that produce a working system.
System Life Cycle : The stages to first plan, then analyse, then design
and then implement the system.

2.11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Davis, Gordon B., ed.(1999). The Blackwell Encyclopaedic Dictionary of
Management Information Systems. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
Hicks, James O. (1993). Management Information Systems. 3 rd ed. Minneapolis:
West Publishing Company.
Lucas, Henry C.(1985). The Analysis, Design, and Implementation of
Information Systems. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Lucas, Henry C.(1978). Information Systems Concepts for Management. New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
McLeod, Raymond and Schell, George (2000). Management Information
Systems. 8th ed. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall International, Inc.
Thierauf , Robert J. and Reynolds, George W. (1982). Effective information
systems management. Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company.

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