Complex Numbers

IE2107 – Engineering Mathematics II

A/P Su Rong
S1-B1b-59, Email: [email protected]
Complex Numbers > Learning Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Define the basics of complex numbers.

• Derive Euler’s Formula and De Moivre’s Formula.

• Derive the complex logarithm and its general power.

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Complex Numbers > Definition

A complex number 𝑧 is defined as 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, where 𝑖 = −1. Geometrically, a complex

number is a point in the complex plane (or the Argand diagram) and can be considered as a
vector in the plane. A diagrammatic representation of the complex number is shown below.

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Complex Numbers > Definition

Here is an explanation of the equation depicted in the diagram.

𝑥 = 𝑟cos𝜃, and y = 𝑟sin𝜃

𝑟= 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑧ҧ = 𝑧 𝑧ҧ

𝑦
𝜃 = arg 𝑧 = arctan radians
𝑥

= Arg 𝑧 + 2𝑛π, 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

Where, Arg 𝑧 is the principal value of arg 𝑧

and satisfies −π < Arg 𝑧 ≤ π

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Complex Numbers > Definition

Let us look at an example to understand the concept of complex numbers.

Example 1
i. Let 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖
Then, 𝑟 = 𝑧 = 1 + 1 = 2
1
arg 𝑧 = arctan
1
π
= ± 2𝑛π, 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …
Type equation here.
4
𝜋
The principal value of the argument is .
4
−1 −π
ii. If 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖, then arg 𝑧 = arctan = ± 2nπ, 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …
1 4
−𝜋
The principal value of the argument is .
4

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Complex Numbers > Euler’s Formula

From Euler’s formula, it can be found that:

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 and 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
Thus, cos 𝜃 = and sin 𝜃 =
2 2𝑖

From Euler’s formula, 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃, for any real value of 𝜃, the polar form of a

complex number can be written as 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑟∠𝜃.

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Complex Numbers > Euler’s Formula

Let us now look at some Algebraic Rules.

Let 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 = 𝑟1 ∠𝜃1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 = 𝑟2 ∠𝜃2

Addition and subtraction 𝑧1 ± 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 ± 𝑥2 + 𝑖(𝑦1 ± 𝑦2 )

Multiplication 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 + 𝑖(𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 )

𝑧1 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦2
Division = 2 2
+𝑖
𝑧2 𝑥 +𝑦 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

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Complex Numbers > Euler’s Formula

Let us now look at some Algebraic Rules.

Let 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 = 𝑟1 ∠𝜃1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 = 𝑟2 ∠𝜃2

Addition
It isand more 𝑧convenient
subtraction
sometimes 1 ± 𝑧2 = 𝑥 ± 𝑥multiplication
to1 do 2 + 𝑖(𝑦1 ± 𝑦2 )

and division in the polar form.

𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 ∠ 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ,
Multiplication 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 + 𝑖(𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 )
𝑧1 𝑟1 ∠𝜃1 𝑟1
= = ∠(𝜃1 −𝜃2 )
𝑧2 𝑟2 ∠𝜃2 𝑟2
𝑧1 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦2
Division = 2 2
+𝑖
𝑧2 𝑥 +𝑦 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

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Complex Numbers > Euler’s Formula

Let us now understand the complex conjugate of 𝑧 and its algebraic rules.

In the given equation 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, the complex conjugate of 𝑧 is defined as 𝑧ҧ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦.

Thus, it can be written as:

1 1
𝑅𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑧 + 𝑧ҧ , 𝐼𝑚 𝑧 = (𝑧 − 𝑧)ҧ
2 2𝑖

𝑧1 𝑧1 𝑧ഥ2
𝑧𝑧ҧ = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑧 2,
=
𝑧2 𝑧2 2

𝑧1 𝑧ഥ1
𝑧1 ± 𝑧2 = 𝑧ഥ1 ± 𝑧ഥ2 , 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧ഥ1 𝑧ഥ2 , =
𝑧2 𝑧ഥ2
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Complex Numbers > De Moivre’s Formula

Here is the derivation of the De Moivre’s formula.

Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟 cos𝜃 + 𝑖sin𝜃 = 𝑟∠𝜃

𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 cos𝜃 + 𝑖sin𝜃 𝑛

𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑧. 𝑧 … . 𝑧 = 𝑟. 𝑟 … . 𝑟∠ 𝜃 + 𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑛 ∠(𝑛𝜃)
Then, for any integer 𝑛,
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
= 𝑟 𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃

From the above equation, the De Moivre’s formula can be expressed as:
cos𝜃 + 𝑖sin𝜃 𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 which is useful in deriving certain trigonometric identities.
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Complex Numbers > De Moivre’s Formula

Let us look at a sample problem to understand the concept of complex numbers.

Sample Problem 1
Find identities for cos 2𝜃 and sin 2𝜃.

Solution:
cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 2 = cos 2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 + 2𝑖 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
Type
= cosequation
2𝜃 + 𝑖here.
sin 2𝜃

Therefore,

cos 2𝜃 = cos 2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 and sin 2𝜃 = 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃

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Complex Numbers > De Moivre’s Formula

Let us look at another sample problem explaining the concept of complex numbers.

Sample Problem 2
Express cos 4 𝜃 in terms of multiples of 𝜃.

Solution:
Since 2 cos 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
Type equation here.
24 cos 4 𝜃 = (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + −𝑖𝜃
𝑒 ) 4

= 𝑒 𝑖4𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖4𝜃 + 4 𝑒 𝑖2𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖2𝜃 + 6

= 2 cos 4𝜃 + 8 cos 2𝜃 + 6
1
⇒ cos 4 𝜃 = cos 4𝜃 + 4 cos 2𝜃 + 3
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Complex Numbers > Roots of Complex Numbers

Consider 𝑧 = 𝑤 𝑛 , 𝑛 = 1,2, …

For a given 𝑧 ≠ 0, the solution of 𝑤 in

the above equation is called the 𝑛𝑡ℎ
root of 𝑧 and is denoted by 𝑤 = 𝑛 𝑧.

First, 𝑧 = 𝑟∠ 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋 .
Next, let 𝑤 = 𝑅∠ϕ.

Then, 𝑧 = 𝑤 𝑛 gives
𝑟∠ 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋 = 𝑅𝑛 ∠(𝑛ϕ).
Thus, 𝑅 = 𝑛 𝑟, and
𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋
ϕ= , k = 0,1, … , (𝑛 − 1).
𝑛
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Complex Numbers > Roots of Complex Numbers

Consider 𝑧 = 𝑤 𝑛 , 𝑛 = 1,2, …

For a given 𝑧 ≠ 0, the solution of 𝑤 in

To summarise,
the above equation is called the 𝑛𝑡ℎ
root of 𝑧 and is denoted by 𝑤 =𝑛 𝑛 𝑧. 𝑛 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑧 = 𝑟∠ ,
𝑛
First, 𝑧 = 𝑟∠ 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋 .
𝑘 = 0,1, … . , (𝑛 − 1)
Next, let 𝑤 = 𝑅∠ϕ.
Geometrically, the entire set of roots lies at
Then, 𝑧 = 𝑤 𝑛 gives the vertices of a regular polygon of 𝑛 sides
𝑛
𝑛
inscribed in a circle of radius 𝑟.
𝑟∠ 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋 = 𝑅 ∠(𝑛ϕ).
Thus, 𝑅 = 𝑛 𝑟, and
𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋
ϕ= , k = 0,1, … , (𝑛 − 1).
𝑛
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Complex Numbers > Roots of Complex Numbers

Let us look at an example to understand the concept of roots of complex numbers.

Example 2
1Τ 3
Let us find all values of (−8𝑖) 3 , that is, −8𝑖.

First,
−𝜋
−8𝑖 = 8∠ + 2𝑘𝜋 , 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
2
Type equation here.
The desired roots are:
−𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = 2∠ + , 𝑘 = 0,1,2
6 3

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Complex Numbers > Roots of Complex Numbers

Let us look at an example to understand the concept of roots of complex numbers.

Example 2 (contd.)

The roots lie at the vertices of an

equilateral triangle, inscribed in
the circle 𝑧 = 2 and are equally
spaced around that circle every
Type equation here.
2𝜋Τ radians, starting with the
3
principal root

−𝜋
𝑤0 = 2∠ = 3 − 𝑖.
6

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Complex Numbers > Roots of Complex Numbers > Exponential Function

Let us now define the exponential function. The exponential function 𝑒 𝑧 is defined as:
∞
𝑧
1 𝑛
𝑒 = ෍ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦).
𝑛!
𝑛=0
If 𝑥 = 0, then the Euler formula
becomes: 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦.
Hence, the polar form of a complex
number may be written as
𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 . If 𝑧 = 𝑒 i𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 , then
1 1
sin 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = (𝑧 − 𝑧),
ҧ
2𝑖 2𝑖
1 1
cos 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = (𝑧 + 𝑧).
ҧ
2 2

It is also geometrically obvious that

𝜋
𝑒 𝑖𝜋 = −1, 𝑒 −𝑖 Τ2 = −𝑖 and 𝑒 −𝑖4𝜋 = 1.
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Complex Numbers > Complex Logarithm and General Power

The natural logarithm of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is denoted by ln𝑧 and is defined as the inverse of

the exponential function.

Since, 𝑤 = ln𝑧 is defined for 𝑧 ≠ 0 by the relation 𝑒 𝑤 = 𝑧.

So, if 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 𝑟 > 0, then ln𝑧 = ln𝑟 + 𝑖𝜃.

Note that the complex logarithm is infinitely many-valued.

The general power of a complex number, 𝑧 𝑐 , can be derived as follows:

Let 𝑦 = 𝑧 𝑐 , ⇒ ln𝑦 = 𝑐ln𝑧, ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑧 𝑐 = 𝑒 𝑐ln𝑧 , 𝑧 ≠ 0.

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Complex Numbers > Complex Logarithm and General Power

Let us look at a sample problem to understand the concept of complex logarithm.

Sample Problem 3
i) Evaluate ln(3 − 4𝑖).
3
ii) Solve ln𝑧 = −2 − 𝑖.
2

Solution:
i) ln 3 − 4𝑖 = ln 3 − 4𝑖 + 𝑖 arg(3 − 4𝑖)
Type equation here.
= 1.609 − 𝑖 0.927 ± 2nπ , 𝑛 = 0,1, …
Principal value: When 𝑛 = 0
3 3
−2−2𝑖 3 3
ii) 𝑧 = 𝑒 = 𝑒 −2 𝑒 −𝑖2 = 𝑒 −2 cos − 𝑖 sin
2 2

= 0.010 − 𝑖 0.135

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Complex Numbers > Complex Logarithm and General Power

Here is another sample problem explaining the concept of complex logarithm.

Sample Problem 4
Find the principal value of (1 + 𝑖)𝑖 .

Solution:
Let 𝑦 = (1 + 𝑖)𝑖 . Then, ln𝑦 = 𝑖 ln(1 + 𝑖), or 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑖 ln(1+𝑖)
Hence, (1 + 𝑖)𝑖 = 𝑒 𝑖 ln(1+𝑖)
Type equation here.
𝜋Τ +2𝑘𝜋
But, ln 1 + 𝑖 = ln 2𝑒 𝑖 4

= ln 2 + 𝑖 πൗ4 + 2𝑘π , 𝑘 = 0, ±1, …

and the principal value is when 𝑘 = 0.
𝜋
𝜋Τ ) − 4 +𝑖(ln 2)
Therefore, 𝑒 𝑖 ln(1+𝑖) = 𝑒 𝑖(ln 2+𝑖 4 =𝑒
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Summary
Complex Numbers > Summary

Key points discussed in this lesson:

• A complex number 𝑧 is defined as 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, where 𝑖 = −1. Geometrically, a complex

number is a point in the complex plane (or the Argand diagram) and can be considered as a
vector in the plane.

• In the given complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, the complex conjugate of 𝑧 is defined as

𝑧ҧ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦.

• From Euler’s Formula 𝑒 𝒊𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 , and 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃. Then,
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
cos 𝜃 = and sin 𝜃 = .
2 2𝑖

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Complex Numbers > Summary

Key points discussed in this lesson:

• For complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟 cos𝜃 + 𝑖sin𝜃 = 𝑟∠𝜃. The De Moivre’s formula is

given as: cos𝜃 + 𝑖sin𝜃 𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃.

∞
1 𝑛
• The exponential function 𝑒𝑧 𝑧
is defined as: 𝑒 = ෍ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦).
𝑛!
𝑛=0

• The natural logarithm of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is denoted by ln𝑧 and is defined as the

inverse of the exponential function.

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