Developing Powerful

Athletes Part 2: Practical

Applications
Anthony N. Turner, PhD,1 Paul Comfort, PhD,2,3 John McMahon, PhD,2 Chris Bishop, MSc,1 Shyam Chavda, MSc,1
Paul Read, PhD,4 Peter Mundy, PhD,5 and Jason Lake, PhD6
1
London Sports Institute, Middlesex University, London, United Kingdom; 2School of Health and Society, University of
Downloaded from http://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj by BhDMf5ePHKav1zEoum1tQfN4a+kJLhEZgbsIHo4XMi0hCywCX1AWnYQp/IlQrHD3i3D0OdRyi7TvSFl4Cf3VC1y0abggQZXdtwnfKZBYtws= on 09/28/2021

Salford, Salford, United Kingdom; 3Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, Edith Cowan University,
Joondalup, Australia; 4Aspetar Aspetar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar; 5Coventry University,
Priory Street, Coventry, United Kingdom; and 6Chichester Institute of Sport, University of Chichester, Chichester,
United Kingdom

ABSTRACT methods that achieve these goals. We repetition maximum (1RM) and identi-
will start by addressing methods to fied that, at all loads, there was a decel-
In part 1 of this two-part review, we
increase RFD, before examining those eration phase (and thus negative
addressed the recent criticisms of the
that improve power and then finally impulse) at the conclusion of the con-
use of terms such as power, rate of investigating the impact that strength centric portion and that the relative
force development, and explosiveness, training has on these goals. In doing duration of this phase increased as the
over impulse. These terms were dis- so, we also aim to demonstrate the inter- load decreased. This therefore makes it
tinguished mechanically and concep- dependence of each type of training difficult to stimulate the neuromuscular
tually for the benefit of the scientist and method and why athletes are recom- system throughout the full range of
coach. In part 2, we use the key mended to develop power from a solid motion. This issue is naturally avoided
mechanical parameters underpinning foundation of strength. during ballistic training (and reduced
power development and its relation- during weightlifting exercises and vari-
ship with the force–time character- RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENT able resistance training) where the bar-
istics and force–velocity profile of Although strength training typically tar- bell can be accelerated throughout the
sporting movements, to evidence the gets peak force (e.g., the highest point whole range of movement.
planning of training drills and assist the noted in a force–-time curve of an iso-
Ballistic exercises may be best
strength and conditioning coach in metric midthigh pull), ballistic training is
described as “explosive” movements
devising periodized training programs. generally advised to increase RFD, that
(rapid acceleration against resistance),
is, force capability at the onset of
whereby the mass of interest (barbell
movement (Figure 1). The capacity to
and/or lifter) becomes a projectile.
increase RFD, or explosive strength as it
INTRODUCTION Plyometric training, medicine ball
is termed by many coaches and athletes,
n part 1, we discussed that given throws, and weightlifting and their

I most sporting actions occur in

,0.3 seconds, rate of force develop-
ment (RFD) may supersede peak force
is largely attributed to the capacity to
increase efferent neural drive, particularly
by increases in the firing frequency of
motor units (1). Thus, RFD is a function
respective derivatives are possibly best
suited to train RFD because in addition
to their ability to be adapted to the
capability as a proxy measure of sports specifics of the sport, they encourage
of neuromuscular activation and repre-
performance. Equally, we identified that full acceleration, with deceleration of
sents an individual’s ability to accelerate
given the variety of motor skills encom- the system achieved mainly due to
objects (7,16,46). Given this summation
passed in any one sport, it is important to the effects of gravity, rather than due
of RFD, the recommendation to use
train power (or the ability to produce to the neuromuscular system actively
ballistic training can also be explained
force at high and low velocities) across
when examining the influence of differ-
a spectrum of loads. Thus, the aim of this
ent loads on the force–time character-
article (part 2) is to discuss training KEY WORDS:
istics generated while squatting. Kubo impulse; momentum; work; force;
Address correspondence to Dr. Anthony N. et al. (27) examined back squats at loads strength; speed
Turner, [email protected]. of 0, 12, 27, 42, 56, 71 and 85% of 1

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 Developing Powerful Athletes

across all tested loads (30, 45, 65, and

80% 1RM hang clean). This was also
confirmed by Suchomel and Sole (39),
with differences between the lifts
attributed to specific task constraints.
For example, they note that the goal
of the jump shrug is to jump as high
as possible, whereas for the clean, it is
to catch the load. The intent to catch
may lead to incomplete triple exten-
sion, especially at heavier loads (43).
In turn, this may decrease RFD and
potentially, over time, result in a dimin-
ished training stimulus (39). Further-
more, with the goal of the jump
shrug being to jump as high as possible,
it naturally requires acceleration
throughout almost the entire move-
ment, leading to greater force and
velocity characteristics, again partly ex-
plained by the data of the study by
Figure 1. Although the interdependence of strength and power training dictates that Kubo et al. (27) highlighted above. Of
both modalities affect all regions of the force–time curve, ballistic training course, however, this can also be ex-
is preferred to improve the rate of force development (or epoch defined plained using Newton’s second law.
impulse), generally within the first 300 ms of movement, while strength That is, this need to jump (as opposed
training is the preferred method to improve the peak height of the curve. to drop under the bar and catch) re-
quires a greater net impulse, which,
when coupled with further reductions
decelerating the system. Also, weight- however, as there is a reduced dis- in displacement (and thus movement
lifting and its derivatives produce some placement and therefore time available time), places a greater demand on the
of the highest power outputs of any during a midthigh clean variation, rapid application of force and therefore
exercise modality (37). For example, compared from the knee or hang. As RFD. Table 1 identifies some ballistic
the relatively low velocities involved such, force has to be higher to produce exercises that, based on the informa-
in powerlifting exercises such as the the impulse required to accelerate the tion above, should form the basis of
deadlift, results in approximately 12 system to ensure adequate displace- power training. The programming of
W per kg of body mass (BM) of power. ment, especially if catching the bar. these is discussed in the latter part of
By contrast, weightlifting derivatives This information should be greeted this article, and readers are also
can produce power outputs as high with relief by strength and condition- directed to the work of Suchomel
as 80 W per kg of BM; for a review ing coaches because some athletes can et al. (40) for information on how
of relative power outputs across exer- find learning or achieving the body weightlifting derivatives can be manip-
cises, readers are directed to the study positions of the full versions of ulated for the same purpose.
by Suchomel and Comfort (38). weightlifting challenging and cannot
It is also worth noting that the second realize their benefits until an extended
POWER AND THE FORCE–
pull is the phase of weightlifting that period has been spent mastering them. VELOCITY CURVE
has been shown to generate the great- Also, the fact that performing the lift In part 1, we noted that the velocity at
est vertical ground reaction forces, starting from the midthigh may be which we can move an object is deter-
RFD, and power output (17,35). For better than from the floor, means issues mined by its mass and that, when lift-
example, the study by Comfort et al. regarding athlete mobility (e.g., limited ing to maximize power output, our
(11) found that, for force–time char- dorsiflexion) can be avoided. intent should always be to apply max-
acteristics, midthigh clean pulls (i.e., Again to the coaches’ avail, the study imal and rapid force (thus ensuring
taking the bar from the midthigh and by Suchomel et al. (43) found that the maximal neural recruitment) (1). This
concluding without the catch phase) jump shrug (again initiated from above is because as long as we are maximizing
produced higher values compared with the knee and through a countermove- force output, we can improve impulse
power cleans and even hang power ment) produced significantly greater over a given period, which in turn
cleans (taking the bar from just above peak force, velocity, and power, than would increase velocity. Furthermore,
the knee). This finding is unsurprising, both the hang clean and the high pull we noted that most sports use a variety

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 Table 1
Example ballistic exercises aimed at increasing explosive strength

Exercise Coaching notes

MB chest pass, slam, overhead throws, It is important to note that these MB exercises are for the legs, so if the athlete
and throws with rotation does not load with a countermovement or is not encouraged to jump when
releasing it, it gravitates toward an upper-body exercise.
Weightlifting and their derivatives Although weightlifting is an excellent resource, novice lifters may benefit most
from pulls above the knee and from midthigh. Lifts from above the knee
negate athlete mobility issues, with many unable to correctly attain a deep-
squat position. The best (and simplest) exercise may be jump shrugs, which
also ensures a full triple extension action.
Loaded jump squats This exercise produces high impact forces at landing, so the athlete must
progress gradually. Arguably, without the use of an electromagnetic braking
device, jump shrugs and hex bar jumps may be better advised.
Slow and fast plyometrics There is an abundance of drills available here from jumping up to a box, landing
from a box and drop jumps, including multiple hops and in various directions
Seated MB throws (similar to above) Similar to the MB drills identified above, however, being seated directs all force
development to the upper body
Bench press throw This is a good way of performing an upper-body ballistic lift with very heavy load
(of course lighter weights can also be used), which is not available with a MB. If
the weight cannot be “thrown” consider using bands and chains to enable full
acceleration throughout the lift.
MB 5 medicine ball.

of motor skills that span the entire methods approach to training is gener- high vertically) and thus allow further
force–velocity curve, and thus, it is ally advised, where strength and power emphasis on the high-velocity (speed)
considered prudent to ensure that are trained simultaneously, but one is region of the force–velocity curve.
training programs adequately cover all subject to greater emphasis during Suchomel and Comfort (38) show how
points. This is principally achieved by a particular training block (15,44). Fur- a spectrum of loads can be best paired
manipulating training load, with train- thermore, the use of multiple exercises with exercises to support power-based
ing velocity an outcome of this. Fur- (and not just multiple loads within the training, by plotting a theoretical
thermore, the importance of using same exercise) can be a useful training force–velocity curve with respect to
multiple loads (and therefore veloci- tool because the kinematics of some weightlifting derivatives (see Ref. 38 for
ties) is evidenced by studies demon- exercises is better matched to certain further reading).
strating that neuromuscular loads. For example, pulling-based de-
adaptations are specific to training rivatives of weightlifting exercises SPEED–STRENGTH AND BARBELL
velocity (25,26,30,32); this has also enable the use of loads above an ath- VELOCITY ZONES
been summarized by Haff and Nim- lete’s 1RM clean (as the lifter is no Within the strength and condition-
phius (15). Across these studies, longer constrained by having to catch ing community, velocity and force
strength training has been shown to the bar) and thus can further empha- are often regarded as synonymous
predominantly shift the high-force size the high-force (strength–speed) with speed and strength, respec-
region of the force–velocity curve to region of the force–velocity curve, tively, and hence, power is often
the right (Figure 2A), while training above catch-based derivatives. Simi- referred to as speed–strength. Fur-
focusing on the generation of speed, larly, jump shrugs enable lighter loads thermore, a distinction can be made
predominately shifts the high-velocity to be used than those permitted during between speed–strength and
region of the curve to the right catch-based weightlifting variations strength–speed (45), suggesting
(Figure 2B). Training at maximum (given that when attempting to catch, these are separate physical capacities
power output predominantly effects technique may be compromised if the pertaining to defined areas of the
the curve at the region corresponding load is too light) and some pulling var- curve and are an important division
best to the exercise used (Figure 2C). iations (as the bar may either be rapidly when prescribing strength and con-
These findings explain why a mixed- accelerated toward the chin or too ditioning programs. Speed–strength

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 Developing Powerful Athletes

Figure 2. Hypothetical change in F–v curve based on training load. (A) Strength-based power training. (B) Velocity-based power
training. (C) Training at Pmax (i.e., the load that maximize average power). Of note, however, the position at which the line
flattens is exercise dependent, as Pmax often occurs at varying loads.

can be defined as the ability to finally to speed (Table 2). Although concentric velocity, when compared
quickly execute a movement against the demarcation of which load cor- with peak concentric velocity (23). It
a relatively small external load and is responds to speed–strength and is well reported that the MCV achieved
assessed in terms of speed of move- strength–speed is rather arbitrary, at maximal loads can vary between
ment. Conversely, strength–speed one may suggest that up to, and individual strength levels (20,48) and
may be considered as the ability to including the load that produces exercises (20,28,34), which would
quickly execute a movement against peak average power for a particular therefore affect the velocity zones that
a relatively large external load and is exercise, signifies speed–strength; relate to strength, strength–speed,
assessed in terms of mass lifted. above this load and up to the 6RM speed–strength, and speed. This vari-
These terms are intended to signify load (i.e., strength training load) ation, including that noted between
a gradual shift in training emphasis would be classed as strength–speed different devices, therefore warrants
from strength (low velocity) to speed (Figure 3). the need for individualized velocity
(high velocity) as the athlete jour- profiling to be conducted. In contrast
neys along the force–velocity curve These demarcations can now also be
to these traditional lifts (but following
ensuring full coverage. This can be defined using devices that measure
the same principles), weightlifting ex-
achieved through appropriate exer- barbell velocity (Table 2 and Figure 3). ercises should use peak velocity to
cise selection and the gradual Typically, for powerlifting type exer- determine load because they are bal-
reduction in load (i.e., % 1RM) as cises, mean concentric velocity listic in nature and the entirety of the
emphasis shifts from strength, (MCV) is used due to its high reliability movement is not as critical for the
strength–speed, speed–strength, and (23,24) and better representation of evaluation of the lift (29). Furthermore,

Table 2
Example exercises based on training emphasis
Strength Strength-Speed Speed-Strength Speed

Bench press (0.10–0.4 m/s) Bench press throw Plyometric push-up Seated medicine ball chest
pass (.1.5 m/s)
Squat (0.23–0.6 m/s) Jump shrug from hang (.1.0 Jump to box Med ball throw (.1.5 m/s)
m/s) Jump squat (20% BM) Jump squat (BM) (.2.0 m/s)
Jump squat (40% BM)
Deadlift Power clean (.1.2 m/s) Power snatch (.1.5 m/s) Jump to box (.2.0 m/s)
It should be noted that the emphasis of an exercise can be altered by changes in loading. As noted above, a change in loading will inversely
affect the velocity.

BM 5 body mass.

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 lower-body (3–5). It is not difficult
to corroborate the interdependence
of strength and power (beyond the
obvious mechanics that P 5 F 3 v)
by using v 5 F 3 t/m (where P 5
power, F 5 force, m 5 mass, a 5
acceleration, v 5 velocity, and t 5
time). This equation represents a re-
arrangement of Newton’s second law
of motion: F 5 ma / F 5 m 3 v/t / v
5 F 3 t/m. The equation (v 5 F 3 t/m)
now reveals that to increase velocity (v),
it is necessary to increase the magnitude
or duration of the force applied (or
both), which results in an increase in
impulse, or alternatively, decrease the
Figure 3. Adaptation of F–v curve, substituting force for strength (STR) and velocity for mass of the system. However, not all
speed (SPD). Velocity bands shown are for the back squat and may vary of these are possible as the athlete
between individuals.
may be unable to decrease system mass
(either BM or sports implement mass),
and as expected given the discussion training volume (8). Furthermore, in or increase the duration of movement;
above, peak velocity occurs during the ensuring the athlete performs all rep- in fact, a decrease in duration may be
second pull of the clean and snatch etitions within an acceptable proxim- wanted or even needed. Consequently,
(18), with this point marking the crit- ity of the intended velocity, fatigue only one option remains, namely to
ical moment of the exercise, because it across the set and indeed the training increase force production (strength).
determines the subsequent barbell session is comparatively less, given Furthermore, the influence of force
displacement and thus is a clearer the subsequent reduction in volume. can also be explained when we consider
determinant of success (29). Finally, we should state that high- the work–energy theorem (see part 1),
velocity training, when performed which states that the net work per-
To help monitor and regulate train-
under load, is not necessarily at- formed on an object is equal to the
ing to ensure the athlete is training in
tempting to replicate the actual change in kinetic energy. In the context
a velocity range that best represents
movement velocities attained in of jumping and noting that jump height
the biomotor in which they are try-
sport. Anecdotally (acknowledging should be calculated based on take-off
ing to elicit change, the implementa-
that as of yet there is no peer- velocity (as per the impulse–-momen-
tion of velocity cutoffs can help
reviewed research to support its effi- tum theorem), velocity can be calcu-
determine when a set is complete,
cacy), this can be achieved and even lated as follows:
based off a predefined decrement in rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
. ffi
velocity. For example, an athlete superseded through bungee cords
v5 2 3 F 3 s m . Given mass is
looking to develop lower-body and resistance bands, for example.
strength-speed may perform 4 sets In the case of the former, it is also limited in its ability to alter (assuming
of jump squats at 75% of bodyweight, often necessary to spend sufficient a lean athlete) and push-off distance
which is where the greatest impulse time accelerating to achieve such is anatomically constrained (or the
is produced (31)—see part 1. During speeds. optimization is outside the control
the first set, the athlete may achieve DEVELOPING RATE OF FORCE
of the strength and conditioning
a MCV of 0.95 m/s, which is also DEVELOPMENT AND POWER coach), force is the variable that ex-
their fastest rep. The velocity loss al- THROUGH STRENGTH erts the most influence. Finally, as
lowed maybe set at 20% from that Strength training is a fundamental mentioned, the impulse–momentum
value (0.76 m/s). Thus, when the pre- component in the development of theorem is also an important con-
scribed percentage velocity loss limit power, given that power is largely sideration for power activities as, for
(20%) is exceeded, the set would be dependent on the ability to exert example, jump height is determined
terminated. This method has previ- high forces (and is thus subject to by take-off velocity, which, in turn, is
ously been shown to (a) increase an athlete’s strength capacity). This determined by net impulse (the
strength gains and (b) enhance ballis- can be noted by the high and positive impulse applied to BM). The equa-
tic outcome measures such as jump correlation between peak power and tion shows that a large impulse is
height, more so than higher cutoffs of maximum strength (r 5 0.77–0.94) needed to produce a large change of
40% (8,9), despite a 40% difference in (2), in both the upper-body and momentum. Again, force must

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 Developing Powerful Athletes

Figure 4. Comparison of force, power, RFD, and movement time, during a countermovement jump, between stronger and weaker
athletes (37). RFD, rate of force development.

dominate because of the short dura- training as described by the size prin- around (i.e., from BM to 80 kg) im-
tion of most sports movements. ciple of motor unit recruitment (21); provements in the load–power rela-
Therefore, force and time must be that is, you have to lift heavy enough tionship of the jump squat.
measured if athlete improvement is to actually recruit type IIa, and espe- Unfortunately, no results were pre-
to be appropriately monitored, ide- cially type IIx fibers. The strength- sented to illustrate whether there
ally through analysis of a force–time training phase is considered funda- were any differences in jump strategy
mental given the high correlation (r (e.g., to the duration of or force
trace. Figure 4 illustrates how in-
creases in strength (and thus RFD) 5 0.75) between the percentage of applied to each phase), to determine
type II fibers and power output, and whether there was a different
can change the jump profile of an
their role as velocity increases (14). response regarding how changes in
athlete, such that performance
The second phase involves increasing impulse result in an increase in jump
(height and duration) is improved
the firing frequency of these fibers height. Perhaps, the best example of
(37). These conclusions lead to
(which are now of a greater volume) athletes involved in this combined
a common question; how strong
through ballistic training. Remember, (mixed methods) strength and power
should we make our athletes? Clearly,
P 5 F 3 v, so maximum gains will training are weightlifters. These ath-
the underpinning physics suggests letes are reported to produce the
occur if both of these components
that there is no upper limit, with re- highest (ratio-scaled) values for iso-
are trained. For example, the study
searchers suggesting that athletes who metric RFD and power output in
by Cormie and McBride (12) com-
can lift 2 3 BM during a back squat can weighted and unweighted vertical
pared a power-training group (7 sets
express higher power outputs in vertical jumps (19).
of 6 jump squats with the optimal load
and horizontal jumping than their
for maximal power output, i.e., BM) Cormie et al. (13) have also shown that,
weaker (e.g., 1.6 3 BM) counterparts
with a strength–power group (5 sets in weaker individuals, both modes
(6,12,13,33,36,47); thus, this seems to be
of 6 jump squats at the optimal load (strength and power) are equally effec-
an appropriate benchmark.
for maximal power output and 3 sets tive at enhancing power and overall ath-
Bompa and Carrera (10) effectively of 3 squats with 90% of their 1RM). leticism. In this study, relatively weak
describe the interrelationship between Results revealed that combined lower- men (1RM back squat ,1.6 3 BM)
strength training and ballistic training. body strength–power training was as had their jumping and sprinting perform-
They propose that power is devel- effective as power training for ances, along with changes to their force–
oped through a physiological strategy improving maximum jump height and velocity profile, muscle architecture, and
involving 2 phases. The first phase in- maximum power output in the jump neural drive tested, after a 10-week (3/
volves the recruitment and training of squat, and it was more effective than week) training intervention of either
fast-twitch fibers through strength power training at producing all- strength training or ballistic-power

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 Figure 5. (A and B) To appropriately use the force–time curve, relative force must be labelled along the y-axis. This is because while
having a high RFD is certainly a desirable characteristic, it is still essential that an athlete have the requisite strength (;1.6
3 body weight) from which to engage in mixed-methods training. Given peak force in both athletes has surpassed this
threshold, the trace may be interpreted as follows: Athlete A would benefit most from ballistic training while athlete B
would benefit most from strength training. Naturally, their training swaps in the next mesocycle, given the force–time
traces should then appear as per B. RFD, rate of force development.

training. Both groups showed similar im- strength should be perceived as a “vehi- interpreted as follows: Athlete A
provements in the performance meas- cle” for driving the enhancement of would benefit most from an emphasis
ures but through different mechanisms. power and RFD, and we recommend on ballistic training while reducing
The ballistic-power training group reading (42) for a more in-depth analysis the focus on strength development,
increased the rate of electromyography of the significance of strength and how it while athlete B would benefit most
rise during jumping, producing more may be trained. from an emphasis on strength train-
force and increasing RFD, resulting in ing, with a reduced focus on ballistic
CONCLUSION AND PRACTICAL training. As they undertake this train-
greater acceleration and movement
APPLICATIONS
velocity in shorter periods. In the ing, the graphs would reverse, albeit
Armed now with this deeper understat- now with higher values (Figure 5B).
strength training group, results were con-
ing of the interdependence of strength In the next training block, therefore,
sequent to maximal neural drive (dem-
and power, we must return to the pro- they would swap training emphasis,
onstrated through increases in maximal
files of athlete A and B, as presented in with this pattern of periodization
integrated EMG) and muscle thickness, part 1 (see Figure 5A below). This figure
which increased contractile capacity and continuing throughout the meso-
can now be seen as a simplification of cycle or macrocycle. Importantly,
thus reducing the relative load. This how the force–time curves of athletes
enabled greater force and RFD, and however, had strength capacity been
can be used to classify training win- ,1.6 3 BM in both athletes, then
the ability to accelerate their mass to dows, given that (a) increases in impulse
a greater degree, and again over a shorter they should simply continue with
naturally accompany increases in a strength emphasis. We should also
period. strength (when time is held constant), reiterate that a training emphasis in-
It is apparent therefore that maximum (b) weaker individuals benefit most fers that (normally) one biomotor is
strength is a key factor in developing from strength training, regardless of targeted for improvement, while
high-power outputs and that, to fully their profile, and (c) while it is desirable others are maintained as best as pos-
develop an athlete’s power potential, to have a high RFD, it is still essential sible. So, a power emphasis implies
strength and conditioning coaches that the athlete produce the required the goal of this training block is to
should include strength training within force over a given duration (impulse). increase an athlete’s rapid expression
their periodized programs. Of note, As such, when reporting force–time of force (at high and low loads).
because strength levels may only be traces, it is important to note the relative Strength is still trained, however,
maintained for 2 weeks (22), it is prudent force capacity along the y-axis, to albeit with much less volume, to
to incorporate strength sessions through- ensure the athlete has sufficient strength ensure this biomotor quality (i.e.,
out the entirety of a periodized program to now engage in a periodized approach peak force capacity) is maintained
so as to optimize and maintain high lev- of mixed-methods training. as best as possible (therefore, fre-
els of power output through training and Given peak force in both athletes is quency and intensity may remain).
come the time of competition (44). Su- above the recommended 1.6 3 BM This approach is guided by their
chomel et al. (41) nicely surmise that (Figure 5A), the trace may be interdependence, for example, power

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 Developing Powerful Athletes

training will seem ineffective if 2. Asci A, Acikada C. Power production

Shyam Chavda among different sports with similar
strength capacity diminishes.
is strength and maximum strength. J Strength Cond Res
Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding: conditioning 21: 10–16, 2007.
The authors report no conflicts of interest coach and tech- 3. Baker D. The effects of an in-season of
and no source of funding. nical tutor at the concurrent training on the maintenance of
London Sport maximal strength and power in professional
Institute, Mid- and college-aged rugby league football
Anthony N. dlesex University players. J Strength Cond Res 15: 172–
Turner is an 177, 2001.
and the lead
associate profes- coach for the 4. Baker D, Newton R. Observation of 4-year
sor in Strength Middlesex University weightlifting club adaptations in lower body maximal strength
and Conditioning and power output in professional rugby
and a regional coach for British league players. J Aust Strength Cond 18:
and the director Weightlifting. 3–10, 2008.
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programmes in 5. Baker D, Nance S, Moore M. The load that
maximises the average mechanical power
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