Electric Drive Systems Lecture No.1 Mr.

Paul Musyoka

1. Introduction to Electrical Drives:

Definition: An ELECTRIC DRIVE is defined as an electromechanical
device designed to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy to
impart motion to different machines and provides electrical control for
various kinds of processes by means of “controller”.
The aim of the controller is to adjust or stabilize the speed of the motor to
suit a given industrial task.
In the past, horse power replaces the hand power drive by using animals.
These animals were replaced by mechanical drive powered by wind mills,
water wheels and turbines, steam engine, internal combustion engine and
electrical machines (Electric Drives).
Development of Electrical Drives
The development of different kinds of electric drives used in industry may
be divided into three stages:

(1) Group Electric Drive

This drive consists of a single motor, which drives one or more line shafts
supported on bearings. The line shaft may be fitted with either pulleys and
belts or gears, by means of which a group of machines or mechanisms may
be operated. It is also sometimes called as SHAFT DRIVES.
Advantages
A single large motor can be used instead of number of small motors
Disadvantages
There is no flexibility. If the single motor used develops fault, the whole
process will be stopped.

(2) Individual Electric Drive

In this drive each individual machine is driven by a separate motor. This
motor also imparts motion to various parts of the machine.

(3) Multi Motor Electric Drive

In this drive system, there are several individual drives, each of which serves
to operate of many working machines or mechanism in some production
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Electric Drive Systems Lecture No.1 Mr. Paul Musyoka

unit. E.g.: Complicated metal cutting machine tools, paper making

industries, rolling machines, building cranes, aircrafts, etc.

General Electric Drive System

Fig.1 shows the basic structural diagram of a variable speed electrical drive
system which generally has the following components:
 A device that converts electrical energy of the source in the form of
suitable to the motor. This device is called MODULATOR.
 A device that transforms electrical power into mechanical power
(An electric motor or electromagnet).
 A device that converts mechanical energy and impart it the actuating
mechanism (reducers and other intermediate gearing- mechanical system).

Fig.1 Block diagram of drive system.

Drive System Components

1--Electrical Motors
Most commonly used electrical motor for speed control applications are the
following:
 DC Machines
Shunt, series, compound, separately excited DC motors and switched
reluctance machines.

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 Electric Drive Systems Lecture No.1 Mr. Paul Musyoka

 AC Machines
Induction, wound rotor, synchronous, PM synchronous and synchronous
reluctance machines.
 Special Machines
Brush less DC motors, stepper motors, switched reluctance motors are used.

2- Power Electronic Modulators

Functions:
 Modulates flow of power from the source to the motor in such a
manner that motor is imparted speed-torque characteristics required
by the load
 It converts electrical energy of the source in the form of suitable to the
motor
 Selects the mode of operation of the motor (i.e.) Motoring and
Braking.

Types of Power Electronic Modulators

In the electric drive system, the power modulators can be any one of the
following
Controlled rectifiers (ac to dc converters)
Inverters (dc to ac converters)
AC voltage controllers (AC to AC converters)
DC choppers (DC to DC converters)
converters (Frequency changer)

3- Electrical Sources (Input power)

Very low power drives are generally fed from single -phase sources. Rest of
the drives is powered from a 3- phase source. Low and medium power
motors are fed from a 400V supply. For higher ratings, motors may be rated
at 3.3kV, 6.6kV and 11 kV. Some drives are powered from battery.
4- Sensing Unit
Speed Sensing (From Motor)
Torque Sensing
Position Sensing
Current sensing and Voltage Sensing from Lines or from motor terminals.
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 Electric Drive Systems Lecture No.1 Mr. Paul Musyoka

Temperature Sensing [From Load]

5- Controller
Controller for a power modulator matches the motor and power converter to
meet the load requirements.

Classification of Electric Drives

1. According to Mode of Operation
Continuous duty drives
Short time duty drives
Intermittent duty drives
2. According to Means of Control

Manual
Semi automatic
Automatic
3. According to Number of machines
Individual drive
Group drive
Multi-motor drive
4. Another main classification of electric drive is
DC drive
AC drive
Comparison between DC and AC drives

DC DRIVES AC DRIVES
 Well established technology  The power circuit and control
 requires frequent maintenance circuit are complex
 The commutator makes the  Less Maintenance
motor bulky, costly and heavy  These problems are not there in
 Fast response and wide speed these motors and are inexpensive,
range particularly squirrel cage
 Speed and design ratings are induction motors
limited due to commutations  Good line power factor
 Poor power factor  Environmentally insensitive
 Environmentally sensitive

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 Electric Drive Systems Lecture No.1 Mr. Paul Musyoka

Advantages of the drive system

A modern variable speed electrical drive system are static system using
power semiconductor devices such as thyristors (SCRs) and power
transistors such as IGBT, MOSFET and BJT. These systems have replaced
the old pneumatic or hydraulic drives as well as electromechanical and other
forms of control to electronic control. The electronic SCRs drive has the
following advantages:

1. Basic operation is simple and reliable

2. Saving in space and capital cost
3. Higher efficiency
4. Better speed response
5. Low maintenance cost and long life
6. Braking power can be transformed into electrical power and feedback to
the main supply.

Applications of Electrical Drives

Paper mills
Cement Mills
Textile mills
Sugar Mills
Steel Mills
Electric Traction
Petrochemical Industries
Electric Vehicles
Aircraft Drive Systems

See the Appendix

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Electric Drive Systems Lecture No.1 Mr. Paul Musyoka

Appendix : Applications of Industrial Drives

1. Hybrid/Electric Car

Advantages

- Smaller combustion engine/mean power

- Electrical motor=only acceleration & braking

- Reduce fuel consumption/better efficiency

2. Electric drives for propulsion system of ships

- Electrical  No mechanical coupling
- Variable speed propellers (no need for adjustable pitch to
adjust thrust)

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 Electric Drive Systems Lecture No.1 Mr. Paul Musyoka

- Fixed pitch  simpler/cheaper/more robust propellers

- Multiple Diesel/Turbo generator sets/different power 
redundancy

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Electric Drive Systems Lecture No.1 Mr. Paul Musyoka

3. Hybrid Electric Bus Components

4. The Tram

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Electric Drive Systems Lecture No.1 Mr. Paul Musyoka

5. heavy rail, metro, subway, tube, or underground

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Electric Drive Systems Lecture No.1 Mr. Paul Musyoka

6. High speed multi unit electric train

7. Electric drives for Hoists and Cranes applications

Hoist Crane

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Electric Drive Systems Lecture No.1 Mr. Paul Musyoka

Hoist

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Electric Drive Systems Lecture No.1 Mr. Paul Musyoka

8. Conveyor Belts

9. Esclators

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Lecture-16
AC DRIVES -Speed Control of Induction
Motors from the Rotor Side
1) Speed control by changing rotor –circuit resistance
It has been shown previously that the slip of an induction motor equals the ratio of
rotor copper loss to rotor input. Therefore, changing total resistance of the rotor
circuit can change the slip .This may achieved by inserting a three-phase rheostat
in the rotor circuit as shown in Fig.16.1 (a). This method is only possible for
wound rotor applications, and not be possible for squirrel – cage rotor. The
changing total resistance of the rotor circuit can change the speed can also:

The equation of torque for three- phase induction motor is given previously in
lecture -13 as

(a) (b)

Fig.16.1 Three-phase induction motor speed control by changing rotor-circuit

resistance method.
In general, the three- phase induction motor operates in low slip region, hence the
term (sX2)2 becomes very small as compared to , so it can be neglected. Also
if we consider that E2 is constant, then the equation of torque may be written as,

1
It is clear that from the above equation, the torque is inversely proportional to the
rotor resistance. Hence, if we increase rotor resistance R2 , torque decreases. Thus
by adding additional resistance in rotor circuit we can decrease the speed of motor.
The main advantage of this method is that with addition of external resistance
starting torque increases. However, this method of speed control of three phase
induction motor suffers from some disadvantages:
(a) This method can only reduce the speed below the maximum value correspond
to zero external resistance , hence , the speed above the normal value is not
possible. Obviously the method is characterised by low efficiency due to high
waste of energy. For example, to reduce the speed to 50% of its normal value, one
has to dissipate 50% of the power absorbed from the source in the added resistor.

(b) Another objection against this method is the departure of the torque - speed
characteristic from its original shape of small slop to a new characteristic of
considerable slop and the speed regulation is degraded. The slop is dependent on
the value of the added resistance as shown in Fig. 16.1 (b).
Example 16.1

A 75 kW, 4-pole, 440V, 50Hz, star-connected, three-phase induction motor has the
following parameters per phase referred to the stator side:
R1 = 0.1Ω , R2 = 0.083 Ω, X1+ X2 = 1.83 Ω , aeff = Np / Ns =2.5
If the rotor is star connected, determine the external resistance inserted in series
with the rotor winding per phase such that the motor develops an output shaft
torque of 150 Nm at a speed of 1250 rpm.

Solution
The synchronous speed of the motor is

the slip is

The approximate equivalent circuit of the motor referred to the stator side is shown
in Fig.16.2.

2
Fig.16.2

Let Rext be the additional resistance inserted in each rotor phase at s = 0.167 such
that the new rotor resistance becomes Rx , hence from the torque equation,

This leads to the following quadratic equation

From which we get,

Neglecting the smaller value, hence

, referred to the stator
This resistance referred to the rotor side as

3
Other method of achieving rotor – circuit resistance variation

The three-phase resistor shown in Fig.16.1 (a) may be replaced by a single resistor
and d.c. chopper. The slip power from the rotor is converted to d.c current by
rectification. The average resistance across the rotor slip rings will vary from (0-R)
depending on the rate of switching of the rapidly pulsed thyristor. There is need
only for one main thyristor and an auxiliary thyristor for turn-off. The fact that
there is only one resistance is another advantage and this also provides perfect
circuit balancing between the three phases. Schematic diagram of the method is
shown in Fig.16.3.

Fig.16.3 Slip control by d.c. chopper.

The external resistances Rex = 0 during chopper conduction (γ = 0) , where γ is the

chopper duty cycle and Rex = R during chopper extinction with variation.
Therefore,

Disadvantages: high losses in the commutating circuit at high chopping frequency.

At high motor speeds E2 is low and may be insufficient to provide commutating
voltage. So small range of speed can be achieved.

(2) Injecting slip frequency emf into rotor side

When the speed control of three-phase induction motor is done by

adding resistance in rotor circuit, some part of power called, the slip power is lost
as I2R losses. Therefore the efficiency of the motor is reduced by this method of

4
speed control. This slip power loss can be recovered and supplied back in order to
improve the overall efficiency of motor and this scheme of recovering the power
is called slip power recovery scheme. This is done by replacing the d.c. chopper
and resistor R in Fig.16.2 by a three-phase bridge converter as shown in Fig. 16.3.
The converter operates in inversion mode with firing angles
thereby returning energy to the source. The variation of the triggering angle α
results in variation of speed, hence speed control is achieved by this technique.
Therefore, one feature of wound rotor machine is that the slip power becomes
easily available from the slip rings, which can be electronically controlled to
control speed of the motor.

Methods of slip energy recovery

The two well known types of converter use the slip energy recovery technique are:

1. Static Kramer drive: allows operation at subsynchronous speed only.

2. Static Scherbius Drive: allows operation above and below synchronous
speed.

Static Kramer drive

A static Kramer drive is a method to obtain an injected voltage that is in phase

with the rotor current. The voltage at the slip rings is forced to be in phase with
the rotor currents by the diode rectifier. The magnitude of the slip ring voltage is
set by the d.c. link voltage, which is in turn set by the inverter connected back to
the a.c. supply. The schematic diagram of the converter is depicted in Fig.16.4.

Fig. 16.4 Static Kramer drive.

5
The static Kramer drive has been very popular in large power pump and fan -type
drives, where the range of speed control is limited near, but below the
synchronous speed. The drive system is very efficient and the converter power
rating is low because it has to handle only the slip power. The additional
advantages are that the drive system has dc machine-like characteristics and the
control is very simple. These advantages largely offset the disadvantages of the
wound-rotor induction machine.

Static Scherbius Drive

Another technique that employs the principle of slip power returns to the supply is
kown as static Scherbius drive shown in Fig. 16.5 In this system the bridge
rectifier in Fig.16.3 is replaced by cycloconverter (or by three-phase duel
converter). For limited-range speed control applications, where the slip power is
only a fraction of the total power rating of the machine, Kramer and Schrebius
drives (slip-power recovery drives) have been used in the following
applications:
 Large-capacity pumps and fan drives
 Variable-speed wind energy systems
 Shipboard VSCF (variable-speed/constant-frequency) systems
 Variable-speed hydro pumps/generators
 Utility system flywheel energy storage systems

Fig. 16.5 Static Scherbius drive.

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(3) Cascade control method
In this method of speed control of three -phase induction motor, two motors are
required one of them should be a wound rotor type. These two motors are
connected on common shaft and hence called cascaded motor as shown in
Fig.16.6. One motor is the called the main motor and another motor is called the
auxiliary motor. The three- phase supply is given to the stator of the main motor
while the auxiliary motor is derived at a slip frequency from the slip ring of main
motor.

Fig.16.6 Cascade connections of induction motors for speed control.

CYCLOCONVERTER DRIVES

Cycloconverters provide variable frequency variable voltage supply using large

number of power switching devices. They are mainly used in large induction and
synchronous motor drives in low frequency applications such as steel rolling mill
end tables, cement mill furnaces, mine hoists and ship propulsion drives. These
drives are called gearless drives since low speed operation is obtained without a
reduction gear thus reducing the cost compared to the conventional drives.

A full-wave cycloconverter drive configuration with two three-phase thyristor

bridges per motor phase is shown in Fig. 16.7 The output of a poly-phase
controlled rectifier is approximately Vd = Vdo cos α ,where Vdo is the output of the
rectifier with zero firing delay , and α is the delay angle.

Voltage and current waveforms for squirrel cage medium power motor driven by
cycloconverter drive are shown in Fig.16.8 .This type of drive has limitation that
waveforms become distorted above 40% of input frequency (i.e., 20 Hz from 50Hz
supply). However, it has an advantage that high power factor is obtained when
used with synchronous motors.

7
 Fig.16.7 Cycloconvertor drive circuit.

Fig.16.8 Stator phase voltage and stator phase current for squirrel cage induction
motor driven by cycloconverter drive.

8
Lecture-14
AC DRIVES -Speed Control of Induction
Motors
14.1 INTRODUCTION

The three- phase induction motor runs at a speed slightly less than
synchronous speed and is load dependents. Therefore, it is an inherently a constant
speed motor and its output mechanical power depends on the slip s , that is :

So it is difficult to control its speed and if it is done ,it will be at the cost of
decrease in efficiency and low electrical power factor.
The synchronous speed is given by the equation

where f = frequency and p is the number of pole .

The speed of induction motor is given by,

Hence, the speed of the induction motor can be changed either from the stator or
from the rotor sides. Therefore, from Eq. (14.1), the speed control of the
motor from stator side are classified as:

1. Changing the number of stator poles (p).

2. Stator voltage control (controlling the supply voltage (V1)).
3. Supply frequency changing:
(i) Variable-voltage, variable-frequency (V/ f) control.
(ii) Variable-current, variable-frequency (I / f) control.
4. Adding rheostat in the stator circuit (rotor resistance control).

The speed controls of induction motor from rotor side are further classified as:

1. Adding external resistance on rotor side.

2. Rotor injected voltage / slip energy recovery.
3. Cascade control method.

1
These methods are sometimes called scalar controls to distinguish them from
vector controls. The torque–speed characteristics of the motor differ significantly
under different types of control.

14.2 SPEED CONTROL FROM STATOR SIDE

(1) Changing the number of stator poles (p)

The stator poles can be changed by two methods

(i) Multiple stator winding method.

(ii) Pole amplitude modulation method (PAM)

 Multiple - stator winding method: In this method of speed control of three -

phase induction motor , the stator is provided by two separate winding.
These two stator windings are electrically isolated from each other and are
wound for two different pole numbers.
Using switching arrangement, at a time, supply is given to one winding only and
hence speed control is possible.
Disadvantage:
This method will enable speed changes in terms of 2:1 ratio steps, hence to
obtained variations in speed, multiple stator windings has to be applied. Multiple
stator windings have extra sets of windings that may be switched in or out to obtain
the required number of poles. Unfortunately this would an expensive alternative.
This method is not in use now a days.

 Pole amplitude modulation method (PAM) – In this method of speed control

of three-phase induction motor the original sinusoidal mmf wave is
modulated by another sinusoidal mmf wave having different number of
poles.

Disadvantage : This method gives limited speed range , since the resultant mmf
wave will have two different numbers of poles only.
(2) Controlling supply voltage (Variation of stator voltage)

It is seen from Lecture -13 that at any fixed speed ,if we neglect the mechanical
losses, the developed torque TL (=Td) is proportional to the square of the applied
stator voltage V12 . As the stator voltage is reduced the rotor speed decreases and
the maximum torque available from the motor also decreases. If the stator voltage
is varied to control the speed then the speed range of this method is limited with a
constant – torque load. This can be proved as follows:

2
The torque produced by running 3- phase induction motor was given in lecture-13
as

In low slip region (sX2)2 is very small as compared to (R2)2, hence it can be
neglected. Therefore the torque becomes,

Since rotor resistance, R2 is constant so the equation of torque further reduces to

We know that rotor induced emf E2 V1, the supply voltage. So,

From the equation above it is clear that if we decrease supply voltage by one half
the torque reduces to one quarter. Therefore, the low speed performance of the
motor with this method is poor because motor current at a given slip is also
proportional to the applied voltage whereas the torque varies as the square of the
voltage.

Methods of reducing stator voltage V1 :

1- Rheostatic control
This is done by connecting variable resistance or impedance between stator
terminals and the a.c. supply as shown in Fig.14.1. The ohmic losses of this
method of speed control are excessive and particularly at low speeds. Since the
torque produced in an induction motor is proportional to the square of the supply
voltage (T s E22), then if we decrease E1, by reducing the supply voltage, torque
will also decrease. However, this method is not efficient from energy saving point
of view and it is rarely used nowadays.

Fig.14.1 Speed control of three-phase induction motor by adding rheostat in the

stator circuit.
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2. Electronic control
Nowadays, reduction of stator voltage is performed by using thyristors (and tiacs)
that offers several advantages. With thyristors different techniques can be used to
control the rms voltage applied to the motor. Thyristor can be used as:
 AC regulators (see Fig.14.2)
 Transformer adjustable tap changers
 Controllers for multi – winding transformer secondary
The torque – speed characteristics of a 3-phase induction motor with stator voltage
variation method is shown in Fig.14.3. The operating point of an induction motor
can be located on the torque speed characteristics diagram and it is defined by the
point of intersection between the motor characteristics and the load characteristic.

Fig.14.2 Reduction of stator voltage of induction motor using three-phase thyristor

a.c. regulator.

Fig .14.3 Speed- torque characteristic of induction motor for voltage control with
fan load.

4
For small reduction in supply voltage the speed variation will be very small, so
that, for example, point 2 in Fig.14.3 is not shown.

The performance analysis of the motor with its thyristor controller would be very
complex due to the interaction between the motor and its controller.
The accurate analysis would require solution of several nonlinear differential
equations for the voltage, speed and electromagnetic torque. The general solution
is only possible using computer simulation techniques such as Matlab and other
computer programmes. However, for steady – state solution using the approximate
equivalent circuit given in lecture-13 one can find the performance of the three-
phase induction motor when speed controlled by voltage variation technique as
illustrated in the following example.

Example 14.1

A 3.5 hp, 415V, 50Hz, 4-pole, 1370 rpm, star - connected induction motor has the
following parameters referred to the stator side:

R1 = Ω , R2 = 5 Ω , X1 =5. 5 Ω , X2 =4.75 Ω , Xm = Very high.

The speed of the motor is controlled by voltage variation method using two back to
back connected thyristors in each line with symmetrical phase angle triggering
mode. The delay angles of the thyristors are set to give a line to line voltage of
300V across the motor windings. Calculate the motor speed, current and torque
when driving a fan load its characteristic is given by:

Solusion

The torque of the three-phase induction motor for the three phases is

Synchronous speed in rpm = 120f / p = 120x50 /4 =1500.

5
 =

At steady-state, T = TL , hence

From which ;

From which; s = 0.1468

The torque produced by the motor is

The speed of the motor at 300V is

The line current is calculated as , and since Xm is very high , thus I1=I2 ,

Approximate method of solution

It is seen from the above example that the equation of the slip s obtain is of
high order that is mathematically difficult to solve. However, an approximate
method of solution for steady-state operation can be used over a range of average
speeds to determine the corresponding range of thyristor firing angles.

This approximate method uses the motor fundamental equivalent circuit together
with the curves giving the relation between the per unit current and the firing

6
angles for both particular speed and load angles. These curves are shown in
Fig.14.4 (a) and can be approximated by straight line as depicted in Fig. 14.4(b).

For star- connected motors with large phase angle ϕ , the approximated straight
line relation hip between the current and firing angle α can be repre ented
mathematically as

(a) (b)

Fig. 14.4 Current and the firing angles relationship for three-phase star connected
R-L load : (a) MS line current ver u α ,(b) Straight line approximation of current
(pu) for three-wire star-connected induction motor.

For branch-delta connected motor, the approximate relation is found to be roughly

as

Example 14.2

A variable speed drive is used to drive a water pump which has a torque-speed
curves described by the equation SI units, where is the speed of
the pump motor. The drive employs a three-phase, 240V, six-pole, 50 Hz, star-
connected induction motor controlled by pairs of inverse-parallel connected
thyristors in each supply line. The per-phase equivalent circuit parameters of the
motor, referred to primary turns are Ω Ω Ω

7
 The required speed range is 975-600 r.p.m. Use performance
curves of current versus firing-angle to calculate, approximately. The necessary
ranges of thyristor firing-angles.

Solution

The synchronous speed of the motor ns

The slip s is given as

Hence

From lecture - 13 , the output power for the three phases of the motor is

From the approximate equivalent circuit, neglecting the magnetising branch,

Ω
Ω

8
From Fig,14.3 (a),

From Fig,14.3 (a),

Therefore the range of the delay angles is

It is obvious that, with this method of speed control, the variation of speed is not
great (if the voltage reduced to ) . It generates harmonics and electromagnetic
interferences. However, the method for obtaining speed change is simple and
energy saving is possible.

9
Lecture-15
AC DRIVES -Speed Control of Induction
Motors Using Variable Frequency Supply.
In lecture -14, we have discussed two method of speed control from stator side.
In this lecture we shall complete studying control of the speed by frequency
changing method.

(3) Speed control from stator side by variation of the frequency

In the three- phase induction motor , emf is induced by induction similar to that of
transformer which is given by

Where Kw is the winding constant, N is the number of turns per phase and f is
frequency. Now since 4.44 Kw N is a constant value for any induction motor,
therefore the above equation can be written as,

It is clear from the above equation that, if we change the frequency the
synchronous speed will change (ns= 120f / p). So if the frequency is decreased the
flux will increase and this change in flux causes saturation of rotor and stator cores
that causes increase in no load current of the motor. Hence, it is important to
maintain flux, φ constant and it is only possible if the value of the voltage V is
changed to keep the ratio of (V / f ) as constant. Hence, this technique is known as
constant (V / f ) method. For controlling the speed of three-phase induction
motor by (V / f ) method it is necessary to supply variable voltage and variable
frequency which is easily obtained by using converter using solid-state devices /
power electronics which has the ability of providing such requirement.

So far, we have calculated torque-speed relationships at single supply

frequencies, now we need to find how the torque changes with changing
frequency. Consider the circuit diagram shown in Fig.15.1 , which shows the
induction machine equivalent circuit in terms of inductances, rather than
reactances at any effective frequency fe :

1
Fig.15.1Equivalent circuit per phase for theinduction motor in terms of
inductace.

Now, from analysis with a constant frequency supply we know that the torque is
given by:

s
s

Angular frequency of the supply.

= number of poles
=number of pole pairs = 2 .

And, at small values of slip it is reasonable to say that

and, from Eq.(15.3(b)) , we can re-write this in terms of electrical

supply frequency:

2
At this point, it is useful to introduce the concepts of slip frequency and slip
speed.

Slip Speed and Slip Frequency

Define simply, slip speed and slip frequency are:

 Slip speed = slip multiplied by synchronous speed

 Slip frequency = slip multiplied by supply frequency
Slip speed may be defined in either rpm (sns) or mechanical radians per second
(sωs)
Slip frequency is usually given in electrical radians per second as

Note that slip frequency has its own symbol, while slip speed is actually written
as the product of slip and synchronous speed.

Now multiplying top and bottom of the torque equation (15.3) by ωe yields

Torque as a function of slip speed

From the above, we can now re-write the torque as:

We can now see that if the ratio E2 /ωe is constant the torque will be
proportional to slip frequency. Considering another approach to define E 2 from
the equivalent circuit:

where λ is the magnetizing flux in the machine. Substituting we get:

3
This is an important result: at small slips torque is proportional to flux
squared times slip speed

It is clear from Eq.(15.8 ) that the maximum torque is independent on frequency at

a given flux .The torque speed characteristics is shown in Fig. 15.2.

Tm
f1
f4 f2
f3 TL

Speed
0 ωs (rated)
ωs
Fig.15.2 Torque-frequency relationship.

Example 15.1
A 400V, 50Hz, 4-pole motor has rated speed of 1450 rpm and rated torque of
10Nm. If a torque of 10Nm is needed at a mechanical speed of 1250 rpm, find
the synchronous speed, supply frequency and line-line supply voltage.

solution
At rated torque, the slip speed will be the rated value. For a 4-pole 50hz
machine, synchronous speed is 1500 rpm, therefore rated slip speed =1500-1450
=50rpm. When operating at 1250 rpm, 10Nm , slip speed will still be 50rpm and
the synchronous speed is given by

With the synchronous speed, the supply frequency can be found

ns =120fe / p
4
 fe =ns p/120 =1300×4/120 =43.33Hz
Finally, if V/f is constant, the supply voltage must be

Methods of obtaining supply frequency changing

Thyristor circuits can be used to produce variable frequency to control the speed of
induction motors. In general the currently available methods of obtaining a
variable frequency power output from the constant public supply can be divided
into two main techniques:-
1. Indirect frequency conversion using d.c. link (Inverters)
2. Direct frequency conversion (Cycloconverters)
These two frequency changing techniques when applied to speed control of a.c
motors are called: variable frequency drives (VFD).These types of drive perform
two main functions:
 controls the speed of an a.c motor by varying the frequency supplied to the
motor.
 regulates the output voltage in proportion to the output frequency to provide
constant ratio of voltage to frequency (V/Hz) , required by the
characteristics of the a.c motor to produce adequate torque as discussed
before.
(A) Induction motor control using d.c link inverter drive:
Inverter drives are of two types:
 Voltage source inverter drives (VSI)
 Current source inverter drives (CSI)
The voltage source inverter has two stages of power conversion, a rectifier and an
inverter. A block diagram of voltage source inverter drives is shown in Fig.15.3.
The rectifier converts the fixed voltage a.c power to either fixed or adjustable d.c.
voltage. The inverter produces a controllable a.c. output voltage at the desired
frequency. The term “Inverter” is also used to refer to the entire drive.

Fig.15.3 Block diagram of voltage source inverter drives.

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There are three basic types of inverters commonly employed in adjustable a.c.
drives:
(1) The variable voltage inverter (VVI), or square-wave six-step voltage source
inverter (VSI), receives d.c. power from a fixed or adjustable voltage source and
adjusts the frequency and voltage. A controlled rectifier transforms supply a.c. to
variable voltage d.c. as shown in Fig. 15.4. The converter can be an SCR (silicon-
controlled rectifier) bridge or a diode bridge rectifier with a d.c. chopper to presets
d.c. bus voltage to motor requirements. The typical output voltage and current
waveforms of VVI inverter are shown in Fig.15.5.
The output frequency in the VV I inverter is controlled by switching transistors or
thyristors in six steps as shown in Fig.15.5 (a), whereas the VVI inverters control
voltage in a separate section from the frequency generation output. However,

Fig. 15.4 VVI – Variable Voltage Inverter.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 15.5 VVI – Variable Voltage Inverter: (a) Phase voltage waveform, (b) motor
line current waveform.

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a nearly sine current waveform is produced in this type of inverter as depicted in
Fig .15.5 (b).
VVI is the simplest adjustable frequency drive and most economical; however, it
has the poorest output voltage waveform. It requires the most filtering to the
inverter. The ranges available are typically up to 370 kW or 500 horsepower.

(2) The current source inverter (CSI) receives d.c. power from an adjustable
current source and adjusts the frequency and current. AC current transformers are
used to adjust the controlled rectifier. Input converter is similar to the VVI drive.
A current regulator presets d.c. bus current. The inverter delivers six step current
frequency pulses, which the voltage waveform follows. Switches in the inverter
can be transistors, SCR thyristors or gate turnoff thyristors (GTOs).The schematic
diagram of typical current source inverter drive is shown in Fig. 15.6. The output
voltage and current waveforms of the CSI inverter are shown in Fig.15.7.
Features of CSI inverter drives

Because it is difficult to control the motor by current only, the CSI requires a large
filter inductor and complex regulator. The capacitor in the inverter must match to
motor size, and the voltage exhibits commutation spikes when the thyristors fire.
The CSI drives are short circuit proof because of a constant circuit with the motor.
Also they are not suitable for parallel motor operation, however, power is returned
to the supply easily during braking.

Fig.15.6 schematic diagram of typical current source inverter drive.

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 Fig.15.7 CSI – Waveforms.
The CSI drive’s main advantage is in its ability to control current and, therefore,
control torque. This applies in variable torque applications. CSI-type drives have a
higher kW range than VVI and PWM (typically up to 3750 kW).
(3)The pulse width modulated (PWM) inverter is the most commonly chosen. It
receives d.c. power from a fixed voltage source and adjusts the frequency and
voltage. Block diagram for a typical PWM drive is shown in Fig. 15.8.
Features of PWM inverter drives

With PWM inverter drive, motors run smoothly at high and low speed (no
cogging); however, they are current limited. PWM drives can run multiple parallel
motors with acceleration rate matched to total motor load. At low speeds, PWM
drives may require a voltage boost to generate required torque. However, PWM is
the most costly of the three main a.c. VSD types.

Fig.15.8 Block diagram for a typical PWM drive.

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The PWM drive’s main advantage is it requires less filtering to produce nearly
sinusoidal waveforms for both the voltage and current (PWM types cause the least
harmonic noise).The range of PWM inverters is typically up to 2250 kW. The
output voltage and current waveforms of the PWM inverter are shown in Fig.15.9.
Of the three most common inverter systems, the pulse width modulated inverter
produces output current waveforms that have the least amount of distortion.

(B) Induction motor control using direct AC to AC converter.

Adjustable frequency drives using direct frequency techniques are used only for
large motor speed control applications (nearly 1000 kW and above). They include
cycloconverters and load-commutated inverters (LCIs). Both can be used with
induction or synchronous motors. The voltage and current waveforms produced by
direct ac to ac conversion systems approximate, to varying degrees, the pure sine
wave due to the large number of thyristors used to synthesis the output voltage and
current waveforms as shown in Fig.15.10 .

Fig.15.9. PWM inverter – Waveforms.

Fig.15.10 Output voltage and current waveforms of a typical cycloconverter.

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Electric Drives Lecture No.17 Prof.Mohammed Tawfeeq Al-Zuhairi

RATING OF MOTORS

Rating or size of motor can be selected in accordance to specific industrial

applications. Beside the rated voltage and rated frequency, the size of the motor
depends also upon:

(1) Temperature rise , which also depend on the duty cycle of the lode
 Continuous load
 Intermittent load
 Variable load

(2) Maximum torque required of the motor

 Temperature rise :-
An electric machine can be considered as a homogeneous body in which
heat is internally developed at uniform rate and heat dissipation is not a
rate proportional to its temperature rise. The relation between the
temperature rise and time is an exponential function which is given by:
)

Where: temp.rise C°
C°

 Cooling:
During cooling period (motor speed 120

reduce or stopped) the temp. 100

Equation will be: 80
63.2%
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3

Time(t)

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Electric Drives Lecture No.17 Prof.Mohammed Tawfeeq Al-Zuhairi

Example.1
A motor has a thermal heating time constant of 50 min, when the motor runs
continuously on full rating, its final temp. rise is 80 C° . (1) What is the temp. rise
after 1 hours if the motor runs continuously on full lode ? (2) if the temperature
on one hour rating is 80 C° , find the max. steady temp. at this rating .

Solution
(1) Heating time constant τ = 50 min.
)
80 ( C°

(2) )
C°

-Rating of the motor for continuous load.

If the motor has load torque T N.m and it is running at ɷ red/sec , the power
rating of the motor: P = kw .

Such loads are pumps, fan, etc.

-Rating of the motor for Intermittent loads.

Here the motor operating for short time and switch off for long time ( motor is
loaded for some time ). The motor is switched on before cooling completely to
the ambient temp. such loads also referred as fluctuating loads .

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Electric Drives Lecture No.17 Prof.Mohammed Tawfeeq Al-Zuhairi

Fluctuating loads
e.g. ( elevators ).
An approximate and simple method of determined the
rating of a motor subjected to fluctuating load is by
assuming that the heating is proportional to the square of the current drawn by
the motor and hence square of the load. The suitable continuous rating of the
motor is the r.m.s value of the load curve.

Example.2
The load cycle of a motor operating an elevator (lift) for 9 minutes is as follows:

Load period at the bottom 4 mints. 1 HP

Load going up 1 mint. 20 HP
Load period at the top 3 mints. 1 HP
Load period going down 1 mint. -15 HP

Regenerative braking takes place when the load is disconnected. The cycle is
repeated continuously. Estimate suitable H.P for the motor

Solution
The total area under the curve:
= x4+ x1+ x3+ x1
= 632 . min

= = 70.2
25
Or H.P = 8.4
20
15
The nearest standard rating = 10 HP. 10
5
Time(min)
0
-5 0 2 4 6 8 10

-10
-15
-20

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Electric Drives Lecture No.17 Prof.Mohammed Tawfeeq Al-Zuhairi

-Rating of the motor for variable load.

The rating of the motor under such load Conditions can be determined from
the load torque vs time carve. This is called the method equivalent torque. In case
of machines, whose flux remains constant irrespective of load variation, the
equivalent torque rating is given by:

Teq

If the speed at which the load operates is approximately constant , the power P is
proportional to the torque T and

T4
Peq
T1
T2
T3

t1 t2 t3 t4 to

Example.3 Time
An electric motor has load Variation as: Load torque vs time

Torque 240 N.m for 20 minutes

140 N.m for 10 minutes
300 N.m for 10 minutes
200 N.m for 20 minutes
Find the equivalent torque rating of the motor. If the speed of the motor is 720
r.p.m find the power rating of the motor?

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Electric Drives Lecture No.17 Prof.Mohammed Tawfeeq Al-Zuhairi

Solution:

Power rating of the motor = ω=

= 17000 = 17

Example.4
A motor driving some haulage equipment motor a mine has to deliver a load
which follows the following cycle:
Power 50 kW for 10 minutes
No load for 4 minutes
25 kW for 10 minutes
No load for 6 minutes

The cycle repeated indefinitely. Find the suitable size of the continuously rated
motor for the purpose.

The nearest standard motor size is 35 .

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UNIT- 8

(a) Starting and speed Control of Three-phase Induction Motors: Need for starter. Direct on
line (DOL), Star-Delta and autotransformer starting. Rotor resistance starting.
Soft(electronic) starters. Speed control -voltage, frequency, and rotor resistance. 4 Hours

(b) Single-phase Induction Motor: Double revolving field theory and principle of operation.
Types of single-phase induction motors: split-phase, capacitor start, shaded pole motors.
Applications. 3Hours

Starting of 3-Phase Induction Motors

The induction motor is fundamentally a transformer in which the stator is the
primary and the rotor is short-circuited secondary. At starting, the voltage induced in the
induction motor rotor is maximum (Q s = 1). Since the rotor impedance is low, the rotor
current is excessively large. This large rotor current is reflected in the stator because of
transformer action. This results in high starting current (4 to 10 times the full-load current)
in the stator at low power factor and consequently the value of starting torque is low.
Because of the short duration, this value of large current does not harm the motor if the
motor accelerates normally. However, this large starting current will produce large line-
voltage drop. This will adversely affect the operation of other electrical equipment
connected to the same lines. Therefore, it is desirable and necessary to reduce the
magnitude of stator current at starting and several methods are available for this purpose.

Starters for Poly Phase Induction Motors

If motor is started with full voltage, the starting torque is good but very large currents, of
the order of 5-7 times the full-load current flow which causes objectionable voltage drop in
the power supply lines and hence undesirable dip in the supply line voltage. Consequently,
the operation of other equipment connected to the same supply line is affected considerably.
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If the motor is started with reduced voltage, there is no problem of high currents but it
produces an objectionable reduction in the starting torque, on account of the fact that motor
torque is proportional to the square of the applied voltage.
Methods of Starting Squirrel Cage I.M
There are basic four methods of starting the squirrel cage induction motor using
(a) Direct online starters
(b) Stator Resistor (or reactor) Starters
(c) Auto-transformer Starters
(d) Star-Delta Starters

Fig: Direct online starters

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Methods of Starting Slip-Ring (Wound Rotor) I.M.

Though all the above methods, except D.O.L. where the high currents may damage
the rotor windings, can also be employed for starting slip-ring motors, but it is usually not
done because the advantages of such motors can‘t be fully realized. So the method of
adding resistance to the rotor circuit is the most common method for rotor wound I.M.
starting.

D.O.L. Starters
The above Figure shows a contactor type D.O.L. starter connected to a motor. As
soon as the push-button S1 is pressed, the contactor coil is energized closing its contacts
M1, M2 and M3 . Then, the motor windings get full supply through back-up fuses e1, e¢2,
e²1and bimetallic relays O1, O2 and O3 and the motor starts running. An auxiliary contact
A in C1 retains the contactor in closed position after the release of start switch S1. An
overload tripping device e1, working in conjunction with bimetallic relays, is placed in
series with the contactor coil, so that during sustained overload, this opens and the motor
stops automatically. For stopping the motor any time, a stop button is provided in series
with the contactor coil.

Primary Resistor Starter and Reactor Starter

This method consists of connecting the motor to the line voltage through a series
resistance in each phase. The resistors are short-circuited when the motor accelerates to the
desired speed. Sequence of operation of switches shown in Figure below is :
(a) Initially all switches are open.
(b) Switches 1, 2 and 3 are closed simultaneously and motor starts running with full
resistances in series.
(c) Switches 4, 5 and 6 are closed when motor speed picks up and current becomes
constant. Finally switches 7, 7, and 9 are closed to cut all resistances and motors attains
final steady state speed.

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Fig: Series Resistance Starting

Advantages :
(a) It provides closed transition starting, resulting in smooth starting without any transition
high current.
(b) A higher p.f. than auto-transformer starters.

Sometimes as an alternative to resistor starting, reactor starting is used. This method is

mainly used for large motors.
Auto-Transformer in the First Step Starters
In this type of starter, (A. T.) it attains the reduced voltage by means of an auto
transformer at the start. After a definite time interval (about 15 sec.), and after the motor
accelerates, it is transferred from the reduced voltage to 133 the full voltage in the second
step. A. T. are generally provided with voltage drops to give 40%, 60%, 75% and 100%
line voltage. The starting current and starting torque depends on the tapping selected. In the
third step, the change-over switch may be hand operated or automatic through time relay
which connects the motor finally to the line by changing over from position A to B.
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Fig: Simple Diagram of Auto-transformer Starter

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Advantages of A.T. Starters

(i) Greater efficiency.
(ii) Taps on the transformer allow adjustment of starting torque to meet the particular
requirement.

Disadvantages of A. T. Starters
(i) It opens the circuit before the motor is connected directly to the line, thus producing
transient current and stresses.
(ii) It reduces the p.f. of the circuit.
(iii) The torque remains constant for the second step, resulting in acceleration which is not
smooth.
These disadvantages of open transition in A. T. may be overcome by the use of
Korndorfer connection, which introduces another step in starting. On the second step, part
of the A. T. remains in series with the stator windings. The third step involves the transfer
of the full-voltage without open transition.

Star-Delta Starter
It is cheaper as compared to A. T. starter. This method of starting is used for motors
designed to operate normally in delta. The six terminals from the three phases of the stator
must be available :
a, A : Terminals of phase A
b, B : Terminals of phase B
c, C : Terminals of phase C
Commercially, the terminals are marked A1, A2; B1, B2 and C1, C2 respectively. The motor
is started with TPDT switch in position 1 and subsequently switched to position 2.
Position 1 : Starting-windings connected in Y
Position 2 : Running-windings get connected in D

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Fig: Star-Delta Starter

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Methods of Starting 3-Phase Induction Motors

The method to be employed in starting a given induction motor depends upon the size of
the motor and the type of the motor. The common methods used to start induction motors
are:
(i) Direct-on-line starting (ii) Stator resistance starting (iii) Autotransformer starting
(iv) Star-delta starting (v) Rotor resistance starting
Methods (i) to (iv) are applicable to both squirrel-cage and slip ring motors. However,
method (v) is applicable only to slip ring motors. In practice, any one of the first four
methods is used for starting squirrel cage motors, depending upon ,the size of the motor.
But slip ring motors are invariably started by rotor resistance starting.

Methods of Starting Squirrel-Cage Motors

Except direct-on-line starting, all other methods of starting squirrel-cage motors employ
reduced voltage across motor terminals at starting.

(i) Direct-on-line starting

This method of starting in just what the name implies—the motor is started by connecting it
directly to 3-phase supply. The impedance of the motor at standstill is relatively low and
when it is directly connected to the supply system, the starting current will be high (4 to 10
times the full-load current) and at a low power factor. Consequently, this method of starting
is suitable for relatively small (up to 7.5 kW) machines.

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Note that starting current is as large as five times the full-load current but starting
torque is just equal to the full-load torque. Therefore, starting current is very high and the
starting torque is comparatively low. If this large starting current flows for a long time, it
may overheat the motor and damage the insulation.

(ii) Autotransformer starting

This method also aims at connecting the induction motor to a reduced supply at
starting and then connecting it to the full voltage as the motor picks up sufficient speed. Fig.
shows the circuit arrangement for autotransformer starting. The tapping on the
autotransformer is so set that when it is in the circuit, 65% to 80% of line voltage is applied
to the motor.

At the instant of starting, the change-over switch is thrown to ―start‖ position. This
puts the autotransformer in the circuit and thus reduced voltage is applied to the circuit.
Consequently, starting current is limited to safe value. When the motor attains about 80% of
normal speed, the changeover switch is thrown to 220 ―run‖ position. This takes out the
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autotransformer from the circuit and puts the motor to full line voltage. Autotransformer
starting has several advantages viz low power loss, low starting current and less radiated
heat. For large machines (over 25 H.P.), this method of starting is often used. This method
can be used for both star and delta connected motors.

(iii) Star-delta starting

The stator winding of the motor is designed for delta operation and is connected in
star during the starting period. When the machine is up to speed, the connections are
changed to delta. The circuit arrangement for star-delta starting is shown in Fig. The six
leads of the stator windings are connected to the changeover switch as shown. At the instant
of starting, the changeover switch is thrown to ―Start‖ position which connects the stator
windings in star. Therefore, each stator phase gets V 3 volts where V is the line voltage.
This reduces the starting current. When the motor picks up speed, the changeover switch is
thrown to ―Run‖ position which connects the stator windings in delta. Now each stator
phase gets full line voltage V.
The disadvantages of this method are:
(a) With star-connection during starting, stator phase voltage is 1/root3 times the line
voltage. Consequently, starting torque is (1/root3 )2 or 1/3 times the value it would have
with D-connection. This is rather a large reduction in starting torque.

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(b) The reduction in voltage is fixed.

This method of starting is used for medium-size machines (upto about 25 H.P.).

Starting of Slip-Ring Motors

Slip-ring motors are invariably started by rotor resistance starting. In this method, a variable
star-connected rheostat is connected in the rotor circuit through slip rings and full voltage is
applied to the stator winding as shown in Fig.

(i) At starting, the handle of rheostat is set in the OFF position so that maximum resistance
is placed in each phase of the rotor circuit. This reduces the starting current and at the same
time starting torque is increased.

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(ii) As the motor picks up speed, the handle of rheostat is gradually moved in clockwise
direction and cuts out the external resistance in each phase of the rotor circuit. When the
motor attains normal speed, the change-over switch is in the ON position and the whole
external resistance is cut out from the rotor circuit.

Slip-Ring Motors Versus Squirrel Cage Motors

The slip-ring induction motors have the following advantages over the squirrel cage motors:
(i) High starting torque with low starting current.
(ii) Smooth acceleration under heavy loads.
(iii) No abnormal heating during starting.
(iv) Good running characteristics after external rotor resistances are cut out.
(v) Adjustable speed.

The disadvantages of slip-ring motors are:

(i) The initial and maintenance costs are greater than those of squirrel cage motors.
(ii) The speed regulation is poor when run with resistance in the rotor circuit

Speed control of Induction Machines

We have seen the speed torque characteristic of the machine. In the stable region of
operation in the motoring mode, the curve is rather steep and goes from zero torque at
synchronous speed to the stall torque at a value of slip s = ^s. Normally ^s may be such that
stall torque is about three times that of the rated operating torque of the machine, and hence
may be about 0.3 or less. This means that in the entire loading range of the machine, the
speed change is quite small. The machine speed is quite sti_ with respect to load changes.
The entire speed variation is only in the range ns to (1 - ^s)ns, ns being dependent on supply
frequency and number of poles.
The foregoing discussion shows that the induction machine, when operating from
mains is essentially a constant speed machine. Many industrial drives, typically for fan or
pump applications, have typically constant speed requirements and hence the induction

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