submucosal plexus (part of the enteric

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM plexus), blood vessels, and small glands

– Muscularis
- Takes care of ingestion, break down the • Consists of an inner layer of circular
food both Mechanical and Chemical, Absorb smooth muscle and an outer
nutrients, and Release of waste. layer of longitudinal smooth muscle
• The myenteric plexus is between the two
Functions of the Digestive System muscle layers
 Ingestion – taking food and – Serosa or adventitia
water into the mouth • Forms the outermost layer of the digestive
 Break down the food – mechanical tract
digestion: chewing, mixing, and • Enteric Nervous System
churning food – Consists of nerve plexuses within the wall
–Chemical digestion: digestive of the digestive tract
enzymes breakdown food – Serves the digestive tract and regulates
 Absorb nutrients – Movement of digestive activity. It is composed of two
nutrients from the GI tract to the blood major intrinsic nerve plexuses:
or lymph • Submucosal nerve plexus: regulates
 Release of waste – Elimination of glands and
indigestible solid wastes smooth muscle in the mucosa
Histology of the Digestive Tract • Myenteric nerve plexus: major nerve
 Two groups of organs within the supply that
digestive system controls GI tract mobility
– The digestive tract or – Three major types of enteric neurons
gastrointestinal (GI) tract is a 1. Sensory neurons detect changes in the
muscular tube that winds through the chemical composition of the digestive tract
body and is responsible for the 2. Motor neurons stimulate or inhibit smooth
digestion and absorption of food muscle contraction and glandular secretion
3. Interneurons connect sensory to motor
• Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus,
neurons
stomach, small intestine, large
– Nervous regulation involves local reflexes
intestine, and anus
in the ENS and CNS reflexes
– The accessory digestive organs aid
in the breakdown of foodstuffs
Peritoneum
• Teeth, tongue, gallbladder, salivary
• The peritoneum is a serous membrane that
glands, liver, and pancreas
lines the abdominopelvic cavity and organs
• Mesenteries are peritoneum that extend
Histology of the Digestive Tract
from the body wall to many of the
 Tunics
abdominopelvic organs
– Three major functions: • Retroperitoneal organs are located behind
o Secretion of mucus the peritoneum
o Absorption of end products
of digestion Oral Cavity
o Protection against • Oral cavity or mouth
infectious disease – Is bounded by lips, cheeks, palate, and
– Mucus secretions: tongue
o Protect digestive organs – Has the oral orifice as its anterior opening
from digesting themselves – Is continuous with the oropharynx
o Ease food along the tract posteriorly
– Stomach and small intestine • Divided into two regions
mucosa contain: – Vestibule
o Enzyme-secreting cells • Space between the lips or cheeks and the
o Hormone-secreting cells alveolar processes, which contain the teeth
(making them endocrine – Oral Cavity Proper
and digestive organs) • Lies medial to the alveolar processes
• To withstand abrasions:
The digestive tract is composed of four – The mouth is lined with stratified
tunics: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, squamous epithelium
and serosa or adventitia.
– Mucosa • Lips and Cheeks – Involved in facial
• Innermost layer that lines the lumen of the expression, mastication, and speech
alimentary canal • Palate – Forms the roof of the mouth.
• Consists of a mucous epithelium, a lamina Consists of hard and soft areas
propria, and a muscularis mucosae • Hard palate: assists the tongue in chewing
• Soft palate: mobile fold formed mostly of
– Submucosa skeletal muscle. Projecting from the soft palate
• Connective tissue layer containing the
 is the uvula salivary glands
– Closes off the nasopharynx during • Serous: enzymes, ions, and mucin
swallowing
• The mouth contains accessory glands • Mucous: produce mucous
(salivary glands) and accessory organs (teeth – 97-99.5% water and slightly acidic solution
and tongue) which begin the digestive containing
process • Electrolytes
• Tongue
– Occupies the floor of the mouth and fills • Digestive enzyme: salivary amylase
the oral cavity when mouth is closed • Proteins: mucin, lysozyme, defensins, and IgA
– Functions include: • Metabolic wastes: urea and uric acid
• Gripping and repositioning food during
chewing Swallowing
• Mixing food with saliva and forming the • During the voluntary phase of swallowing, a
bolus bolus of food is moved by the tongue from the
• Initiation of swallowing, and speech oral cavity to the pharynx
– Frenulum secures the tongue to the floor • The pharyngeal phase is a reflex caused by the
of the mouth stimulation of stretch receptors in the pharynx
• Teeth
– Tear and grind food – The soft palate closes the nasopharynx, and
• Born with 20 deciduous teeth the epiglottis, vestibular folds, and vocal folds
– Erupt between about 6 months and 24 close the opening into the larynx
months of age – Pharyngeal muscles move the bolus to the
• Deciduous teeth are replaced by 32 esophagus
permanent teeth
• The esophageal phase is a reflex initiated by
– Replacement starts at about 5 years and the stimulation of stretch receptors in the
the process is complete by about 11 years esophagus. A wave of contraction
– The types of teeth are
(peristalsis) moves the food to the stomach
• Incisors
• Canines Peristalsis
• Premolars 1. A wave of circular smooth muscle relaxation
• Molars moves ahead of the bolus of goof, allowing
the digestive tract to expand.
• A tooth consists of a crown, a neck, and a
2. A wave of contraction of the circular smooth
root
muscles behind the bolus of food propels it
– Crown
through the digestive tract.
• Exposed part of the tooth above the
gingiva • Temporary “storage tank” where chemical
• Dentin covered by enamel breakdown of proteins begins and food is
– Enamel: acellular material composed of converted from a bolus to chyme
calcium salts and hydroxyapatite crystals; • The openings of the stomach are the
the hardest substance in the body
– Gastroesophageal opening to the esophagus
– Root
• Portion of the tooth embedded in the – Pyloric orifice to the duodenum
jawbone • The major regions are the
• Composed of dentin
– Cardiac part
– Within the dentin of the root is the pulp
cavity, which is filled with pulp, blood – Fundus
vessels, and nerves – Body
– Periodontal ligaments hold the teeth in
– Pyloric part which is continuous with the
the alveoli
duodenum through the pyloric sphincter
• Salivary Glands • The lateral sides of the stomach consist of
– Produce and secrete saliva that: greater and lesser curvatures
• Cleanses the mouth • The wall of the stomach consists of
• Moistens and dissolves food chemicals
– External serosa
• Aids in bolus formation
• Contains enzymes that break down starch – Muscle layer (longitudinal, circular, and oblique)
– Salivary glands produce serous and – Submucosa
mucous secretions
– Simple columnar epithelium
– The three pairs of large salivary glands
are the parotid, submandibular, and • Surface mucous cells: produce an alkaline
sublingual mucous with bicarbonate, which coats and
protects the stomach lining
• Saliva
• An empty stomach has a volume of 50 mL but
– Produce ~1 liter of saliva/day
can hold about a gallon of food
– Secreted from serous and mucous cells of
• When empty one can see the folds called
rugae(submucosa and mucosa) increase surface area about 600-fold
Secretions of the Stomach – Circular folds
• Chyme is ingested food mixed with gastric • Deep folds of the mucosa and submucosa
juice – Villi
• Gastric juice • Fingerlike extensions of the mucosa
– Mucus protects the stomach lining – Microvilli
– Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin, which • Tiny projections of absorptive mucosal cells’
digests proteins plasma
– Hydrochloric acid promotes pepsin activity and membranes. This forms a brush border
kills microorganisms
• The epithelium of the mucosa is simple
– Intrinsic factor is necessary for vitamin B12 columnar epithelium. Between the villi the
absorption mucosa contains pits called intestinal glands
– Gastrin and histamine regulate stomach • The epithelium of the mucosa is made up of:
secretions
– Absorptive cells
Regulation of Stomach Secretion
• Produce digestive enzymes
• There are three phases of stomach secretion
– Goblet cells
– Cephalic phase
• Produce a protective mucus
• Initiated by the sight, smell, taste, or thought of
food – Granular cells (Paneth cells)
• Nerve impulses from the medulla stimulate • Protect the intestinal epithelium form bacteria
hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, gastrin, and – Endocrine cells
histamine secretion. • Produce regulatory hormones
– Gastric phase • Peyer’s patches (aggregated lymphoid follicles)
• Initiated by distension of the stomach, which are found in the submucosa
stimulates gastrin secretion and activates CNS
and local reflexes that promote secretion
Movement of the Small Intestine
– Gastrointestinal phase
• Segmental contractions mix intestinal
• Acidic chyme, which enters the duodenum and
stimulates neuronal reflexes and the secretion of contents
hormones (secretin, cholecystokinin) that inhibit • Peristaltic contractions move materials
gastric secretions distally
Movements of the Stomach • Distension of the intestinal wall, local
• Waves mix the stomach contents with reflexes, and the parasympathetic
stomach secretions to form chyme nervous system stimulates contractions
• Peristaltic waves move the chyme into • Distension of the cecum initiates a
the duodenum reflex that stimulates contraction of the
– Hunger contractions ileocecal sphincter
– Vomiting Anatomy and Histology of the Liver
• Reverse peristalsis • The liver has four external lobes: right, left,
Small Intestine caudate, and quadrate
• The body’s major digestive organ • Internally, the liver is divided into eight
• Digestion is completed and absorption occurs segments
• Runs from pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal • Liver segments are divided into lobules
valve – Hexagonal-shaped liver lobules are the
• Has three subdivisions: structural and functional units of the liver
– Duodenum - ~ 10” long. The bile and – Composed of hepatocyte (liver cell) plates
pancreatic radiating outward from a central vein
ducts empty here – Portal triads are found at each of the six
– Jejunum - ~ 8’ long corners of each liver lobule
– Ileum - ~ 12’ long
Anatomy and Histology of the Small • Portal triads consist of
Intestines – Hepatic duct: conduct bile toward the
• Structural modifications of the small intestine duodenum
wall – Hepatic artery: supplies oxygen-rich blood to
the liver – The pancreatic duct joins the hepatopancreatic
– Hepatic portal vein: carries venous blood with ampulla. The
nutrients from digestive viscera accessory pancreatic duct empties into the
• The hepatic cords are composed of columns of duodenum at the minor duodenal papilla.
hepatocytes separated by the bile canaliculi • The pancreas also has an endocrine function.
• Sinusoids are enlarged spaces filled with blood The islets of Langerhans release of insulin and
and lined with endothelium and hepatic glucagon
phagocytic cells
– Kupffer cells: hepatic macrophages found in Pancreatic Secretions
liver sinusoids • The aqueous component of pancreatic juice is
produced by the small pancreatic ducts and
Functions of the Liver contains bicarbonate ions
• Produces bile, which contains bile salts – Water solution of enzymes and electrolytes
(primarily HCO3–)
that emulsify fats
• Neutralizes acidic chyme
• Stores and processes nutrients,
• Provides optimal environment for pancreatic
produces new molecules, and detoxifies enzymes
molecules • The enzymatic component of pancreatic juice is
• Hepatic phagocytic cells phagocytize red produced by the acini and contains enzymes that
blood cells, bacteria, and other debris digest carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins

• Produces blood components – Enzymes are released in inactive form and

activated in the duodenum
Gallbladder and Bile
Regulation of Bile Secretion and Release
• Gallbladder
• Secretin stimulates the release of the aqueous
– A small sac on the inferior surface of the liver component, which neutralizes acidic chyme
– Stores and concentrates bile • Cholecystokinin stimulates the secretion of the
• Bile enzymatic component and relaxation of the
– A yellow-green, alkaline solution containing sphincters of the pancreatic duct and
bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, neutral fats, hepatopancreatic ampulla
phospholipids, and electrolytes • Parasympathetic stimulation increases and
– Bile salts are cholesterol derivatives that: • sympathetic stimulation decreases secretion of
Emulsify fat enzymes

• Facilitate fat and cholesterol absorption Anatomy and Histology of the Large Intestine

• Helps make cholesterol soluble • Extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus

– Enterohepatic circulation recycles bile salts • Absorbs water and eliminate the waste via feces
therefore they are never voided in the feces • Is subdivided into the cecum, appendix, colon,
– The chief bile pigment is bilirubin, a waste rectum, and anal canal
product of heme. – The cecum forms a blind sac at the junction of
• Bilirubin is metabolized by bacteria in the small the small and large intestines.
intestines and urobilogen is produced, which – The vermiform appendix is a blind tube off the
gives feces its dark color cecum.
– The colon has distinct regions: ascending
Anatomy and Histology of the Pancreas colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and
sigmoid colon
• Location
– The sigmoid colon joins the rectum
– Lies deep to the greater curvature of the
stomach – The anal canal, the last segment of the large
intestine, opens to the exterior at the anus
– The head is encircled by the duodenum and
the tail sits against the spleen • The anal canal contains two sphincters to allow
the movement of feces
• Exocrine function
• Three unique features
– Secretes pancreatic juice which breaks down
all categories of foodstuff – Teniae coli: three bands of longitudinal

– The pancreas is divided into lobules that smooth muscle in its muscularis
contain acini – Haustra: pocketlike sacs caused by the
• Clusters of secretory cells that contain tone of the teniae coli
zymogen granules with digestive enzymes – Epiploic appendages : fat-filled pouches
• Connect to a duct system that eventually forms of visceral peritoneum
the pancreatic duct
• The mucosal lining of the large intestine
is simple columnar epithelium with – Small intestine is the sole source of lipid
mucus-producing crypts digestion by lipases
Secretions of the Large Intestine – Enter lacteals and are transported to systemic
• Mucus protects the intestinal lining circulation via lymph
• The bacterial flora of the large intestine consist • Nucleic acids
of: – Broken down by pancreatic nucleases in the
– Bacteria surviving the small intestine that enter small intestine
the cecum Common Problems with Elimination
– Those entering via the anus • Diarrhea and constipation are some of the most
• These bacteria: common health concerns that affect digestion.
Constipation is a condition where the feces are
– Colonize the colon hardened because of excess water removal in
– Ferment indigestible carbohydrates the colon. In contrast, if enough water is not
– Release irritating acids and gases (flatus) removed from the feces, it results in

– Synthesize B complex vitamins and vitamin K diarrhea. Many bacteria, including the ones that
cause cholera, affect the proteins involved in
– Constitute about 30% of the dry weight of the water reabsorption in the colon and result in
feces excessive diarrhea.
Movement in the Large Intestine Emesis
• Haustra mix the contents and moves them • Emesis, or vomiting, is elimination of
slowly toward the anus
food by forceful expulsion through the
• Mass movements are strong peristaltic
mouth. It is often in response to an irritant
contractions that occur three or four times a day
that affects the digestive tract, including
• Defecation is the elimination of feces
but not limited to viruses, bacteria,
– Distension of rectal walls caused by feces:
emotions, sights, and food poisoning. This
• Stimulates contraction of the rectal walls forceful expulsion of the food is due to the strong
• Relaxes the internal anal sphincter contractions produced by the
– Reflex activity moves feces through the stomach muscles. The process of emesis
internal anal sphincter is regulated by the medulla.
– Voluntary activity regulates movement through
the external anal sphincter EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Digestion, Absorption, and Transport
• The excretory system removes metabolic
• Digestion (mechanical and chemical) is
wastes from the body.
the breakdown of organic molecules into
• The major organs of excretion are the
their component parts
kidneys, a pair of bean-shaped organs
– Chemical digestion is the breaking of
located below the liver. The kidneys filter
covalent chemical bonds in organic
blood and regulate water balance in the body
molecules by digestive enzymes
• There are several other organs that are
• Absorption is the uptake of digestive tract
also involved in excretion, including:
contents
• the skin, which removes excess water and
• Transport is the distribution of nutrients
salt via sweat,
throughout the body
• the lungs, which exhale carbon dioxide,
Chemical Digestion
and
• Carbohydrate digestion
• the liver, which breaks down toxic
– Begins in mouth with salivary amylase
digesting starches substances in the blood and convert
– Pancreatic amylase finishes the process in the nitrogenous waste into urea
small intestine. Simple sugars are also broken Functions of the Urinary System
down here
• The kidneys produce urine
• Protein digestion
• The ureters transport urine to the urinary
– Broken down into amino acids
bladder
– Begins in the stomach with pepsin
• The urinary bladder stores urine
– Trypsin and chymotrypsin are also important
• The urethra transports urine to the outside
protein digesting enzymes
of the body
• Lipid digestion
• The following functions are performed by
the kidneys: • Every nephron has two capillary beds
1. Excretion (eliminates waste) – Glomerulus
2. Regulate blood volume and pressure – Peritubular capillaries
3. Regulation of the concentration of solutes in • Each glomerulus is:
the blood (ion concentration) – Fed by an afferent arteriole
4. Regulation of extracellular fluid pH – Drained by an efferent arteriole
5. Regulation of red blood cell synthesis • Blood pressure in the glomerulus is high
6. Vitamin D production because:
Kidney Anatomy and Histology – Arterioles are high-resistance vessels
• Location and External Anatomy of the – Afferent arterioles have larger diameters than
Kidneys efferent arterioles
– Lie behind the peritoneum on the posterior • Fluids and solutes are forced out of the blood
abdominal wall on each side of the vertebral throughout the entire length of the
glomerulus
column
Arteries and Veins of the Kidneys
– Surrounded by a renal capsule and fat and
• The renal artery enters the kidney and
is held in place by the renal fascia branches many times, forming afferent
– The hilum, on the medial side of each arterioles, which supply the glomeruli
kidney, • Efferent arterioles from the glomeruli supply
is where blood vessels and nerves enter and the peritubular capillaries and vasa recta
exit the kidney • The peritubular capillaries and vasa recta join
Internal Anatomy and Histology of small veins that converge to form the renal
vein, which exits the kidney
the Kidneys
• The juxtaglomerular apparatus consists of the
• The two layers of the kidney are the granular cells of the afferent arteriole and
cortex and the medulla the macula densa (part of the distal
– The renal columns extend into the medulla convoluted tubule)

between the renal pyramids Urine Production

– The tips of the renal pyramids project to the • The kidneys filter the body’s entire plasma
volume 60 times each day
minor calyces
• The filtrate:
• The minor calyces open into the major
– Contains all plasma components except
calyces, which open into the renal pelvis protein
• The renal pelvis leads to the ureter – Loses water, nutrients, and essential ions to
• The functional unit of the kidney is the become urine
nephron • The urine contains metabolic wastes and
• The parts of a nephron are the renal unneeded substances
corpuscle, the proximal convoluted tubule, • Urine is produced by the processes of
the loop of Henle, and the distal
convoluted tubule. – Filtration

– The renal corpuscle is Bowman’s capsule – Tubular reabsorption

and the glomerulus. – Tubular secretion
– Fluid leaves the blood in the glomerulus and • Filtration
enters Bowman’s capsule – The glomerular filtration rate is the amount
– The nephron empties through the distal of filtrate produce per minute
convoluted tubule into a collecting duct – The filtrate is plasma minus blood cells,
– The collecting ducts empty into papillary platelets, and blood proteins
ducts, which empty into minor calyces • Most (99%) of the filtrate is reabsorbed
• Bowman’s capsule has an outer parietal – Filtration pressure is responsible for filtrate
layer and an inner visceral layer consisting formation.
of podocytes
• Glomerular capillary pressure minus
• The filtration membrane consists of capsule pressure minus blood colloid
– Endothelium of glomerular capillaries (with osmotic pressure
fenestrae) • Changes are primarily caused by changes
– Basement membrane in glomerular capillary pressure
– Podocytes (with filtration slits) • Regulation of Glomerular Filtration Rate
Capillary Beds of the Nephron – Autoregulation dampens systemic blood
pressure changes by altering afferent and the thin segments of the loop of Henle
arteriole diameter – The vasa recta uses a countercurrent
• Under normal conditions, renal mechanism that removes reabsorbed water
autoregulation maintains a nearly constant and solutes without disturbing the medullary
glomerular filtration rate concentration gradient
• Autoregulation entails two types of control Hormonal Regulation of Urine
– Myogenic: responds to changes in Concentration and Volume
pressure in the renal blood vessels • Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
– Flow-dependent tubuloglomerular – Secreted by the posterior pituitary
feedback
– Inhibits diuresis
– Sympathetic stimulation decreases renal
blood flow and afferent arteriole diameter • This equalizes the osmolality of the filtrate
and the interstitial fluid
• Tubular Reabsorption
– Increases water permeability in the distal
– There is a medullary concentration convoluted tubules and collecting ducts by
gradient from the cortex (300 mOsm/kg) to stimulating the insertion of aquaporin-2
the tip of the renal pyramids (1200 molecules into apical membranes
mOsm/kg)
– In the presence of ADH, 99% of the water
– A transepithelial process whereby most in filtrate is reabsorbed
tubule contents are returned to the blood
• ADH regulates blood osmolality by altering
– Transported substances move through water
three membranes
reabsorption
• Luminal and basolateral membranes of
tubule cells – An increase in blood osmolality or a
significant decrease in blood
• Endothelium of peritubular capillaries
pressure stimulates increased ADH secretion
– Only Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and some Na+ are
reabsorbed via paracellular pathways • Increases water reabsorption and as a
result
– Filtrate is reabsorbed by diffusion,
facilitated diffusion, active transport, – Blood osmolality decreases
symport, and antiport from the nephron and – Blood volume and blood pressure increase
collecting ducts into the peritubular – Urine concentration increases
capillaries and vasa recta
– Urine volume decreases
• The proximal convoluted tubule reabsorbs
65% of filtrate water and NaCl (solutes) – A decrease in blood osmolality or a
significant increase in blood
• The descending limb of the loop of Henle
reabsorbs 15% of filtrate water pressure stimulates decreased ADH
secretion
• The ascending limb of the loop of Henle
reabsorbs 25% of filtrate NaCl • Decreases water reabsorption and as a
result
• The distal convoluted tubules and
collecting ducts reabsorb up to 19% of – Blood osmolality increases
filtrate water and 9%-10% of filtrate water – Blood volume and blood pressure
respectively decrease
– Waste products and toxic substances are – Urine concentration decreases
concentrated in the urine – Urine volume increases
• Tubular Secretion
– Substances are secreted in the proximal • Renin—Angiotensin—Aldosterone
or distal convoluted tubules and the
collecting ducts – Renin, produced by the kidneys, causes
the conversion of angiotensinogen to
– Hydrogen ions, K+, and some substances angiotensin I
not produced in the body are secreted by
antiport mechanisms – Angiotensin-converting enzyme converts
• Maintaining the Medullary Concentration angiotensin I into angiotensin II, which
Gradient stimulates aldosterone secretion from the
adrenal cortex
– Necessary for the production of
concentrated urine – Aldosterone affects Na+ and Cl -
– The addition of solutes increases the transport in the nephron and collecting ducts
medullary interstitial fluid concentration. by stimulating an increase in transport
proteins
• The ascending limb of the loop of Henle
adds NaCl, but not water – Aldosterone regulates the body’s water
content by regulating the body’s Na+ content
• Urea cycles between the collecting ducts
(assuming that ADH maintains blood inhibit
osmolality) the micturition reflex
• A decrease in blood pressure results in – Voluntary relaxation of the external urethral
increased renin secretion, aldosterone
secretion, Na+ reabsorption, blood volume, sphincter permits urination and contraction
and blood pressure prevents it
• An increase in blood pressure results in
decreased renin secretion, aldosterone
secretion, Na+ reabsorption, blood volume, ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
and blood pressure
• The body’s second great controlling system
which influences metabolic activities of cells
• Atrial Natriuretic Hormone by means of hormones, which are produced
– Produced by the heart when blood by endocrine glands
pressure increases – Endocrine glands: pituitary, thyroid,
– Inhibits Na+ reabsorption in the kidneys, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, and thymus
resulting in increased urine volume and – The pancreas and gonads produce both
decreased blood volume and blood hormones and exocrine products
pressure
– The hypothalamus has both neural
– Inhibits ADH secretion and dilates arteries functions and releases hormones
and veins
– Other tissues and organs that produce
hormones: adipose cells, pockets of cells in
Urine Movement the walls of the small intestine, stomach,
kidneys, and heart
• Anatomy and Histology of the Ureters and
Urinary Bladder Functions of Endocrine System
– The walls of the ureter and urinary 1. Metabolism and tissue maturation
bladder consist of 2. Ion regulation
• Epithelium 3. Water Balance
– Transitional epithelium permits changes in 4. Immune system regulation
size
5. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
• Lamina propria
6. Control of blood glucose and other
• Muscular coat
nutrients
– Contraction of the smooth muscle moves
7. Control of reproductive function
urine
8. Uterine contractions and milk release
• Fibrous adventitia
• Both the endocrine system and the nervous
• Anatomy and Histology of the Urethra
system regulate the activities of structures in
– The urethra is lined with transitional and the body, but they do so in different ways
stratified squamous epithelium
1. The endocrine system is
• Males have an internal urethral sphincter amplitudemodulated (a), whereas the
of smooth muscle that prevents retrograde nervous system is frequencymodulated (b)
ejaculation of semen
2. The response of target tissues to
• An external urethral sphincter of skeletal hormones is usually slower and of longer
muscle allows voluntary control of urination duration than that of neurons
Hormones
• Urine Flow Through the Nephron and • Chemical substances secreted by cells into
Ureters the interstitial fluid and diffuse into the blood
– A pressure gradient causes urine to flow • Act on specific tissues, called target tissues
from Bowman’s capsule to the ureters • Have lag times ranging from seconds to
hours
– Peristalsis moves urine through the
ureters • Tend to have prolonged effects
• Are chemically categorized as belonging to
the Protein group:
• Micturition Reflex
• Proteins, glycoproteins, polypeptides, and
– Stretch of the urinary bladder stimulates a
amino acid
reflex that causes the urinary bladder to
derivatives
contract and inhibits the external urethral
– Lipid group
sphincter
• Steroids and fatty acid derivatives
– Higher brain centers can stimulate or
 Control of Secretion Rate Fig. 15.7
• Negative-feedback mechanisms, which • Hormones that activate G proteins
maintain homeostasis, control the secretion – Luteinizing hormone
of most hormones
– Follicle-stimulating hormone
• Hormone secretion from an endocrine
tissue is regulated by one or more of these – Thyroid-stimulating hormone
three mechanisms: – Adrenocorticotropic hormone
1. Changes in the extracellular – Oxytocin
concentration of a non-hormone substances – Antidiuretic hormone
2. Stimulation by the nervous system – Calcitonin
3. Stimulation by a hormone from another – Parathyroid hormone
endocrine tissue
– Glucagon
– Epinephrine
Hormone Transport and Excretion
• Hormones are dissolved in plasma or bind
to plasma proteins Intracellular Receptors
• Water-soluble hormones • Lipid-soluble hormones bind with intracellular
receptors
– Proteins, epinephrine, and norepinephrine
– The receptor-hormone complex diffuses into
– Do not bind to plasma proteins or readily the nucleus where it activates genes
diffuse out of the blood
• mRNA is produced
– They are quickly broken down by
enzymes or are taken up by tissues • mRNA initiates the production of certain
proteins (enzymes) that produce the
– These hormones regulate activities that response of the target cell to the hormone
have a rapid onset and a short duration
• Intracellular receptor mechanisms are slow-
• Lipid-soluble hormones and thyroid acting because time is required to produce
hormones the mRNA and the protein
– Not quickly removed from the blood Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
– Produce a prolonged effect • The pituitary gland secretes at least nine
• Hormones leave the blood to reach target hormones that regulate numerous body
tissues or are excreted by the kidneys or functions and other endocrine glands
liver • The hypothalamus regulates pituitary gland
activity through hormones and action
Classes of Receptors potentials
• Target tissues have receptor molecules Pituitary Gland
that are specific for a particular hormone • Posterior pituitary
• Only cells with a receptor for a hormone – Neurohypophysis
respond to the hormone – Develops from the floor of the brain and
• Membrane-bound receptors connects to the hypothalamus by the
– Span the plasma membrane infundibulum
– Bind to water-soluble or largemolecular- • Anterior pituitary
weight hormones – Adenohypophysis
• Intracellular receptors – Develops from the roof of the mouth
– In the cell cytoplasm or nucleus • Hypothalamohypophyseal portal
– Bind to lipid-soluble hormones systemconnects the hypothalamus and the
anterior pituitary
– Hormones are produced in hypothalamic
• Many membrane-bound receptors produce neurons
responses through the action of G proteins
– Through the portal system, the hormones
– G proteins consist of three subunits inhibit or stimulate hormone production in
• Alpha (a) the anterior pituitary
• Beta (b) • Hypothalamohypophyseal tract connects the
• Gamma (g) hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary

– Inactive state – Hormones are produced in hypothalamic

neurons
• GDP bound to a subunit
– The hormones move down the axons of the
– Active state tract and are secreted from the posterior
• GTP bound to a subunit pituitary
Hormones of the Pituitary Gland Effects of Thyroid Hormones
• Posterior Pituitary • T3 and T4
– Stores and secretes two polypeptide – Increase the rate of glucose, fat, and protein
hormones metabolism in many tissues
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) – Increase body temperature
– Promotes water retention by the kidneys • T3 and T4 play a role in
• Oxytocin – Maintaining blood pressure
– Promotes uterine contractions during – Regulating tissue growth
delivery – Developing skeletal and nervous systems
– Causes milk ejection in lactating women – Maturation and reproductive capabilities
• Anterior Pituitary Regulation of Thyroid Hormone
– Major hormones, their target tissues, and Secretion
their effects on target tissues are listed in
Table 15.2 • Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) regulate
• Growth Hormone (GH) T3 and T4 secretion
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) – TRH from the hypothalamus increases TSH
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) • Increases as a result of chronic exposure to
• Luteinizing hormone (LH) cold

• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) • Decreases as a result of food deprivation,

injury, and infection
• Prolactin
– Increased TSH from the anterior pituitary
Growth Hormone (GH) increases T3 and T4 secretion
• GH stimulates growth in most tissues and is – T3 and T4inhibit TSH and TRH secretion
a regulator of metabolism (negative feedback)
– GH stimulates Calcitonin
• The uptake of amino acids and their • Parafollicular cells secrete calcitonin
conversion into proteins
• Directly regulated by blood Ca2+ levels
• The breakdown of fats and the synthesis of
glucose – Blood Ca2+ levels drop = calcitonin levels
drop
• The production of somatomedins (with GH
they promote bone and cartilage growth) – Blood Ca2+ levels rise = calcitonin levels rise
– GH secretion increases in response to low • Calcitonin targets the skeleton to
blood glucose, stress, and an increase in – Inhibit osteoclast activity and the release of
certain amino acids calcium from the bone matrix
– GH is regulated by two hypothalamic – Stimulate calcium uptake and incorporation
hormones into the bone matrix
• Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) Parathyroid Glands
• Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) • Tiny glands embedded in the posterior aspect
Thyroid Gland of the thyroid

• The largest endocrine gland • Secrete a polypeptide hormone called

parathyroid hormone (PTH)
• Located in the anterior neck and consists of
two lateral lobes connected by a median • PTH is essential in regulating calcium balance
tissue mass called the isthmus in the blood (much more important than
calcitonin)
• Composed of follicles that produce the
glycoprotein thyroglobulin • PTH increases the release of Ca2+ from
bones into blood by increasing the number
• Other endocrine cells, the parafollicular cells, of osteoclasts
produce the hormone calcitonin
• PTH also
Thyroid Hormones
– Promotes Ca2+ reabsorption by the kidneys
• Consist of two related iodine-containing and the formation of active vitamin D by the
compounds kidneys
– Triiodothyronine (T3): has two tyrosines with – Active vitamin D increases calcium absorption
three bound iodine atoms (90%) by the intestine
– Tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine or T4): has • A decrease in blood Ca2+ levels stimulates
two tyrosine molecules plus four bound PTH secretion
iodine atoms (10%)
Adrenal Glands – Aldosterone: most important mineralocorticoid
• Paired, pyramid-shaped organs that sit on • Maintains Na+ balance by reducing excretion
top of the kidneys of sodium from the body
• Divided into two parts • Stimulates reabsorption of Na+ by the kidneys
– Adrenal medulla (inner area) • Decreases K+ and H+levels in the blood
• Arises from the same cells that give rise to – Aldosterone secretion is stimulated by:
postganglionic sympathetic neurons • Rising blood levels of K+
– Adrenal cortex (outer area) • Low blood Na+
• Glandular tissue derived from embryonic • Decreasing blood volume or pressure
mesoderm
Zona Fasciculata
• Composed of three layers
• Glucocorticoids (especially cortisol)
– Zona glomerulosa
– Help the body resist stress by
– Zona fasciculata
• Keeping blood sugar levels relatively constant
– Zona reticularis
• Maintaining blood volume and preventing
• Structurally and functionally, they are four water shift into tissue
glands in one
– Cortisol provokes
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
• Gluconeogenesis (formation of glucose from
• Approximately 80% of the hormones noncarbohydrates)
released is epinephrine (adrenaline) and
20% is norepinephrine • Rises in blood glucose, fatty acids, and amino
acids
• Secretion of these hormones prepares the
body for – Excessive levels of glucocorticoids
physical activity by: • Depress cartilage and bone formation
– Increasing blood glucose levels • Inhibit inflammation
– Increasing the use of glycogen and glucose • Depress the immune system
by skeletal muscle • Promote changes in cardiovascular, neural,
– Increasing heart rate and force of and gastrointestinal function
contraction Zona Reticularis
– Causes vasoconstriction in the skin and • Gonadocorticoids (Sex Hormones)
viscera – Most gonadocorticoids secreted are
– Causes vasodilation in skeletal and cardiac androgens (male sex hormones), and the
muscle most important one is testosterone
• Released by the sympathetic division of the – Androgens contribute to:
ANS in response to • The onset of puberty
– Emotions • The appearance of secondary sex
– Injury characteristics
– Stress • Sex drive in females
– Exercise – Androgens can be converted into estrogens
– Low blood after menopause
Glucose levels Pancreas
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex • A triangular gland, which has both exocrine
and endocrine cells, located behind the
• Synthesizes and releases steroid hormones stomach
called corticosteroids
• Acinar cells produce an enzyme-rich juice
• Different corticosteroids are produced in used for digestion (exocrine product)
each of the three layers
• Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
– Zona glomerulosa: mineralocorticoids produce hormones (endocrine products)
(chiefly aldosterone) • The islets contain two major cell types:
– Zona fasciculata: glucocorticoids – Alpha (a) cells that produce glucagon
(chiefly cortisol) – Beta (b) cells that produce insulin
– Zona reticularis: gonadocorticoids Insulin
(chiefly androgens) • Target tissues
Zona Glomerulosa – Liver
• Mineralocorticoids – Adipose tissue
– Regulate electrolytes in extracellular fluids – Muscle
– Satiety center in the hypothalamus – Sympathetic activity increases epinephrine
• Nervous system relys on blood glucose and glucagon secretion, causing a release
levels maintained by insulin of glucose from the liver into the blood

• Increases the uptake of glucose and amino – Low blood sugar levels, caused by the uptake
acids by cells of glucose by skeletal muscles, stimulate
epinephrine, glucagon, GH, and cortisol
– Glucose secretion
• Is used for energy • Causes an increase in fatty acids and ketones
• Stored as glycogen in the blood, all of which are used for
• Converted into fats energy

– Amino acids are used to synthesize proteins Testes and Ovaries

• Low levels of insulin promote the formation of • Testes

ketone bodies by the liver – Secrete testosterone
Glucagon • Initiates maturation of male reproductive
• Target tissue is mainly the liver organs
• Causes the breakdown of glycogen to • Causes appearance of secondary sexual
glucose characteristics and sex drive

• Stimulates the synthesis of glucose from • Is necessary for sperm production

amino acids • Maintains sex organs in their functional state
• Liver releases glucose into the blood • Ovaries
Regulation of Pancreatic Hormone Secretion – Secrete estrogens and progesterone
• Insulin • Maturation of the reproductive organs
– Increases because • Appearance of secondary sexual
• Elevated blood glucose levels characteristics
• Increase in some amino acids • Breast development and cyclic changes in the
uterine mucosa
• Parasympathetic stimulation
Pineal Body
• Gastrointestinal hormones
• Small, pinecone-shaped structure located
– Sympathetic stimulation decreases insulin superior and posterior to the thalamus
secretion
• Secretory product is melatonin
• Glucagon
• Melatonin
– Secretion is stimulated by
– Can inhibit reproductive maturation
• Low blood glucose levels
– May regulate sleep-wake cycles
• Certain amino acids
Thymus
• Sympathetic stimulation
• Lobulated gland located deep to the sternum
– Somatostatin inhibits insulin and glucagon
secretion • Major hormonal products are thymopoietins
and thymosins
Hormonal Regulation of Nutrients
• These hormones are essential for the
• After a meal, the following events take place development of the T lymphocytes (T cells)
– High glucose levels stimulate insulin of the immune system
secretion but inhibit glucagon, cortisol, GH, Other Endocrine Organs
and epinephrine secretion
• Gastrointestinal tract
– Insulin increases the uptake of glucose,
amino acids, and fats, which are used for – Produces gastrin, secretin, and
energy or are stored cholecystokinin, which regulate digestive
functions
– Sometime after the meal, blood glucose
levels drop • Kidneys

• Insulin levels decrease and glucagon, GH, – Produce erythropoietin, which stimulates red
cortisol, and epinephrine levels increase blood cell production

• Glucose is released from tissues • Placenta

– The liver releases glucose into the blood, – Secretes human chronic gonadotropin, which
and the use of glucose by most tissues, is essential for the maintenance of
other than nervous tissue, decreases pregnancy

– Adipose tissue releases fatty acids and

ketones, which most tissues use for
energy
• During exercise, the following events occur
 Neurons
NERVOUS SYSTEM • Receive stimuli and transmit action potentials
• Have three components:
Functions of the Nervous System – The cell body (soma) is the primary site of
• The master controlling and communicating protein synthesis
system of the body – Dendrites are short, branched cytoplasmic
• Functions extensions of the cell body that usually
conduct electric signals toward the cell body
1. Sensory input: detects external and internal
stimuli – An axon is a cytoplasmic extension of the cell
body that transmits action potentials to
2. Integration: processes and responds to
other cells
sensory input
Neuron Structure
3. Control of Muscles and Glands
• Cell Body (Soma)
4. Homeostasis is maintained by regulating
other systems – Contains the nucleus and a nucleolus
5. Center for Mental Activities – Nissl substance is an aggregate of rough ER
and free ribosomes
Parts of the Nervous System
• Primary site of protein synthesis
• Two anatomical divisions
– Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and other
– Central Nervous System (CNS)
organelles are present
• Brain and spinal cord
– Has no centrioles (hence its amitotic nature)
• Encased in bone
– Clusters of cell bodies in the CNS are called
– Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) nucleiand in the PNS ganglia
• Nervous tissue outside of the CNS • Axons (Nerve Fibers)
• Consists of sensory receptors and nerves – Trigger zone is the part of the neuron where
• The anatomical divisions perform different the axon originates
functions • Action potential is generated from the trigger
– PNS detects stimuli and transmits zone
information to the CNS and receives – Slender processes of uniform diameter and
information from the CNS may vary in length from a few millimeters to
– CNS processes, integrates, stores, and more than a meter
responds to information from the PNS – Usually, there is only one unbranched axon
• PNS has two divisions per neuron
– Sensory division transmits action potentials • Rare branches, if present, are called collateral
from sensory receptors to the CNS axons
– Motor division carries action potentials away – Presynaptic terminal: branched terminus of
from the CNS in cranial or spinal nerves an axon (10,000 or more)
(two subdivisions) – Synapse: junction between a nerve cell and
• Somatic nervous system innervates skeletal another cell
muscle – Bundles of processes are called nerve
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS) innervates tractsin the CNS and nerves in the PNS
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and Types of Neurons
glands (three subdivisions)
• Multipolar neurons have several dendrites and
– Sympathetic division is most active during a single axon
physical activity (fight or flight division)
– Interneurons and motor neurons
– Parasympathetic division regulates resting
• Bipolar neurons have a single axon and
functions (rest and digest division)
dendrite
– Enteric nervous system controls the
– Components of sensory organs
digestive system
• Unipolar neurons have a single axon
Cells of the Nervous System
– Most sensory neurons
• The two principal cell types of the nervous
system are: Glial Cells
– Neurons: excitable cells that transmit • Glial Cells of the CNS
electrical signals – Astrocytes
– Non-neural cells (Glial cells): cells that – Microglial
surround neurons. Account for over half of
– Ependymal cells
the brain’s weight
– Oligodendrocytes
• Less than 20% is extracellular space
• Glial Cells of the PNS • Protect the axon
– Satellite cells • Electrically insulatefibers from one another
– Schwann cells • Increase the speed ofnerve impulse
• Glial Cells (Supporting Cells): transmission
– Provide a supportive scaffolding for neurons • Node of Ranvier
– Segregate and insulate neurons – Gaps in the myelin sheath
– Guide young neurons to the proper • Unmyelinated axons
connections – Rest in invaginations of Schwann cell (PNS)
– Promote health and growth or Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
Glial Cells of the CNS – Conduct action potentials slowly
• Astrocytes Organization of Nervous Tissue

– Most abundant, versatile, and highly • Nervous tissue can be grouped into white
branched matterand gray matter
– They cling to neurons and their synaptic – White matter
endings, and cover capillaries • Consists of myelinated axons
– Functions: • Propagates action potentials
• Support and brace neurons and blood • Forms nerve tracts in the CNS and nerves in
vessels the PNS
– Anchor neurons to their nutrient supplies – Gray Matter
• Influence the functioning of the blood-brain • Collections of neuron cell bodies or
barrier unmyelinated axons
• Guide migration of young neurons • Forms cortex and nuclei in the CNS and
• Process substances ganglia in the PNS
– mopping up leaked potassium ions • Axons synapse with neuron cell bodies, which
are functionally the site of integration in the
– recycling neurotransmitters nervous system
• Isolate damaged tissue and limit the spread Electric Signals
of inflammation
• Electric signals produced by cells are called
• Ependymal cells: range in shape from action potentials
squamous to columnar and many are
ciliated – When action potentials are received from
sensory cells it can result in the sensations
– They line the ventricles of the brain and the of sight, hearing, and touch
central canal of the spinal cord
– Complex mental activities, such as conscious
– Some are specialized (choroid plexuses) to thought, memory, and emotions, result from
produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) action potentials
– Help to circulate CSF using their cilia – Contraction of muscles and the secretion of
• Microglia certain glands occur in response to action
– Small, ovoid cells with spiny processes potentials

– Phagocytes that monitor the health of • Electrical properties of cells result from
neurons – Ionic concentration differences across the
• Oligodendrocytes: form myelin sheaths plasma membrane
around the axons of several CNS neurons – Permeability characteristics of the plasma
• Schwann cells: form a myelin sheath around membrane
part of the axon of a PNS neuron • Concentration Differences Across the Plasma
• Satellite cells: support and nourish neuron Membrane
cell bodies within ganglia – Sodium ions (Na+), calcium ions (Ca2+), and
Myelinated and Unmyelinated Axons chloride ions (Cl-) are in much greater
concentration outside the cell than inside
• Myelinated axons
– Potassium ions (K+) and negatively charged
– Plasma membrane of Schwann cells or molecules, such as proteins, are in much
Oligodendrocytes repeatedly wraps around greater concentration inside the cell than
a segment of an axon to form the myelin outside
sheath
• Negatively charged proteins are synthesized
– Myelin is a whitish, fatty (protein-lipid), inside the cell and cannot diffuse out of it
segmented sheath around most long
axons • Concentration gradients of ions result mainly
from
– It functions to:
1. The Na+
-K+ pump – Hyperpolarization is an increase in the resting
• Moves ions by active transport membrane potential caused by
• Potassium ions are moved into the cell, and • An increase in the K+ concentration gradient
Na+ are moved out of it • An increase in membrane permeability to K+
2. Permeability characteristics of the plasma • An increase in membrane permeability to Cl-
membrane are determined by • A decrease in membrane permeability to Na+
• Leak channels (always open) • An increase in extracellular Ca2+
– Potassium ion leak channels are more concentrations
numerous than Na+ leak channels; thus, Action Potentials
the plasma membrane is more permeable
to K+than to Na+ when at rest • Are larger changes in the resting membrane
potential that spread over the entire surface
• Gated ion channels of the cell
– Include ligand-gated ion channels, voltage- – Occurs when a graded potential causes
gated ion channels, and other gated ion depolarization of the plasma membrane to a
channels level called threshold
• Gated Ion Channels – Occur in an all-or-none fashion and are of the
– Open and close in response to stimuli same magnitude, no matter how strong the
• Ligand-gated ion channels stimulus
– Open or close with the binding of a specific – Occurs in three phases
ligand (neurotransmitter) • Depolarization phase
» Ligand is a molecule that binds to a receptor • Repolarization phase
» A receptor is a protein or glycoprotein that • Afterpotential
has a receptor site to which a ligand can • Depolarization Phase
bind
– Inside of the membrane becomes more
– Common in tissues such as nervous and positive
muscle tissue, as well as glands
– Na+ diffuses into the cell through voltage-
• Voltage-gated ion channels gated ion channels
– Open and close in response to small voltage • Repolarization Phase
changes across the plasma membrane
– Return of the membrane potential toward the
– Common in tissues such as nervous and resting membrane potential
muscle tissues
– Voltage-gated Na+ channels close
• Other gated ion channels
– Voltage-gated K+ channels open and K+
– Open and close in response to physical diffuses out of the cell
deformation of receptors
• Afterpotential
– Touch receptors (mechanical stimulation)
and temperature receptors (temperature – Brief period of hyperpolarization following
changes) of the skin repolarization
• Establishing the Resting Membrane Potential Propagation of Action Potentials
– Resting membrane potential • In an unmyelinated axon, action potentials are
generated immediately adjacent to previous
• Charge difference across the plasma action potentials
membrane when the cell is not being
stimulated • In a myelinated axon, action potentials are
generated at successive Nodes of Ranvier
• The inside of the cell is negatively charged,
compared with the outside of the cell The Synapse
– Due mainly to the tendency of positively • The synapse is the junction between two cells
charged K+to diffuse out of the cell where communication takes place
– Opposed by the negative charge that – Presynaptic cell: transmits signal towards a
develops inside the plasma membrane synapse
• Changing the Resting Membrane Potential – Postsynaptic cell: receives the signal
– Depolarization is a decrease in the resting • Two types of synapses
membrane potential caused by – Electrical synapse
• A decrease in the K+ concentration gradient – Chemical synapse
• A decrease in membrane permeability to K+ Electrical Synapses
• An increase in membrane permeability to • Gap junctions in which tubular proteins called
Na+ or Ca2+ connexons allow ionic currents to move
• A decrease in extracellular Ca2+ between cells
concentrations
• An action potential in one cell generates an cord. From superficial to deep they are
ionic current that causes an action – Dura mater
potential in an adjacent cell
– Arachnoid mater
• Action potentials are conducted rapidly
between cells allowing for synchronized – Pia mater
activity • The epidural space is between the periosteum
• Common in cardiac muscle and in many of the vertebral canal and the dura mater
types of smooth muscle where coordinated • The subarachnoid space is between the
contractions are essential arachnoid mater and the pia mater
Chemical Synapses Spinal Cord Cross Section
• Have three anatomical components • The spinal cord consists of peripheral white
– The enlarged ends of the axon are the matter and central gray matter
presynaptic terminals containing synaptic • White matter is organized into columns
vesicles (funiculi), which are subdivided into tracts
– The postsynaptic membranes contain (fasciculi or pathways), which consist of
receptors for the neurotransmitter ascending and descending axons
– The synaptic cleft, a space, separates the • Gray matter is divided into horns
presynaptic and postsynaptic membrane – The dorsal horns contain sensory axons that
Chemical Synapse Activity synapse with interneurons
1. Action potentials arriving at the presynaptic – The ventral horns contain the neuron cell
terminal cause voltagegated Ca2+ bodies of somatic motor neurons
channels to open – The lateral horns contain the neuron cell
2. Calcium ions diffuse into the cell and cause bodies of autonomic motor neurons
synaptic vesicles to release – The gray and white commissures connect
neurotransmitters each half of the spinal cord
3. Neurotransmitters diffuse from the • The dorsal root contains sensory axons
presynaptic terminal across the synaptic • The ventral root has motor axons
cleft
• Spinal nerves have sensory and motor axons
4. Neurotransmitters combine with their
receptor sites and cause ligand-gated ion Reflexes
channels to open. Ions diffuse into the cell • Stereotypic, unconscious, involuntary
(shown) or out of the cell (not shown) and responses to stimuli
cause a change in membrane potential • Maintain homeostasis
Neuronal Pathways and Circuits • Two general types:
• Convergent pathways have many neurons – Somatic reflexes
synapsing with a few neurons
• Mediated through the somatic motor nervous
• Divergent pathways have a few neurons system and includes responses that
synapsing with many neurons
– Remove the body from painful stimuli
• Oscillating circuits have collateral branches
of postsynaptic neurons synapsing with – Keep the body from suddenly falling
presynaptic neurons – Cause movement because of external forces
– Autonomic reflexes
CNS & PNS • Mediated through the ANS and are
responsible for maintaining variables within
their normal ranges
Spinal Cord
– Blood pressure
• Major communication link between the brain
and the PNS (spinal nerves) – Blood carbon dioxide levels
• Participates in the integration of incoming – Water intake
information and produces responses • A reflex arc is the functional unit of the
through reflex mechanisms nervous system
• Gives rise to 31 pairs of spinal nerves 1. Sensory receptors respond to stimuli and
– Cervical and lumbosacral enlargements give produce action potentials in sensory
rise to the spinal nerves of the limbs neurons
– Nerves from the end of the spinal cord form 2. Sensory neurons propagate action potentials
the cauda equina to the CNS
• Shorter than the vertebral column 3. Interneurons in the CNS synapse with
sensory neurons and with motor neurons
Meninges of the Spinal Cord
4. Motor neurons carry action potentials from
• Three meningeal layers surround the spinal
 the CNS to effector organs – Superior to the medulla
5. Effector organs, such as muscles or glands, – Ascending and Descending tracts pass
respond to the action potential through the pons
Spinal Nerves – Connects the cerebrum and the cerebellum
• There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves – Pontine nuclei regulate breathing, swallowing,
– Eight cervical balance, chewing, and salivation
– Twelve thoracic • Midbrain
– Five lumbar – Superior to the pons
– Five sacral – Corpora quadrigemina consist of four colliculi
– One coccygeal • Two inferior colliculi are involved in hearing
• Spinal nerves have specific cutaneous • Two superior colliculi in visual reflexes
distributions called dermatomes – Substantia nigra and the red nucleus help
Spinal Nerves and Plexuses regulate body movements
• Spinal nerves branch to form rami – Cerebral peduncles are the major descending
motor pathway
– The dorsal rami supply the muscles and skin
near the middle of the back • Reticular Formation
– The ventral rami in the thoracic region form – Consists of nuclei scattered throughout the
intercostal nerves, which supply the thorax brainstem
and upper abdomen – Regulates cyclic motor functions, such as
– Cervical, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal breathing, walking, and chewing
ventral rami join to form plexuses – Reticular activating system, which is part of
– Communicating rami supply sympathetic the reticular formation, maintains
nerves consciousness and regulates the sleep-
wake cycle
Brain
Cerebellum
• Contained in the cranial cavity
• Gray matter forms the cortex and nuclei of the
• Is the control center for many of the body’s cerebellum
functions
• White matter
• Consists of the
– Arbor vitae
– Brainstem
– Connects the cerebellum to the rest of the
– Cerebellum CNS
– Diencephalon – Connects the cerebellar cortex and cerebellar
– Cerebrum nuclei
Brainstem • The cerebellum has three parts:
• Consist of the – Flocculonodular lobe controls balance and
– Medulla oblongata eye movements

– Pons – Vermis and medial part of the lateral

hemispherescontrol posture, locomotion,
– Midbrain and fine motor coordination
• Connects the spinal cord and cerebellum to – The lateral hemispheres are involved with the
the remainder of the brain planning, practice, and learning of complex
• Ten of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves arise movements
from it Diencephalon
• Damage to small areas of the brainstem can • Located between the brainstem and the
cause death, whereas damage to relatively cerebrum
large areas of the cerebrum or cerebellum
do not • Consists of the

• Medulla Oblongata – Thalamus

– Continuous with the spinal cord and contains – Subthalamus

ascending and descending tracts – Epithalamus
– Medullary nuclei regulate the heart, blood – Hypothalamus
vessels, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, • Thalamus
coughing, sneezing, hiccupping, balance
and coordination – Consists of two lobes connected by the
interthalamic adhesion
– The pyramids are tracts controlling voluntary
muscle movement – Functions as an integration center
• Pons – All sensory input that reaches the cerebrum,
 except for the sense of smell, synapses in – Association fibers connect areas of the cortex
the thalamus within the same hemisphere
– Interacts with other parts of the brain to – Commissural fibers connect the cerebral
control motor activity hemispheres
– Involved in emotions and pain perception – Projection fibers connect the cerebrum to
• Subthalamus other parts of the brain and the spinal cord
– Inferior to the thalamus • Basal Nuclei

– Involved in motor function – Include the corpus striatum (caudate and

lentiform nuclei), subthalamic nuclei, and
• Epithalamus substantia nigra
– Superior and posterior to the thalamus – Important in controlling motor functions
– Consists of the • Limbic System
• Habenular nuclei, which influence emotions – Includes parts of the cerebral cortex, basal
through the sense of smell nuclei, the thalamus, the hypothalamus,
• Pineal body, which may play a role in the and the olfactory cortex
onset of puberty and the sleep-wake cycle – Involved in memory, reproduction, and
• Hypothalamus: Main visceral control center nutrition
of the body and is vitally important to – Involved in the emotional interpretation of
overall body homeostasis. sensory input and emotions in general
– Autonomic control center (heart rate, blood Meninges
pressure, etc.)
• The brain and spinal cord are covered by the
– Center for emotional response/behavior dura, arachnoid and pia mater
– Body temperature regulation • The dura mater attaches to the skull and has
– Regulation of food intake two layers that can separate to form dural
– Regulation of water balance folds and dural venous sinuses
– Control of endocrine system functioning • Beneath the arachnoid mater the
subarachnoid space contains CSF that
– Mammillary bodies are reflex centers for helps cushion the brain
olfaction
• The pia mater attaches directly to the brain
Cerebrum
Ventricles
• Cortex of the cerebrum is folded into ridges
called gyri and grooves called sulci or • The lateral ventricles in the cerebrum are
fissures connected to the third ventricle in the
diencephalon by the interventricular
• The longitudinal fissure divides the cerebrum foramina
into left and right hemispheres
• The third ventricle is connected to the fourth
• Each hemisphere has five lobes ventricle in the pons by the cerebral
– Frontal lobes aqueduct
– Parietal lobes • The central canal of the spinal cord is
– Occipital lobes connected to the fourth ventricle

– Temporal lobes • The fourth ventricle is connected to the

subarachnoid space by median and lateral
– Insula apertures
• Frontal lobes are involved in voluntary motor Cranial Nerves
function, motivation, aggression, the sense
of smell, and mood • The 12 pairs of cranial nerves are designated
by Roman numerals (I - XII) or specific
• Parietal lobes contain the major sensory names
areas receiving sensory input, such as
touch, pain, temperature, balance, and • In numeric order, can be identified with this
taste mnemonic

• Occipital lobes contain the visual centers – On Occasion Our Trusty Truck Acts Funny;
Very Good
• Temporal lobes evaluate smell and hearing
input and are involved in memory, abstract Vehicle Any How
thought, and judgment • On: Olfactory (I)
• Insula is located deep within the lateral • Occasion: Optic (II)
fissure • Our: Oculomotor (III)
• Gray matter forms the cortex and nuclei of • TrustyL Trochlear (IV)
the cerebrum
• Truck: Trigeminal (V)
• White matter forms the cerebral medulla,
which consists of three types of tracts • Acts: Abducent (VI)
• Funny: Facial (VII) Sensory Receptors
• Very: Vestibulocochlear (VIII) • Are sensory nerve endings or specialized
• Good: Glossopharyngeal (IX) cells capable of responding to stimuli by
developing action potentials
• Vehicle: Vagus (X)
• Most general sense receptors are associated
• Any: Accessory (XI) with the skin, others are associated with
• How: Hypoglossal (XII) deeper structures
• The two types of general functions are – Free nerve endings
sensory and motor • Simplest and most common type of receptor
– Sensory includes special senses and • Detect pain, temperature, itch, and movement
general senses (proprioception)
– Motor includes somatic motor and – Touch Receptors
Parasympathetic • Merkel disks
Sensation (Perception) • Hair follicle receptors
• The conscious awareness of stimuli received • Meissner corpuscles
by sensory receptors • Ruffini end organs
• Sensation requires • Pacini corpuscles
– A stimulus – Proprioceptors
– A receptor • Awareness of body position and movements
– Conduction of an action potential to the CNS Sensory Receptors for Touch
– Translation of the action potential • Merkel disks
– Processing of the action potential in the CNS – Small superficial nerve endings
so that the person is aware of the
sensation – Respond to light touch and superficial
pressure
Sensation
• Hair follicle receptors
• Sense is the ability to perceive stimuli
– Wrap around the hair follicle
• Senses are the means by which the brain
receives information about the – Involved in the sensation of light touch when
environment and the body the hair is bent
• Senses are divided into two basic groups: • Meissner corpuscles
– General senses – Located deep to the epidermis
• Somatic senses (touch, pressure, – Responsible for two-point discriminative touch
proprioception, temperature, and pain) • Ruffini end organs
• Visceral senses (pain and pressure) – Located in the dermis
– Special senses – Involved in continuous touch or pressure
• Smell • Pacini corpuscles
• Taste – Located in the dermis and subcutaneous
• Sight tissue
• Hearing – Detect deep pressure and vibration

• Balance – In joints, they serve a proprioceptive function

Types of Sensory Receptors Special Senses
• Mechanoreceptors • Have highly localized receptors that provide
– Respond to mechanical stimuli specific information about the environment
(compression, bending or stretching of • Five special senses
receptors) – Smell
• Chemoreceptors • Interaction of chemicals with sensory
– Respond to chemicals (odor molecules) receptors
• Photoreceptors – Taste
– Respond to light • Interaction of chemicals with sensory
• Thermoreceptors receptors
– Respond to temperature changes – Sight

• Nociceptors (pain receptors) • Interaction of light with sensory receptors

– Respond to painful mechanical, chemical, – Hearing
and thermal stimuli • Interaction of mechanical stimulation with
 sensory receptors sensations
– Balance – Nasal congestion can dampen the taste
• Interaction of mechanical stimulation with sensation
sensory receptors • Tongue can detect other stimuli besides taste
Olfaction – Temperature
• Sense of Smell – Texture
• Response to airborne molecules, called Visual System
odorants, entering the nasal cavity • Consists of
• At least 7 (perhaps 50) primary odors exist – Eye
– Camphoraceous (e.g., moth balls) • eyeball
– Musky • optic nerve
– Floral – Accessory Structures
– Pepperminty • eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal
– Ethereal (e.g., fresh pears) apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscles
– Pungent – Sensory Neurons
– Putrid Accessory Structures
• Olfactory neurons have very low thresholds • Lacrimal Apparatus
and accommodate rapidly – Consists of the lacrimal gland, lacrimal
Taste canaliculi, and a nasolacrimal duct
• Sensory structures that detect taste stimuli – Lacrimal glands secrete tears
are taste buds • Tears
• Most taste buds are located in the epithelium – Contain mostly water, with some salts,
of papillae mucus, and lysozyme
• Taste buds are found on the – Enter the eye via superolateral excretory
– Tongue ducts
– Palate – Exit the eye medially via the lacrimal
– Lips canaliculi

– Throat – Drain into the nasolacrimal duct

• There are four types of papillae Fibrous Layer
– Three contain taste buds • Sclera
– The fourth and most numerous has no taste – Posterior 4/5ths of the eye
buds, but gives the tongue its roughness – White connective tissue that maintains the
Function of Taste shape of the eyeball
• Receptors on the hairs detect dissolved – Provides a site for muscle attachment
substances • Cornea
• Five basic types of taste exist: – Anterior 1/5th of the eye
– Salty – Transparent and refracts light that enters the
• Sodium ions eye

– Sour Functions of the Complete Eye

• Acids • When an object is less than 20 feet from the
eye, the image falling on the retina is no
– Sweet longer in focus
• Sugars, some other carbohydrates, and • Three events must occur to bring the image
some proteins into focus
– Bitter 1. Accommodation by the lens
• Alkaloids (bases) • Contraction of the ciliary muscles causes the
– Umami lens to become more spherical
• Elicited by the amino acid glutamate and • Change in the lens shape enables the eye to
related compounds focus on objects that are less than 20 feet
• All taste buds can sense the five primary away
tastes, but tend to be most sensitive to one 2. Constriction of the Pupil
– Sensitivity to bitter substances is the highest • Increases the depth of focus
(Poisons) 3. Convergence of the eyes
• Taste is strongly influenced by olfactory • Medial rotation of the eyes
Structure and Function of the Retina • All other reproductive organs are accessory
• Pigmented layer of the retina provides a – Ducts, glands, and external genitalia
black backdrop for increasing visual acuity • The male gonads (testes) produce sperm and
• Rods and cones synapse with bipolar cells lie within the scrotum
• Bipolar cells synapse with ganglion cells, – Sperm are delivered to the exterior through a
which form the optic nerve system of ducts: epididymis, ductus
• Rods deferens, ejaculatory duct, and the urethra

– Responsible for non-color vision and vision – Accessory sex glands:

in low illumination (night vision) • Empty their secretions into the ducts during
– Rod-shaped photoreceptive part of the rods ejaculation
contains about 700 double-layered • Include the seminal vesicles, prostate gland,
membranous discs and bulbourethral glands
– Discs contain rhodopsin • Functions of the male reproductive system
• A purple pigment consisting of the protein are:
opsincovalently bound to a yellow – Production of sperm cells
photosensitive pigment called retinal – Sustaining and transfer of the sperm cells to
(derived from Vit. A) the female
• Exposure to light activates rhodopsin – Production of male sex hormones
– Rhodopsin is split by light into retinal and • Ovaries are the primary female reproductive
opsin, eventually resulting in an action organs
potential
– Accessory ducts include: uterine tubes,
– Light adaptation is caused by a reduction of uterus, vagina, and mammary glands
rhodopsin
• Functions of the female reproductive system
– Dark adaptation is caused by rhodopsin are:
production
– Production of female sex cells (ova)
Hearing and Balance
– Reception of sperm cells from the male
• Three parts of the ear are
– Nurturing the development of and providing
– External ear nourishment for the new individual
• Extends from the outside of the head to the – Production of female sex hormones
tympanic membrane
Meiosis
– Middle ear
• Chromosomes
• Air-filled chamber medial to the tympanic
membrane – The diploid number of chromosomes in
humans is 46, consisting of 23 pairs of
– Inner ear homologous chromosomes
• Set of fluid-filled chambers medial to the – A male has the sex chromosomes XY and a
middle ear female XX
• The external and middle ear are involved – The haploid number of chromosomes in
with hearing humans is 23
• The inner ear functions in both hearing and • Meiotic Divisions
equilibrium
– A reduction division decreases the number of
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM chromosomes from the diploid to the
haploid number
Functions of the Reproductive System • Occurs during the first meiotic division
• To produce offspring – Crossing over and random assortment are
• The gonads produce gametes (sperm or ova) responsible for the genetic diversity of
and sex hormones sperm cells and oocytes
– Primary sex organs (gonads): testes in Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System
males, ovaries in females • The male reproductive system includes:
– Sex hormones: androgens (males), and – Testes
estrogens and progesterone (females)
– Ducts
• Play roles in:
• Epididymides
– The development and function of the
• Ductus deferentia
reproductive organs
• Urethra
– Sexual behavior and drives
– Accessory glands
– The growth and development of many other
organs and tissues • Seminal vesicles
• Prostate gland that allow the sperm to penetrate and enter
• Bulbourethral glands the egg
– Supporting structures • Midpiece: contains mitochondria spiraled
around the tail filaments
• Scrotum and penis
• Tail: a typical flagellum produced by a
• Collectively, all of these structures are called centriole
the male genitalia
– Spermatogonia: outermost cells in contact
• Scrotum with the epithelial basal lamina
– A sac containing the testes – Spermatogenesis begins at puberty as each
– Intrascrotal temperature is kept constant by mitotic division of spermatogonia results in
two sets of muscles: type A or type B daughter cells
• Dartos: smooth muscle that wrinkles scrotal • Type A cells remain at the basement
skin membrane and maintain the germ line
• Cremaster: bands of skeletal muscle that • Type B cells move toward the lumen and
elevate the testes become primary spermatocytes
– – These spermatogenic cells give rise to sperm
body temperature (needed for sperm in a series of events
production) • Mitosis of spermatogonia, forming
• Testes (Histology) spermatocytes
– Each testis is surrounded by two tunics: • Meiosis forms spermatids from spermatocytes
• The tunica vaginalis, derived from • Spermiogenesis: spermatids form sperm
peritoneum – Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis I,
• The tunica albuginea, the fibrous capsule of forming two haploid cells called secondary
the testis spermatocytes
– Extensions of the tunica albuginea form – Secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II
incomplete septa and their daughter cells are called
• Septa divide the testis into 300-400 lobules, spermatids
each containing 1-4 seminiferous tubules – Spermatids are small round cells seen close
– The uncoiled, combined length of the to the lumen of the tubule
seminiferous tubules in both testes is – Spermatids develop an acrosome and a
nearly half a mile flagellum to become sperm cells
• Testes (Histology) – Sustentacular cells
– Seminiferous tubules “sperm factories”: • Nourish the sperm cells
• Produce the sperm • Their tight junctions form a blood-testis barrier
• Converge to form the tubulus rectus – This prevents sperm antigens from escaping
– The straight tubulus rectus conveys sperm through the basal lamina into the blood
to the rete testis – Since sperm are not formed until puberty,
– From the rete testis, the sperm : they are absent during thymic education

• Leave the testis via efferent ductules • Produce hormones

• Enter the epididymis • Ducts: Epididymis

– Surrounding the seminiferous tubules are – Efferent ductules extend from the testes into
interstitial cells that produce testosterone the head of the epididymis and join the duct
of the epididymis
• Testes (Descent)
– The epididymis is a coiled tube system
– During development, the testes pass from located on the testis that is the site of sperm
the abdominal cavity through the inguinal cell maturation. It consists of a head, body,
canal to the scrotum and tail
– A tunica vaginalis covers each testis, – Nonmotile sperm enter, pass through its
protecting against friction tubes and become motile
• Spermatogenesis • Takes 12-16 days
– Sperm cells (spermatozoa) are produced in – Acrosome matures
the seminiferous tubules
– Ability to fertilize an oocyte develops
– Cells making up the walls of seminiferous
tubules are in various stages of cell – Flagella become capable of movement
division – Upon ejaculation the epididymis contracts,
– Sperm have three major regions expelling sperm into the ductus deferens
• Head: contains DNA and has a helmetlike • Ducts: Ductus Deferens and Ejaculatory Duct
acrosome containing hydrolytic enzymes – Runs from the epididymis through the inguinal
 canal into the abdominal cavity • Consists of glandular and muscular tissue and
– Its terminus expands to form the ampulla empties into the prostatic urethra
and then joins the duct of the seminal – Bulbourethral glands
vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct, which • Pea-sized glands inferior to the prostate
connects to the prostatic urethra
• Mucous glands that empty into the spongy
– Propels sperm from the epididymis to the urethra
urethra
• Semen
– Vasectomy: cutting and ligating the ductus
deferens, which is a nearly 100% effective – Milky white, sticky mixture of sperm and
form of birth control accessory gland secretions
– The spermatic cord consists of the ductus – Provides a transport medium and nutrients
deferens, blood and lymphatic vessels, (fructose), protects and activates sperm,
and nerves and facilitates their movement
– Coverings of the spermatic cord consist of • The testicular secretions contain sperm cells
the external spermatic fascia, cremaster (4% of total volume)
muscle, and internal spermatic fascia • The seminal vesicle fluid contains fructose,
– The spermatic cord passes through the clotting proteins, and prostaglandins (65%
inguinal canal into the abdominal cavity of total volume)
Ducts: Urethra • The prostate secretions make the seminal
fluid more pHneutral. Proteolytic enzymes
– The prostatic urethra extends from the break down clotting proteins(30% of total
urinary bladder through the prostate gland volume)
to the membranous urethra
• The bulbourethral glands produce mucus,
– The membranous urethra extends through which neutralizes the acidic pH of the
the pelvic floor and becomes the spongy urethra (<1% of total volume)
urethra, which continues through the penis
Physiology of Male Reproduction
• Penis
• Normal function of the male reproductive
– A copulatory organ designed to deliver system depends on hormonal and neural
sperm into the female reproductive tract mechanisms
– Consists of an attached root and a free shaft • Regulation of Sex Hormone Secretion
that ends in the glans penis
– GnRH stimulates LH and FSH release from
– Consists of erectile tissue the anterior pituitary
• The two corpora cavernosa • LH stimulates the interstitial cells to produce
– Form the dorsum and the sides of the penis testosterone
• The corpus spongiosum • FSH stimulates sperm cell formation
– Surrounds the urethra and expands to form – Inhibin, produced by sustentacular cells,
the glans and bulb of the penis inhibits FSH secretion
– Erection: during sexual excitement, the • Puberty
erectile tissue fills with blood causing the – Before puberty, small amounts of
penis to enlarge and become rigid testosterone inhibit GnRH release
• Prepuce, or foreskin – During puberty testosterone does not
– Cuff of skin covering the glans penis completely suppress GnRH release,
– Circumcision: surgical removal of the resulting in increased production of FSH,
foreskin after birth LH, and testosterone
– The bulb of the penis and the crura form the • Effects of Testosterone
root of the penis and the crura attach the – Produced by interstitial cells
penis to the coxal bones – Causes the development of male sex organs
• Accessory Glands in the embryo
– Seminal Vesicles – Stimulates the descent of the testes
• Lie on the posterior wall of the bladder – Causes enlargement of the genitalia
• Join the ductus deferens to form the – Necessary for sperm cell formation
ejaculatory duct – Hair growth stimulation (pubic area, axilla,
• Sperm and seminal fluid mix in the and beard) and inhibition (male pattern
ejaculatory duct and enter the prostatic baldness)
urethra during ejaculation – Increased skin thickness and melanin and
– Prostate Gland sebum production
• Doughnut-shaped gland that encircles part of – Enlargement of the larynx and deepening of
the urethra inferior to the bladder the voice
– Increased protein synthesis (muscle), bone II and is ovulated
growth, blood cell synthesis, and blood – Ovulation is the release of a secondary
volume oocyte from an ovary
– Metabolic rate increases – If penetrated by sperm the second oocyte
– Hair growth stimulation (pubic area, axilla, completes meiosis II, yielding:
and beard) and inhibition (male pattern • One large ovum (the functional gamete)
baldness)
• A tiny second polar body
– Increased skin thickness and melanin and
sebum production – Fertilization is the joining of a sperm cell and
a secondary oocyte to form a zygote
– Enlargement of the larynx and deepening of
the voice – An embryo is the developing human between
the time of fertilization and 8 weeks of
– Increased protein synthesis (muscle), bone development
growth, blood cell synthesis, and blood
volume – A fetus is the developing human from 8
weeks to birth
– Metabolic rate increases
• Follicle development
• Male Sexual Behavior and the Male Sexual
Act – Primordial follicles are surrounded by a single
layer of flat granulosa cells
– Testosterone is required for normal sex drive
– Primary follicles are primary oocytes
– The male sexual act includes erection, surrounded by a zona pellucida and
emission, ejaculation, orgasm and cuboidal granulosa cells
resolution
– The primary follicles become secondary
– Stimulation of the sexual act can be psychic follicles as granulosa cells increase in
or tactile number and fluid begins to accumulate in
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive the vesicles
System – Granulosa cells increase in number, and
• The female reproductive system includes theca cells form around the secondary
the: follicles
– Ovaries – Mature follicles have an antrum
– Uterine tubes – Ovulation occurs when the follicle swells and
– Uterus ruptures and the secondary oocyte is
released from the ovary
– Vagina
– The corona radiata surround the oocyte
– External genitalia
– Fate of the follicle
– Summary glands
• The mature follicle becomes the corpus
• Ovaries luteum
– Paired organs on each side of the uterus • If pregnancy occurs, the corpus luteum
held in place by several ligaments persists
• The suspensory ligament, ovarian ligament, • If no pregnancy occurs, it becomes the corpus
and broad ligament albicans
– The visceral peritoneum covers the surface • Uterine Tubes
of the ovaries
– Extend from the ovaries to the uterus
– Have an outer capsule (tunica albuginea)
and is divided internally into a cortex • The ovarian end of the uterine tube is
(contains follicles) and a medulla (receives expanded as the infundibulum.
blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves) • The opening of the infundibulum is
• Oocyte development and fertilization surrounded by fimbria
– Oogonia proliferate and become primary • The ampulla is the widest, longest part of the
oocytes that are in prophase I of meiosis uterine tube
• All of the primary oocytes remain in prophase – Consists of an outer serosa, a middle
I until puberty muscular layer and an inner mucosa with
simple ciliated columnar epithelium
• Approximately 2 million primary oocytes at
birth – Muscular contractions and cilia move the
oocyte through the uterine tube
– At puberty, one activated primary oocyte
produces two haploid cells • Uterus
• The first polar body, which degenerates or – Consists of the fundus, body, and cervix
divides to form two polar bodies – Held in place by the broad, round, and
• The secondary oocyte uterosacral ligaments

– The secondary oocyte arrests in metaphase – The walls consist of the perimetrium (visceral
 peritoneum), the myometrium (smooth – Consists of the periodic changes occurring in
muscle), and the endometrium (mucous the ovaries and uterus of a sexually mature,
membrane) nonpregnant female that result in
– The uterine cavity and the cervical canal are • The production of a secondary oocyte
the spaces formed by the uterus • Preparation of the uterus for implantation
• Vagina – Days 1-5: Menstrual phase: uterus sheds all
– The female organ of copulation but the deepest part of the endometrium
– Connects the uterus (cervix) to the vestibule – Days 6-14: Proliferation phase: endometrium
– Consists of a layer of smooth muscle and an rebuilds itself
inner lining of moist stratified squamous – Days 14-28: Secretory phase: endometrium
epithelium prepares for implantation of the embryo
– The hymen covers the vaginal orifice – The menstrual phase is the time between the
• External Genitalia beginning and the end of menstruation
(days 1-5)
– The external female genitalia consist of the
vestibule and its surrounding structures • Menstruation is the discharge of blood and
part of the endometrium from the uterus
– The vestibule is the space into which the
vagina and the urethra open • Menstruation begins because of a decrease in
progesterone and estrogen from the
– Erectile tissue is associated with the previous cycle
vestibule
– The proliferation phase is the time between
• The two corpora cavernosa form the clitoris the end of menstruation and ovulation (days
• The corpora spongiosa form the bulbs of the 6—14)
vestibule • FSH and LH stimulate follicular growth and
– The labia minora are folds that cover the estrogen production
vestibule and form the prepuce • Estrogen stimulates epithelial cells in the
– The greater and lesser vestibular glands endometrium to multiply
produce a mucous fluid • The endometrium becomes thicker and spiral
– When closed, the labia majora cover the glands and arteries develop
labia minora • The LH surge stimulates completion of the
• The mons pubis is an elevated fat deposit first meiotic division by the primary oocyte,
superior to the labia majora ovulation, and formation of the corpus
• The pudendal cleft is a space between the luteum
labia majora • The FSH surge stimulates follicle
– Perineum development

• The clinical perineum is the region between • Mature follicles inhibit the development of less
the vagina and the anus mature follicles

• Mammary Glands – The secretory phase is the time between

ovulation and the beginning of menstruation
– Modified sweat glands located in the breasts (days 14—28)
– Consist of glandular lobes and adipose • Estrogen stimulates cell division in the
tissue endometrium
• The lobes consist of lobules that have • Progesterone stimulates the spiral glands to
milkproducing alveoli produce a secretion rich in glycogen and
• The lobes connect to the nipple through the lipids and inhibits uterine contractions
lactiferous ducts • If fertilization does not occur, menses begins
– The areola surrounds the nipple and the corpus luteum becomes the corpus
– Suspensory ligaments support the breasts albicans

Physiology of Female Reproduction • If fertilization occurs, hCG stimulates the

corpus luteum to persist
• Puberty
• Female Sexual Behavior and the Female
– Begins with the first menstrual bleeding Sexual Act
(menarche)
– Female sex drive is partially influenced by
– Begins when GnRH, FSH, LH, estrogen, and androgens (produced by the adrenal gland)
progesterone levels increase and steroids (produced by the ovaries)
– Increased estrogen and progesterone – Events of the female sexual act including the
promote the development of the female following
primary and secondary sexual
characteristics • The erectile tissue of the clitoris and the bulbs
of the vestibule become filled with blood
• Menstrual Cycle
• The vestibular glands secrete mucus, and the
 vagina extrudes a mucuslike substance hazardous materials outside
• Orgasm and resolution occur the body
• Fertilization  2nd line of defense
– Intercourse must take place 5 days before to  Phagocytes: neutrophils and
1 day after ovulation if fertilization is to macrophages: engulf
occur pathogens and cell debris
– Sperm cell transport to the ampulla depends  Immunological Surveillance:
on the ability of the sperm cells to swim natural killer cells (NK cells)
and possibly on contractions of the uterus destroy abnormal cells.
and the uterine tubes  Interferons: Chemical
– Implantation of the developing embryo into messengers that coordinate
the uterine wall occurs when the uterus is the defenses against viral
most receptive infections. Antiviral proteins
do not kill viruses but block
• Menopause
replication in cell
– Menopause is the cessation of menstrual
 Complement: Complement
cycles
action of antibodies to
– Perimenopause is the time between the destroy pathogens
beginning of irregular menstrual cycles and
menopause  Inflammation: Triggers a
complex inflammatory
Effects of Aging on the Reproductive response limiting the spread
System of infection
• The prostate gland enlarges, and there is an  Fever: A high body
agerelated increase in prostatic cancer temperature which
• There is decreased sperm cell production increases body metabolism,
and increased production of abnormal accelerates defenses and
sperm cells accelerates body defenses
• Erectile dysfunction increases  Outer layer of skin; Hair;
• The most significant age-related change in Epithelial layers of internal
females is menopause passageways; dermis
• The uterus decreases in size and the vaginal  Secretions that flush away
wall thins materials: Sweat glands,
lacrimal glands, mucus, and
• There is an age-related increase in breast,
urine
uterine, and ovarian cancer
 Secretions that kill or inhibit
microorganisms: Enzymes,
IMMUNE SYSTEM antibodies (IgA in tears),
and stomach acid.
Pathogens are microscopic organisms  Direction of secretion (one
that cause disease way direction - urination)
can prevent or retard the
- Viruses
movement of pathogens into
- Bacteria the body
- Fungi Major Cellular Components of the Innate
- Parasites – Nonspecific System
- Protozoans  All formed (except T-lymphocytes)
leave the bone marrow and directly
Other environmental substances
enter and circulate in the blood.
challenge the lymphatic system
 Red bone marrow = site of origin
- Environmental Pathogens
 T-lymphocytes mature in the thymus
- Toxins
prior to circulating in the blood.
- Abnormal body cells such as cancers
Phagocytes: engulf bacteria, release toxic
The Immune System is coupled with the chemicals, present antigens
Lymphatic System
 Originally WBCs – they migrate into
connective tissue
Innate – Non Specific Defenses: 7  The “clean-up crew”: phagocytose
categories debris and digest via lysosomes
 1st line of defense  Neutrophils enter first then
 Physical barriers: Skin and macrophages (derived from
mucosal barriers - keep monocytes)
  Eosinophils involved with parasitic Innate Immunity: Inflammation
infections and antigen-antibody  Redness - increased blood flow
complexes
 Heat - increased blood flow and
Basophils open up vessels & increase increased metabolic activity
blood flow
 Swelling - increase in fluid loss –
Eosinophils: Parasite-Destroying Cells capillaries to interstitial space,
 Eosinophils are phagocytose capillaries become more permeable
antigen-antibody complexes due to histamine and other chemicals
How do phagocytes invade the area of  Pain - stimulation of pain receptors
infection or injury? from compression from interstitial fluid;
 Inflammatory factors – released by chemical irritation by kinins,
mast cells, etc. prostaglandins, microbe substances

 Vasodilation – capillaries become  Loss of function - (may occur in

permeable severe cases)
 Margination – WBCs slow down &  Acute inflammatory response
align on the vessel wall  a local, nonspecific response --
 Diapedesis – blood cells leave typically lasts 8-10 days
vessels & enter the CT  sometimes persists in process of
 Chemotaxis – blood cells follow a chronic inflammation
chemical gradient (move toward the  Immediate, local, nonspecific
source ie., bacteria) response
Immunological Surveillance: NK cells  Major effector of innate
 Recognizes unhealthy cell (usually immunity that helps eliminate
expressing abnormal proteins or infectious agents
viral proteins – uses perforins  1st step: chemicals like histamine,
(make a hole in the membrane) and leukotirenes, prostaglandins and
granzymes (initiate apoptosis – chemotactic factors released
programmed cell death via gene
 2nd step: response in blood vessels =
expression
vasodilation and increased capillary
Interferons – signaling molecule permeability
(cytokine) released by viral-infected cells
 3rd step: leukocytes (WBCs) recruited
 Binds receptors of neighboring cells via margination and diapedesis. Also
 promotes macrophage function cells undertake chemotaxis and
and apoptosis of infected cell migrate toward (up the gradient) of
chemical agents (bacterial secretions)
 triggers synthesis of enzymes
destroying viral RNA or DNA  Neutrophils, eosinophils,
macrophages clean up the area
 triggers synthesis of enzymes
that inhibit synthesis of viral
proteins Innate Immunity: Fever
Complement Proteins (#C1-C12)  Fever
 11 antimicrobial proteins in plasma  Abnormal elevation of body
– ‘complements’ functions of temperature -- at least 1°C
antibodies They have a number of from normal (37°C)
functions (below) to defend against  May accompany
pathogens inflammatory response
 Due to excess fluid loss so
 Opsonin – coats pathogen to
requires increased fluid
make appear different and thus intake to prevent
recognizable by macrophages dehydration
 Inflammation - Activates mast  Events of fever
cells, basophils, neutrophils,
 Results from
and macrophages to increase
• release of pyrogens
inflammatory response -
such as interleukin
 Cytolysis – causes cell lysis 1, interferons
(Big MAC attack) • toxins from
 Eliminates Antigen-Antibody infectious agents,
complexes on RBCs killed in drug reactions
spleen toxins, brain tumors
 Pyrogens released and
circulate through the body
 • target
hypothalamus and
cause release of
prostaglandin E2
• raises temperature
set point of
hypothalamus
 Benefits of fever
 Inhibits reproduction of
bacteria and viruses
 Promotes interferon activity
 Increases activity of
adaptive immunity
 Accelerates tissue repair
 Increases CAMs on
endothelium of capillaries
in lymph nodes
• additional immune
cells migrating out
of blood
 Recommended to leave a low fever
untreated
 Risks of a high fever significant
above 100 degrees F
 High fevers potentially
dangerous above 103 0 in
children
 Changes in metabolic
pathways and denaturation
of proteins
 Possible seizures,
irreversible brain damage
at greater than 1060, death
above 1090

Summary of Innate – Nonspecific

Processes
 Barriers – epithelium, secretions ,
fluid flow
 Cells: phagocytes (neutrophils,
macrophages, eosinophils), NK
cells
 Chemical signals – inteferons,
complement proteins, inflammatory
mediators, pyrogens for fever

Nonspecific (Innate) because each process

works no matter what the problem is. On an
evolutionary basis the innate mechanisms
were present prior to the development of
lymphocytes and the Adaptive Processes.