Science Department

2024 – 2025 Academic Year

Grade 11

CHAPTER 2:
GASES
Lecture Notes

Name & Surname

…………………………………………………..

Class & Number

……………………………………………

1
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF GASES:
• A gas does not have a definite volume or shape
• Gases expand to the same extent to fill the entire volume of the container
they occupy. (expansion is not a distinctive property for gases)
• The molecules of a gas are relatively apart
• They are in a totally random motion
• The forces of attraction between molecules are so small that each molecule
moves freely and behaves as if the other molecules were not present. • Gas volume
changes greatly with pressure and temperature
• Gases have relatively low viscosity.
• Most gases have relatively low densities under normal conditions
• Gases are miscible thus they form homogeneous mixtures (solution).
• They are compressible
• They make translational, rotational and vibrational motion (öteleme-dönme-titreşim)

We assume that molecules of a gas do not exert any force, either attractive or repulsive, on
one another, and they are ’’points’’ with mass but without volume. A gas that satisfies these
conditions is said to be an IDEAL GAS. For the ideal gas behavior, gases have low pressure,
high temperature and low molecular mass.

Properties affecting gas behavior: pressure, volume, mole and temperature

Pressure (P): In SI unit system, pressure has a unit of N/m2 which is Pascal (Pa). Other
pressure units are Bar, atm, mm-Hg, cm-Hg, and Torr
1 atm = 76 cm Hg = 760 mm 38 cmHg=. . . . . . . . . atm
Hg 2 atm=. . . . . . . . . . Torr
1 mm Hg= 1 Torr
760mmHg=. . . . . . . . .atm
760 mm Hg=760 Torr
3800 Torr=. . . . . . . . . . .atm=. . . . . . . . . .cmHg
1 atm = 760 Torr

Volume (V):
1 L = 1 dm3 250 mL=. . . . . . . . . . . L
1 mL = 1 cm3
1 L = 1dm3 = 1000 cm3 = 2L=. . . . . . . . . cm3=. . . . . . . . . .mL=. . . . . . . . =dm3
1000 mL

Temperature (T): Kelvin (K) = Celcius ( 0C) + 273 0 K = -273 0C

Mole (n): gas amount is determined with its mole number.

GAS LAWS
BOYLE-MARIOTTE LAW (PRESSURE-VOLUME (P-V) RELATIONSHIP)
At constant temperature, the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to
pressure, under which it is measured.

2
 P1V1 = P 2V2 (n, T constant)

P1V1 = P2V2 = P3V3 =..............................=P nVn = k

EXAMPLE 2:

3
EXAMPLE 3:

The pressure-volume change graph of 0.2 mol X gas at 0 °C, is as above. Accordingly, what are
the values of a and b in the graph?

4
EXAMPLE 5:

CHARLE’S LAW (THE TEMPERATURE-VOLUME (T-V) RELATIONSHIP)

The volume of a given quantity of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature if
the pressure is kept constant.
Practically this can never be achieved, because gases become liquefied before they reach a
temperature of -273.15 0C.

(n, P constant)
Temperature must be in KELVIN
V1 =
V2

5
 V V

They refer to the same point EXAMPLE 6:

EXAMPLE 7:
A sample of CO2 has a volume of 120 mL at 2730C, what would be its volume at standard
temperature? Assume constant pressure.

EXAMPLE 8:

6
GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW (THE TEMPERATURE-PRESSURE (T-P) RELATIONSHIP)

The pressure of a given quantity of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature if
the volume is kept constant.

P
1
=
T1
P2 T2
P P
(n, V constant)

-273 0 T ( 0C) 0 T (K)

EXAMPLE 9:

EXAMPLE 10:

7
AVOGADRO’S LAW (THE MOLE-VOLUME (n-V) RELATIONSHIP )
The volume of any type of gas under constant temperature and pressure is directly
proportional to the number of moles of gas.

(P,T const.) n (P,T sbt)

n1
=V1

n2 V2

EXAMPLE 11:

16 g of SO2 occupy 20 liters. At the same pressure and temperature 60 grams of an unknown
gas occupy 60 liters. What is the molecular weight of the unknown gas? (S: 32 O: 16)

EXAMPLE 12:

DALTON’S LAW (MOL- PRESSURE (n-P) RELATIONSHIP)

8
The pressure of any gas under constant temperature and volume is directly proportional to the
number of moles of gas
(T, V const.)

n1 =
n2 P
1 P
EXAMPLE 13:
m
P2 gram He gas exerts 2 atm pressure in a closed container with a constant volume. The total pressure
inside the container becomes 3 atm when 10m gram XO3 gas is added into the container. If so what is the molar mass
X? (O:16, He:4)

EXAMPLE 14:

IDEAL GAS LAW

For gas ,P
α
n
T
V

PV 22,4
= const. ↔ R: ideal gas constant R= =
lt.atm
0,082 nT 273 mol.K

Ideal gas equation

PV=nRT

P (pressure): atm V (volume): L n (mole number): mole T (temperature): K

9
We have assumed that molecules of a gas do not exert any force, either attractive or repulsive,
on one another, and they are "points" with mass but without volume. A gas that satisfies these
conditions is said to be an ideal gas.

Real gases behave like ideal gases under high temperature and low pressure.
Because intermolecular forces are not effective in these conditions.
Ideal gases deviate from ideality under low temperature and high pressure. Because
intermolecular forces are effective in these conditions.
The gases with smaller molar mass show more ideal gas behavior. Because
intermolecular forces are less effective if the gas has small molar mass.
The gases with low condensation point show more like ideal gas behavior.
EXAMPLE 12:

EXAMPLE 15:

EXAMPLE 16:

EXAMPLE 17:

24,08x1022 CH4 molecules in a constant volume container at 0 °C pressurize 4 atm. What is the
volume of the container in liters? (CH 4=16, NA= 6,02 x 1023)

10
 Victor-Meyer Method PV=nRT
P MA = d
m m
n= PV= RT RT
m
MA MA d=
V

EXAMPLE 18:

EXAMPLE 19:

Gas density depends on pressure and temperature

Density
At constant volume, if temperature is
changed, density of gas does not change.
Temperature change alters the pressure only.

Temperature
Density

At constant pressure, if temperature is

changed, density of gas changes.

Temperature

Density

11
 At constant volume, if some amount of gas added into the
container, density of the gas increases
too. mass

At constant pressure, some amount of another gas is inserted in a container at

the same temperature; Total gas density
• Total gas density increases if molar mass
of added gas is bigger than the one in the
SO2 addition
container.
N2O addition
• Total gas density decreases if molar mass
of added gas is smaller than the one in the He addition

container. Mass
• Total gas density doesn’t change if molar
There is CO2 in the container at constatnt
pressure mass of added gas is the same with
the one in the container.
• Initial gas density decreases for the above
Example 30:conditions.

COMBINED GAS EQUATION

EXAMPLE 1:

4 g of oxygen gas exert 300mmHg pressure in a 400 mL container. If 12 g of oxygen gas

are added into the container and the volume is expanded to 600 mL at the same
temperature, what would be the new pressure?

EXAMPLE 2:

12
EXAMPLE 3:

The density of a gas is 1.43 grams per liter at STP. Calculate its density under a pressure of
740 mmHg at 20 °C.

EXAMPLE 4:

EXAMPLE 5:

a. At constant temperature, what is the ratio of mass of CH 4 to the mass of He? (CH4:16
He:4)

b. At constant temperature, in order to shift the piston to point T, some amount of CH 4 gas
is added from valve A. what is the mole ratio between added CH 4 and initial CH4?

13
 c. At constant temperature, in order to shift the piston to point L, some amount of CH 4 gas
is removed from valve A. What is the mole ratio between removed CH 4 and remained
CH4?

d. At constant temperature, B valve is opened and half of the He gas is removed. Where
will the piston stop?

COMBINED CONTAINERS
MIXING GASES
Gas laws and ideal gas equation can be applied to individual gases and as well as
gas mixtures.

P1 V1 + P2 V2 + P3 V3 + ………Pn Vn = PF VF

EXAMPLE6

What will be the final pressure in the container

after the M valve is opened?

14
EXAMPLE 7
There is CH
4 gas in each container. After the M valve is

opened, what will be the volume of the elastic balloon?

Elastic
balloon

EXAMPLE 8

Empty

What will the final pressure of the system

when M1 and M2 valves are opened and the
gases completely pushed towards the
empty container by the help of the
pistons?

15
EXAMPLE 9:

EXAMPLE 10:

16
EXAMPLE 11

M valve is opened at constant temperature and

the gases are mixed. If so, where will the piston
stop?

Partial pressure
In a closed container, the pressure exerted by individual gases which do not react with each
other is called as partial pressure. Each gas exert pressure directly proportional to its mol
number.
Dalton's law of partial pressures states that the sum of the individual pressures of the
components of a gas mixture is equal to the total pressure of the mixture:

Closed container
Total pressure P : P +P
T 1 2

Total mol number n=n +n

T 1 2

17
 The ratio of the number of moles of a gas to the total number of moles present in the
mixture is called the mole fraction

V, T constant !
!
! (shown by X) 𝑋= !
!
!

X1 + X 2 + X 3 + … = 1

EXAMPLE 12

EXAMPLE 13

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

Kinetic theory of gases examines the behavior of gases.
• Gases have no fixed shape or volume. The volume of a gas is always the same as the
volume of its container. Because gases consist of widely separated molecules in rapid
motion. They always spread out to fill whatever space they have available.
• The continuous motion of a gas shows that gas molecules have a great deal of energy.
• The energy of molecules can be changed in collisions. Therefore the speed as well as
the direction of a molecule change continually. We may speak of an average speed.
Since the molecules have an average speed they must have an average kinetic
energy.
• When the temperature of a gas is increased, the number of gas molecules that move
at the higher speeds increases. Because increasing the temperature of the gas
increases the average kinetic energy of the gas.

18
The kinetic theory of gases has the following assumptions :
1. Gases are composed of molecules or atoms which have negligible volume in comparison
to the total volume of the gas. In other words the gas molecules can be considered to be
points with mass but with negligible volume
2. Gas molecules are in constant, rapid, straight line motion.
3. Molecules collide with each other and with the container walls but the collisions are
totally elastic so that no kinetic energy is lost.
4. The average kinetic energy of the molecules of all gases is the same at a given
temperature, and is directly proportional to the absolute (Kelvin) temperature. KE a T 5.
The attractive or repulsive forces between molecules are negligible.

A gas which obeys the rules of kinetic theory is called an ideal gas.
Ø Kinetic energy of 1 gas molecule;
m: mass of 1 gas molecule k: Boltzman constant v: velocity of gas molecule T:
absolute temperature
Ek: average kinetic energy of the gas molecule

Ø Kinetic energy of 1 mol of gas molecule;

1 3
m x NA = MA MA.ⱱ 2 = R T k x NA = R
2 2
NOTE: ⱱ of gas depends
on absolute T and MA of
that gas but not the type of
gas.

GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION (1832)

19
The spread of a gas molecule throughout a space or throughout a second gas by

virtue of their kinetic energies is called the diffusion of the gas.

figure a: diffusion

Comparison of velocities of two different gases according to Graham’s

diffusion Law;

Suppose that the gases 1 and 2 are introduced separately in identical containers at the same
temperature and pressure.

Ø at the same temperature; at different temperatures;

Ø d= M/V ; sod is also indirectly proportional to velocity

of the gas. If velocity of gas is
high,the gas has smaller density.

v1
= M 2 = d 2 d: density of gas
v2 M 1 d 1

Ø Time, t, is indirectly proportional to the velocity of the gas. If velocity of the gas is
high, gas diffuse more quickly, so t becomes low.

t: diffusion time
v1 = M 2 = d 2 =t 2
v2 M 1 d 1
t
1

Birim zamanda birim yüzeye çarpma sayısı=

20
BZBYÇS=
Ø The gases having lower molar masses move faster than the ones having bigger molar
masses.

Ex: 16:

EXAMPLE 17

When the gases are released at the same time, they meet at the middle of the container. If
so, what is the temperature of the O2 gas?

EXAMPLE 18

At constant temperature and volume, He gas diffuses from the container at 6 sec. another
gas X, having the same number, diffuses at 24 sec. ıf so, what is the molar mass of gas X?
(He: 4 g/mol)

EXAMPLE 19

At constant temperature, M valve is opened for a short period of time and then closed. What
will be the relation between mol of the gases left inside the container? (N:14, O:16,ü C:12,
H:1)

21
REAL GASES
Real gases have molecular interactions and their own volume, otherwise they could not be
able to liquefy when compressed.

DEVIATIONS FROM IDEALITY

The forces between molecules and the volume of gas molecules cause gases to deviate from
the ideal gas behavior.

..Real gases have lower pressure and higher volume than ideal gases at the same
conditions due to attraction forces.

Empty

real gas ideal

gas

Hg Hg

Figure c: comparison of pressures of 1 mol real gas and 1 mol ideal gas

If T is low and P is high, the attraction force between gas molecules increases.
Because at low temperature and high pressure molecules come closer. Therefore
gas deviates from ideality. A way to understand whether a gas behaves ideally is to
look at the ratio of PV/RT for one mole of gas, which is exactly 1 for an ideal gas.

Graph d: Variation of PV / RT ratio of

different gases with
pressure

Ggas pressureraph c: Variation of the methane (CH to the PV / RT ratio at 4)

different temperatures and deviation

from the calculated value in ideal gas
equation

22
 The more polar the molecules of a gas are, the greater the attractive forces between
them and the more the gas will deviate from ideal gas behavior. Because of the
strong attractive forces, gases with polar molecules have less pressure than
nonpolar ones at the same temperature in identical flasks.

§ For instance SO2 (polar) gas will deviate more from ideality and have lower
pressure than CO2 (non-polar) gas at low temperatures.

The gases having bigger molar mass have greater attractive forces between
molecules. And the gas will deviate more from ideal gas behavior than the one
which has smaller molar mass at the same temperature in identical flasks.

§ For instance CO2 (MA: 44 g/mol) will deviate more from ideality and have lower
pressure than He (MA: 4 g/mol) gas at lower temperatures.

EX 20: Underline the wrong part(s) and correct the given statements.
a. Real gases behave more ideally at low temperature and high pressure values.
b. The gas with smaller molar mass has stronger molecular attractions than the
gas with bigger molar mass.
c. At the same temperature, diffusion rate of gases is directly proportional to
square root of their molar masses.
d. Real gases have bigger pressure than ideal gases at the same conditions.
e. NH3 gas behaves more ideally than CO2 gas at low temperatures.
f. At the same temperature, effusion time of gases is directly proportional to
velocity of gases.

PHASE DIAGRAMS
Ø Phase diagram is a graph showing the temperature and pressure conditions of
a pure substance in the solid, liquid and gas phases alone or in an equilibrium
state.
23
 Ø In the diagram, the line separating the phases is called phase boundaries.
Ø A phase diagram is divided into regions that indicate which phase is more
stable under certain conditions.
Ø The triple point, the melting-boiling point and the critical point are shown on
the phase diagram.

Phase diagrams of
2OHand CO
2 are important.

Phase diagram of2OH 1. O-A curve is the melting or freezing

curve of the water. The solid-liquid
equilibrium occurs. We can see that the
melting point decreases as the pressure
increases over this curve. This is also seen
for antimony and bismuth elements.

2. The O-B curve represents the solid-

vapor equilibrium of water. At any point of
this curve, when the temperature is
increased sublimation occurs, and when the
temperature is lowered, deposition occurs
for water.

3. The O-C curve represents the curve

of the liquid-vapor equilibrium. The
temperature corresponding to any pressure
value on this curve indicates the boiling
temperature of the water.

4. The triple point shows the temperature and pressure values that the three phases are in
equilibrium. The triple point for water is 0.01 C and 0.06 atm.

5. At pressures above 1 atm, the boiling point of the water will increase and the melting
point will decrease.

6. The critical temperature is the highest temperature at which a gas liquefies by applying
pressure. It is represented by Tc, and it is a distinctive property. At this point, liquid and gas
cannot be indistinguishable. If the temperature is below Tc, gas can be liquefied; if it is above
Tc, the gas cannot be liquefied by any pressure.

7. The critical pressure, Pc, is the pressure required to bring about liquefaction at this
critical temperature.

Phase diagram of CO2

24
1. In the phase diagram of CO2, the only difference is the positive slope of the solid-liquid
curve. At this curve if pressure increases, melting point increases too. Other than water,
antimony and bismuth, all substances have a curve like this.
2 . The triple point of CO2 is 5.2 atm and -57 C. Tc is 31 C and Pc is 73 atm.

3 . It is impossible to melt solid CO 2, dry ice, at 1 atm. However it sublimes above -78
C temperatures.

EX 25:

Phase diagram of pure water is given at the graph. If

Pressure
so, which of the following is correct?

I. At P2, the boiling temperature of water is t 2.

II. At P1 and t1, the substance is in the gas form.
III. At P1, if the temperature is raised from t0 to t2
substance sublimes.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND CONDENSATION OF REAL GASES

25
 He -268.6

Real Gases can be more easily liquefied due to having strong molecular interactions. When
pressure increases and temperature decreases gas molecules come closer and can be
liquefied.

The stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the boiling point/condensation
point and the more deviation from ideality. The weaker the intermolecular forces, the
lower the boiling point/condensation point and the less deviation from ideal gas
behavior.

Ø
Polar molecules have higher boiling/condensation points than nonpolar molecules. (due
to dipole-dipole interactions)
Ø
The nonpolar molecules having bigger molar mass have higher boiling/condensation
points than the ones having smaller molar mass. (due to stronger London forces)
EX 21

Which of the following gases is expected to have a higher condensation point? (He:4, Ar:40,
C:12, H:1, O:16, S:32)

A) He B) Ar C) CH 4 D) O2 E) SO2

26
Critical temperature: the highest temperature in which a gas can be liquefied by
compression.
Critical pressure: the pressure that must be applied to a gas to liquefy it in its
critical temperature.
If a gas is above its Tc, it cannot be liquefied under any pressure.

Ideal gases which have weak molecular interactions have low Tc values.

Substance Tc (°C) Tc (K) Pc (atm)

-239.7

-146.8

-118.2

-81.9

31

51.6

132.4

158

374.3

Difference between Vapor and Gas

The state of a fluid substance which can be found as solid or liquid as well below its
Tc is called as “vapor”. Vapor can be liquefied under pressure without changing the

27
 temperature. For instance below its Tc, 374.3 °C, water should be called as vapor.

The state of a fluid which is found above its Tc is called as “gas”. Gas can be liquefied
by decreasing the temperature. For instance, above its Tc, 374.3 °C, water should be
called as gas.

If a gas substance’s Tc is above the room temperature, 25 °C, the gas can be liquefied
by compression. If Tc is below 25 °C, the gas cannot be liquefied by compression.

EX 22
substance He NH3 N2 O2 H2O
Tc (°C) -267.8 132.4 -146.8 -118.2 374.3

Which of the followings is wrong?

A) At 100 °C, NH3 and H2O are vapor, He, N2 and O2 are gas
B) He gas can be liquefied by increasing pressure at -270 °C
C) O2 gas can be liquefied by increasing pressure at -110 °C
D) NH3 gas cannot be liquefied by any pressure above 132.4 °C
E) Below 374.3 °C, liquid water and water vapor can be found together

JOULE-THOMSON EFFECT
Because molecules interact with each other, real gases deviate from ideal gas behavior. The
pushing forces between molecules cause expansion, and the pulling forces cause
compression. One of the most important consequences of intermolecular interactions is the
liquefaction of real gases.

In a thermally insulated system, expansion occurs when a gas or liquid is forced to pass
through the valve. Energy is required to overcome the attraction forces between the rapidly
expanding gas molecules. Since this energy cannot be taken from the outside, it is derived
from the specific heat of the molecules. So that the energy is lost, the kinetic energy is
reduced, the temperatures of the gas particles decrease and the gas cools. The Joule-
Thomson effect is called the change in the expansion temperatures of gas molecules.
The gases with smaller molar mass like H 2, He, Ne, do not cool when they expand. However,
N2 and O2 like gases cool down when they expand due to having strong molecular
interactions.
Joule Thomson effect explain the working principles of refrigerator, air conditioner and
similar cooling systems. Also, cooling of the exhaust valve (lastik subabı) of the tire while
escaping air, warming of the gas trapped in the pump are examples to Joule-Thomson
effect.

28
COOLING FLUIDS (soğutucu akışkanlar)
Ø In order for a gas to be used as a cooling gas, it has to be liquefied by compression
and to be vaporized by expansion when pressure is relived.
Ø At room temperature, NH3 and CCl2F2 (Freon-12) like substances which have lower
boiling point and higher Tc can be used as cooling fluids.
Ø Do not have to react with metals.
Ø Easy to obtain, less harmful to environment.
EX 23
Substance Tc °C Bp °C
X -210 -120
Y -260 -150
Z -180 -125
T 120 125
R 140 -15

Which of the following gases can be best used as cooling fluid in refrigerators?
A) X B) T C) Z D) T E) R

COLLECTING GASES OVER WATER

A sample of gas that does not react with water can be collected over water. A sample of gas
that react with water can be collected over mercury.

Po

Water
Ptotal= Po Ptotal =Pgas + Pwater
vapor and
gas
mixture Pgas = Po – Pwater

gas H2O

Water vapor pressure depends on only temperature. It is independent from quantity of

water and volume of the tube. T↑ , Pwater ↑

29
EX 24

In a container, there is some CH4 gas, and a little amount of liquid water at 26 °C. ıf the
total pressure is 325 mmHg and the water vapor pressure is 25 mmHg at this
temperature, what will be the final pressure in the container when the volume is halved?

EX 25

30
31