Chapter 1

1. Introduction to Network Analysis & Synthesis

Network is a combination of electrical elements connected in any manner (conductively,

inductively or capacitively), whose impedance may be lumped or distributed or both. Further, it
can be defined as a collection of elements connected together to perform a certain task governed
by a certain laws. Based on the component from which network developed we have two classes:
passive and active networks.

In generally accepted definitions of network analysis and synthesis, there are three key words:
the excitation, the network, the response as shown by fig. 1.1.

Excitation Response
Network

Fig.1.1. Key terms in network analysis & synthesis

A network in which the electrical properties are unaffected by interchanging input and output
terminals is called balanced network. In such networks, the elements are symmetrical with
respect to ground potential. To mention some examples of networks:
 Filters  electrical networks which pass selective frequency signals.
 Amplifiers/ Attenuators  electrical networks which are used to magnify or reduce signal
power level from input to output.
 Equalizers  electrical networks used to counteract frequency or phase distortions.
 Matching networks  electrical networks that match source and load impedances.

The study of network analysis and synthesis is sometimes referred to as network theory. Network
theory is based on fundamental electrical parameters. Network theory can be categorized into
three classes
i. Mathematical modeling of electromagnetic phenomena
 ii. Mathematical analysis of models of individual elements and systems
iii. Synthesis and design of systems & devices

Modeling of a system should adequately describe the physical behavior of the system i.e. model
is the compromise between reality and theory (simplicity). Most electrical system analysis
depends on two fundamental theoretical concepts:
a. The lumped parameter circuit theory based on laws: KVL and KCL, ohms laws,
etc…
b. Field theory based on Maxwell’s equations for networks composed of distributed
elements.
An electric network (amplifier, filter or equalizer circuits and the like) can be modeled using
certain lumped circuit elements. A basic problem faced by an engineer is to design a network
model to satisfy certain signal processing specifications and then fabricate physical components
which approximate the idealized elements. A prelude to design (and synthesis) is analysis, which
is mainly an algebraic problem. In this portion we discuss the characterization and modeling of
lumped circuit elements. A network consisting of lumped elements exhibits certain basic
properties depending on the type of elements used which themselves are classified according to
their properties.

1.1. Lumped Circuit elements

A circuit element is said to be lumped if the instantaneous current entering one terminal is equal
to the instantaneous current leaving at the other terminals otherwise it is distributed elements.
If the physical dimension are small compared with the wave length of the highest signal
frequency applied to the network, then the element will be consider to be lumped.
A large part of network theory deals with the study of lumped circuits. Lumped circuit is a result
of interconnection of lumped elements.
Typical lumped elements are: resistors, capacitors, inductors, and voltage and current sources.
Resistors: An element which can be characterized by a curve in the V–I plane is called a resistor
(V represents voltage and I represents current). There are two types’ i.e. linear and non-linear
resistors.
 a. Linear resistors: I = GV or V=RI

I
I = GV or
slope=G=1/R

Fig.1.2. Linear resistor (a)characteristic curve (b) Circuit symbol

Another characterization of linear network is that the excitation and response of the
network are related by a linear differential equation.
b. Non linear resistors: i-v curve is not straight line, two non- linear resistors are tunnel
diode and SCR(silicon controlled rectifier). The current through tunnel diode is single
valued function of the voltage, which makes it a voltage controlled resistor. This is
depicted in fig. 1.3(a). In SCR, the voltage is single valued function of the current,
which makes it act as the current controlled resistor as shown in fig. 1.3(b). These
nonlinear resistors V-I characteristic have unique property of negative resistance in
some ranges.
I

I=f(V)

Negative resistor
region

Fig.1.3. Non-linear characteristic curves

Evidently, nonlinear resistors cannot be characterized by a single valued resistance R, as in the

case of linear resistors. The resistance value of nonlinear resistor depends on the operating point
and hence is characterized by incremental resistance which is defined as the slope of the v-i
characteristic at the particular operating point. Nonlinear resistors find use in rectification,
frequency multiplication, current and voltage limiting, and many other electronic applications.
Fig.1.4 shows the symbol and the v-i characteristic of a semiconductor diode (continuous curve).
In analyzing a network with a nonlinear element, such as a diode, one often resorts to piece-wise
linearization. The piece-wise linear model of a diode (broken line) is indicated in fig. 1.4.

Fig.1.4. Piece-wise linearization of characteristic curve

A distinct property of a linear resistor not usually possessed by a non-linear resistor is that the v-i
characteristic is symmetric with respect to the origin. An element exhibiting such a symmetric
property is called bilateral element. All linear circuits are bilateral but not all nonlinear circuits
are bilateral.

Capacitors: An element which can be characterized by a curve in the v-q plane is called a
capacitor (q represents the charge). A capacitor is linear if its characteristic is a straight line
passing through the origin of the v-q plane.

Fig.1.5. Linear capacitor (a) characteristic curve (b) Circuit symbol

A linear capacitor is represented by the symbol shown above and is described analytically by
q=CV where the constant C is the slope of the straight line, and is called the capacitance. The
unit of capacitance is farad. (A farad is a very big unit for measuring capacitance; a more

practical unit in a network being μF -microfarad, or pF microfarads).

The current charge relation beingi=dq /dt , for a linear capacitor, we have
dv (t )
i=C
dt
If a capacitor is characterized by a v-q curve other than a straight line through the origin, it is
called a nonlinear capacitor. Fig.1.6 shows the characteristic of a nonlinear capacitor (metal

oxide semiconductor capacitor). A nonlinear capacitor is characterized by q=f (v ) (for a

voltage-controlled capacitor) and by v=ψ (q ) (for a charge-controlled capacitor).

For a voltage controlled capacitor the current through the capacitor is

dq(t ) df ( v ) dv (t )
i(t )= = ⋅
dt dv dt
dv (t )
i(t )=C (v )
Or dt where C (v )=df ( v )/dv is called the incremental capacitance
of the capacitor.

Fig.1.6. Non-linear capacitor characteristic curve

The instantaneous power entering an element is given by

p(t )=v (t )i(t )
where v is the voltage in volts and i is the current in ampere. Hence, the energy in the

element from
t 0 and t is
t
W (t 0 , t )=∫t v(τ )i( τ )dτ
o
Let a capacitance be characterized by
c= v^ (q ) the energy in the capacitor, from the above equations as
 q (t )
t
W (t 0 , t )=∫t v (τ )i(τ )dτ= ∫ v^ (q )dq
0
q (t )
0

If the initial charge on the capacitors, q (t 0 ), is zero, then the energy stored in the capacitor is
q( t )
W (t )= ∫ v^ (q )dq
0

For a linear capacitor ( q=Cv ) it reduces to

1 q 2 (t ) 1 2
W (t )= = Cv (t )
2 C 2
Inductors: An element which can be characterized by a curve in the i−φ plane is called an
inductor (φ represents the flux). An inductor is called a linear inductor, if its characteristic is a

straight line passing through the origin of the i−φ plane as shown by fig.1.7.

Fig.1.7. Linear inductor (a) characteristic curve (b) Circuit symbol

A linear inductor is represented by the symbol shown in fig.1.7.(b) and described analytically by
φ=Li
where the constant L is the slope of the straight line and is called inductance. The unit of
inductance is Hennery. (Since inductance of one Henry is quite large, typical values of inductors
are given mH- milli-henrys.)

The voltage flux linkage relation being v=dφ /dt for a linear inductor, we have
di( t )
v=L
dt
If an inductor is characterized by a i−φ curve other than a straight line through the origin, then
it is called nonlinear inductor. A nonlinear inductor is characterized by
φ=f (i) (For a current controlled inductor) and by i=ψ (φ ) (for a flux-controlled inductor) for
a current-controlled inductor the voltage across the inductor is
dφ(t ) df (i) di(t )
v (t )= = ⋅
dt dt dt
di(t ) df (t )
v (t )=L(i) L(i)=
Or dt where dt is called the incremental inductance.
Nonlinear inductors can be used in a frequency conversion, memory and storage.
A special type of nonlinear inductor, such as a ferromagnetic-core inductor, has a characteristic
that exhibits the phenomenon of hysteresis.

Independent sources:
Fig.1.8 shows an arbitrary network N excited by a source of electric energy. If we change the
network N, then v and i in general also change. If the prescribed voltage is maintained then the
source of energy is called a voltage source. On the other hand if the prescribed current is
maintained it is called current source.

Fig.1.5. Independent source

A two terminal element is called an ideal independent voltage source, if it is capable of

supplying any current at the same prescribed voltage, i.e. the voltage across the source is
independent of the current drawn from the source as shown by fig.1.9. If the voltage of a voltage
source is identically zero, the voltage source is effectively a short circuit. The internal resistance
of an ideal voltage source is considered to be zero.
 Fig.1.9. Voltage source:.symbol and the i-v characteristic curve

A two-terminal element is called an ideal independent current source, if it is capable of supplying

a prescribed current at any voltage, i.e. the current drawn from a current source is independent of
the voltage across the source. Fig.1.10. shows the symbol and the i-v characteristic of current
source. If the current drawn from a current source is identically zero, the current source is
effectively an open circuit. The internal shunt resistance of an ideal current source is considered
to be infinite. In the physical world there is no ideal independent current and voltage sources.

Fig.1.10. Voltage source:.symbol and the i-v characteristic curve

A dependent voltage (or current) source is a source the voltage (or current) of which depends on
another voltage (or current). A dependent or controlled source is said to be voltage or current
controlled if its terminal behavior is controlled by another voltage or current. This leads to four
different controlled sources which are:
1. Voltage-controlled voltage source
2. Voltage-controlled current source
3. Current-controlled voltage source
4. Current-controlled current source
Some physical devices operate almost like ideal dependent sources. For example, an operational
amplifier is a voltage controlled voltage source, a field effect transistor a voltage controlled
current source.

1.2. Classification of Networks

The overall behavior of an electrical network can be predicated by the constituent element and
their interconnection. The behavior of the network, considered as a black box, leads to a number
of classifications like linear, nonlinear: time-invariant and time variant; passive, active.

1.2.1 Linear and Nonlinear Networks

In a linear network, the relationship between the voltage and current is described by a linear
equation. Consider two networks N1, and N2 as shown in fig.1.11(a) and (b) respectively.
Network (a) is made up of a linear resistor R, while (b) is made up of a semi-conductor diode and
linear resistor R. let the cut-in voltage of the diode be 0.6volt. In network (a) current I 1 is given
by V/R and exists for all values of V. In network (b) if V is less than 0.6 volt the current I 2 is zero
and for voltages higher than 0.6volts I2 is given by (V-0.6)/(R+RF), where RF is the forward
resistance of the diode. Obviously, in network (a) the current response is linear in contrast to that
in (b).

A system (network) is linear if (i) the principle of superposition and (ii) the principle of

proportionality hold. By the superposition principle, if, for a given network, [ e 1 (t ), r 1 ( t ) ] and
[ e 2( t ) , r2 ( t ) ] are excitation-response pairs, then if the excitation were e (t )=e 1 (t )+e2 (t ), the

response would ber (t )=r 1 (t )+r 2 (t ) . By the proportionality principle, if the excitation were
C 1 e1 (t ), where C 1 a constant is, then the response would be C 1 r 1 (t ), i.e. the constant

proportionality C 1 is preserved by the linear network.

Let both the networks be excited by two serially connected voltage sources V 1 and V2. Then it
I 1 ( V 1 +V 2 )=I 1 ( V 1 ) + I 1 (V 2 ) I 2 ( V 1 +V 2 )≠I 2 ( V 1 ) + I 1 ( V 2 )
can be seen that And .
 Fig.1.11. Linear and Non-linear networks
V
Where I i (V j ) is the current into the terminals of network i when excited be a voltage source j
N

. We say that network N 1 is linear and N 2 is nonlinear as the principle of superposition holds for
N 1 but not for N 2 .

Linearity of a network can be defined as follow: let a network be characterized by F ( xi )= y i

where
x i is the input and y i the output, and F (.) denotes some function. Then the network is
linear if, and only if,
F (α 1 x 1 + α 2 x 2 )=α 1 F (x 1 )+α 2 F( x 2 )=α 1 y 1 + α 2 y 2

where α 1 andα 2 are arbitrary constants, and x 1 and x 2 are any two allowable inputs. The
principle expressed by this equation is called the principle of superposition and homogeneity.
Hence, we conclude that a network is linear if it satisfies this principle; other-wise, it is
nonlinear.

1.2.2 Time-invariant and Time-variant Networks

Let a linear resistor be characterized by v (t )=R(t )i(t ) where R(t ) is a prescribed time function.
This can be achieved, for example, by the sliding contact of potentiometer being moved back and
forth by a motor. Such a resistor is called a time-varying resistor. Similarly, it is possible to build
time-varying capacitors and inductors. The elements we considered previously were all time-
invariant in that they were characterized by parameters which were not dependent on time.
A time – invariant network is characterized by a constant coefficient equation whereas the time-
variant one by a time-variant coefficient equation. Mathematically, we can describe a time-
invariant network by
F [ x (t−t 0 ) ]= y (t−t 0 )

when the network is characterized by F [ x (t ) ] = y (t ) i.e. the response (output) depends on the
shape of the excitation (input) but not on the time of application. A network composed of time-
invariant elements is necessarily time-invariant whereas network composed of time-variant
elements may exhibit time-invariant terminal behavior.

1.2.3 Passive and Active Networks

Consider a network made up of a single linear resistor. The energy supplied to (or dissipated by)
the resistor, from the previous relation is
t
W (t , t 0 )=∫ i 2 (t )Rdt
to

If the resistor has to deliver power to the external world, R has to be negative. As long as R is
positive the resistor will consume power, and such a resistor is called a passive resistor.

Let v(t) and i(t) be the two voltage and current at the terminals of a network. Then the energy
delivered to the network is given by
t
W (t , t 0 )=∫ v (τ )i(τ )dτ
to

A network is said to be passive if, and only if,

W (t , t 0 )+E(t 0 )≥0 for all t andt 0 , and for all

v (t ) andi(t ) , where
E(t 0 ) is the energy in the network att=t 0 . Otherwise, the network is
said to be active. In other words, if the energy delivered to the network is non-negative for all
time and input, the network is said to be passive. The conditions for activity of an element can
also be obtained by a study of its characteristics. For example, we can state that a nonlinear
resistor is passive if, and only if, its characteristic, for all time, is in the first and third quadrants
of v-i plane. Similarly, a capacitor (inductor) is passive if, and only if, its characteristic is in the

first and third quadrants of the v−q (φ−i ) plane.