TOPIC

SYMBIOSIS
 WHAT IS SYMBIOSIS ?
Symbiosis is the phenomenon by which two organisms maintain relationship with each other to be
mutually benefitted.

In symbiotic mode, organisms develop a special relationship with certain other organisms to obtain
nourishment. Organisms involved in this type of relationship are called as symbionts. e.g. Rhizobium
bacteria and Leguminous plants are symbionts exhibiting symbiosis. Plants cannot utilize atmospheric
nitrogen directly. Hence, leguminous plants establish a symbiotic relationship with bacteria like
Rhizobium. Both the organisms of symbiotic relationship are mutually benefited. Leguminous plant
provides shelter and nourishment for the bacteria and in turn bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen to the
plant.

Symbiosis can be defined as any kind of relationship or interaction between two dissimilar organisms,
each of which may receive benefits from their partners that they did not have while living alone (Angel
ard & Bever, 2013).

Previously, the term was restricted to a mutualistic relationship wherein both organisms benefit from the
interaction. In mutualism, the relationship between the two organisms depends on each other. Each one
gains benefits from the other. This is the type of relationship between different species where both of the
organisms in question benefit from the presence of the other. At present, the scope of the term has
become broader. Now, the term includes other forms of associations like parasitism and commensalism.
More than a century ago, Anton de Barry proposed the original definition of symbiosis as a long-term
relationship between two different species. To complement his original definition, it can be added,
mutualism, (beneficial for both), commensalism (beneficial for one, neutral for the other), and parasitism
(beneficial for one, costly for the other).
 Etymology and history
The term ‘symbiosis’ is derived from the Greek suν, meaning ‘together’ and βίωsις, meaning ‘living’ and
is defined as the persistent association of two or more dissimilar species. Many decades ago, de Bary
introduced into German the word “Symbiose” to refer to detrimental as well as beneficial associations of
different creatures, and so included forms of parasitism.
A few years later, biologists began to use the term for meaning associations of organisms, from distinct
species, that have complementary needs; i.e., for convenient living arrangements in which dissimilar
partners live together with some mutual benefit, explicit or implicit (Lewin, 1982).
A large number of symbioses involve a single multicellular eukaryotic organism coupled with one or
more microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, eukaryotic microorganisms, or Archaea. By
convention, the larger partner is usually called the ‘host’ and the smaller ones ‘symbionts.’ (Oliver &
Russell, 2016).
There are however several barriers in which these symbionts can establish this type of association. Some
symbiotic relationships lead to an organelle differentiation, that follows different key processes:
recognition by both symbiont and host, engulfment of the symbiont, the failure of defense systems from
the host to prevent the symbiosis by a defense reaction, the physiological integration, and finally, genetic
integration. These barriers are more clear in endosymbionts, but can also apply to macro organisms.
There are a lot of cases (some reviewed here), where initiation of morphogenesis is necessary. This
includes the differentiation of specialized cells and tissues, which is a clue that an organism has clearly
evolved due to long-term symbiont integration. These partners live in symbioses and show unique
morphological specializations.
These changes are more obvious when they directly interact for longer periods of time. Some organisms
like plants, bacteria, or fungi alternate independently with entirely integrated living (Chapman and
Margulis 1998) with their symbionts.
 TYPES OF SYMBIOSIS
There are different types of symbiotic relationships and they are characterized essentially by the type and
extent of the impact of the association. When both parties are in a mutually beneficial relationship, it is
referred to as mutualism. But when only one party is symbiotically benefitting, then it may be construed
as a parasitic type of relationship. Let’s find out more about the different types of symbiosis below.
 MUTALISM
Mutualism is one of the most studied types of symbiotic relationships. It is described as an
interaction between individuals from different species that brings in positive (beneficial)
effects on each one of the participants. It can affect the reproduction and/or survival of the
populations involved. It is a highly dynamic interaction in which there is likely to be
continual evolution and coevolution among partner species (Althoff & Segraves, 2016).
Obligate mutualism refers to a type of symbiosis (Holland & Bronstein, 2008). Mutualistic
symbiosis involves a close physical association in the long term between participants
(Angerlard & Bever, 2013). An example of a mutual relationship is lichens. This mutually
beneficial relationship consists of algae and a fungus. The fungi bring support and
protection while obtaining food from the photosynthetic algae, in which bright colors are
light-absorbing pigments (Audesirk et al., 2013). Other examples of mutualisms in the
microbial world are the rhizobium-legume symbiosis and arbuscular mycorrhizas

DEFINITION:
Mutualism is a type of symbiotic relationship where both organism benefit
from each other

BENEFITS:
Organisms provide each other with resources such as food, shelter,
protection, or locomotion

EXAMPLES:
Butterflies and flowers: Butterflies receive nectar from flowers, and in return, move
pollen from the flower to another plant.

· Yucca moths and yucca plants: The plants cannot make seeds without the moth, and the
moth larvae only reach maturity if they eat developing yucca seeds.
·
· Cyanobacteria and bacteria: The cyanobacterium provides fixed carbon and nitrogen, and
the bacteria respire to remove oxygen.

Snails and macrophytes: Snails remove algae and bacteria from the surface of
macrophytes, and the macrophytes provide growth substrata for the snails
 COMMENSALISM

Commensalism is an interaction where one individual benefits from another species, while
the other is unaffected. For example, one organism can provide essential nutrients or
resources to another organism. This type of cross-feeding is common in soil organisms
(Hartel, 2004).
A good example of this interaction is when one microorganism (a beneficial bacteria)
produces an antibiotic against another organism (a pathogen) (Lazarovits et al., 2007) and
provides protection to the plant associated with the beneficial bacteria. Some strains of
Bacillus and Pseudomonas are known to suppress disease in certain crops (Larkin &
Fravel, 1998; Prashar et al., 2013).
An example from the animal kingdom is remoras and sharks. Remoras use a suction disk
to attach to its host, which can be a shark, ray, bony fish, sea turtle, as well as other
cetaceans or sirenians. Some of the benefits from the association to the remora include
transportation, protection from other marine predators, increased courtship/reproduction
potential, enhanced metabolic processes, and more feeding opportunities. These remoras
are opportunistic symbionts, that feed on parasitic copepods (which constitutes the bulk of
their diet), zooplankton and smaller nekton, food scraps from meals of their hosts, and
sloughing epidermal tissue and feces of the host (Fertl & Landry, 2018).

Definition:
A symbiotic relationship where one species benefits, but the other is neither
harmed nor benefited
Examples:
Remoras attached to sharks, cattle egrets following cows, and epiphytes
growing on trees
In a commensal relationship, the benefiting organism, called the commensal, can gain
food, shelter, locomotion, or protection from the host species. The host species is usually
larger than the commensal and is not significantly affected by the relationship.
Here are some examples of commensalism:
Remoras and sharks
Remoras attach themselves to sharks and other fish to gain
locomotion and food from them. The sharks are not affected by the remoras.
Cattle egrets and cows
Cattle egrets follow herds of cows and catch insects that are stirred
up by the cows' grazing. The cows are not harmed by the egrets.
Epiphytes and trees
Epiphytes are plants that grow on other plants, such as orchids
growing on tree branches. The epiphytes benefit from the support and elevation provided
by the tree, but the tree is not affected by the epiphytes.
 AMENSALISM

Amensalism is the interaction where one species affects another negatively, while the
second species has very little if no effect at all on the first (Kitching & Harmsen, 2008). An
example of amensalism is the mussel beds and the various infaunal species that it harbors.
Mussels are mollusks that can be rich hosts for several species of marine organisms. But,
since the substrate (the mussels themselves) is also composed of living organisms, there
exists an amensalistic interaction in which those suspension feeders (associated with the
mussel beds) affect the mussels negatively, while the mussels have little effect on the
feeders. (Dittmann, 1990). Another example is when a plant is shaded out by a taller plant.
The shorter plant is adversely affected by the resulting scanty light available for its use in
photosynthesis.
 PARASITISM

The relationships do not have to be mutually beneficial to be considered symbiotic.

Around two-thirds of the Earth’s species are believed to be parasites, and parasitism has
evolved independently in many different groups (vampire bats, fleas, flatworms,
nematodes, several protists, several plants, etc.) (Zeigler, 2014).
Parasitism is an association between different species of organisms (Noble & Noble, 1971)
in which the parasite (symbiont) depends on its host to meet its metabolic needs. It involves
the uptake of substances that are nutrients to the parasite. They usually live inside or
under their hosts, and they generally harm or debilitate them, though do not kill them
immediately. Parasites are usually smaller than their hosts and outnumber them.
An example of parasitic relationships is the one of a species of tropical ants (Cephalotes
atratus) and a parasitic roundworm that makes its bulbous rear end, called a gaster, look
like a juicy red berry (Poinar & Yanoviak, 2008). Other examples are tapeworms (about
1,100 species), as well as fleas (about 2,000 known species) (Zeigler, 2014).
 PREDATION

In the predator symbiotic relationship, one species (the symbiont) kills another species
(their host). Unlike parasitism, the symbiont outright kills their host, rather than harming
them for a long time. An example of this relationship is the predation on symbiont sea
anemones by their host hermit crab (Dardanus pedunculatus) (Imafuku et al., 2000).
Some hermit crabs carry sea anemones in their shells, and when these are a period of
starvation, they remove their anemones and feed on them.

• Predation: A predator hunts and eats a prey, benefiting itself at the expense of the
prey. Predation is usually short-term and doesn't occur over a long period of time.

• Symbiosis: A mutually beneficial relationship between at least two species.

Predation is an ecological relationship, along with competition. In a predator-prey
relationship, the predator and prey regulate each other's population dynamics. They also
often evolve adaptations related to their interaction, such as the prey developing defenses
and the predator learning to avoid them
 EXAMPLES OF SYMBIOSIS
The more we learn about life on Earth, the more we see symbiotic relationships in living
organisms. It even seems to have been involved in at least the origins of several diverse,
unique, and successful groups such as eukaryotes—where at
least mitochondria and chloroplasts are known to be derived from once free-living
prokaryotes. Since more than a century ago, there have been proposed and discussed
different endosymbiotic theories to explain the origin of eukaryotic cells and their
organelles. This theory (known as The Serial Endosymbiont Theory) of eukaryotic cell
origins is now well accepted and is one of the most important and dramatic examples of
the role of symbiosis in the evolution on Earth. According to these theories, the eukaryotic
cell evolved due to the result of endosymbiosis (endosymbiotic unions) between the early
free-living prokaryotic (bacterial) cells and other single-celled organisms (Zeigler, 2014).
This is a type of reciprocal advantageous association in which one organism lives inside
another and it has pivotal importance in symbiogenesis.

Symbioses involve diverse interactions as previously discussed above. These interactions

can also be maintained and disrupted if necessary. How the host and the symbiont interact
can define the symbiotic relationship. They even have acquired a variety of mechanisms
either for maintaining or terminating the symbiosis (Oliver & Russell, 2016).

Let’s take a look at some of the common symbiotic relationship examples found in nature
and how their interaction defines their symbiotic relationship.

.MYCORRHIZAS

.PINWORM

.AMEBIASIS

.CLOWNFISH & ANEMONES

 MYCORRHIZAS

A very particular type of symbiotic interaction is between certain fungi and plants. Fungi
symbionts shown in the figure below form arbuscular mycorrhizas (AM), the most
common mycorrhizal type. These fungi have been recognized as obligate symbionts of a
very wide range of plant species since they are not able to proliferate outside their plant
host. The symbioses are biotrophic and normally mutualistic (Schouteden et al., 2015), the
long-term compatible interactions being based largely on a two-way nutrient transfer
between the symbionts, sometimes supplemented by other benefits such as drought and
disease tolerance (Smith & Read, 2008).
 PINWORM

Human infection by the parasitic nematode, Enterobius vermicularis,

or pinworm, is the most common nematode infection in developed
countries and is an example of a parasitic symbiotic relationship.
Pinworm infections are commonly found in infants, particularly those
who are not toilet trained yet. Adult female worms, which grow up to 1 cm
in length, reside in the large intestine. At night, the female worms move
out of the host to release eggs on the perianal skin. The eggs become
infective within several hours, and the pinworm life cycle is completed
when the eggs are ingested and hatch, to release the larval form of the
worm in the host small intestine (Jones & Cappello, 2004)
 AMEBIASIS

Parasitic protozoan infections represent a major health problem in

developing countries since most contribute significantly to morbidity and
mortality. These protozoans can form a symbiotic interaction with their
human host that influences their physiology and can make diseases
progress slower or faster. In the case of diarrheal diseases, they continue
to be major causes of morbidity and mortality in children in developing
countries.
In countries like Bangladesh, it is estimated that 1 in 30 children die of
diarrhea or dysentery by his or her fifth birthday. Entamoeba histolytica is
a protozoan parasite that causes amebic dysentery (Haque et al. 2003).
Moreover, there seems to be an influence by other microorganisms living
in the host that can affect this symbiosis. Several studies have noted that
the bacterial communities in the host can influence the virulence of
individual pathogens and potentially add variability to the disease
symptoms of parasitic protozoan infections. A study showed that when
cultured together with other pathogenic bacteria, Entamoeba
histolytica can have their virulent effect augmented or attenuated
(Burgess et al. 2017).
 CLOWNFISH & ANEMONES

Clownfish (Amphiprion) is one of the most studied ecological symbiotic

relationships, and thus an interesting group for the study of symbiosis.
Several species can live in close associations with sea anemones
(Thalassianthidae, Actinidae, Stichodactilidae). Studied since more than a
century ago, this relationship is considered to be a mutualistic symbiosis,
as the sea anemones provide protection and nutrients to clownfishes, and
clownfishes provide ventilation, nitrogen, and carbon to the host. This is
an important role in the nutrition of the anemones that becomes a habitat
for clownfish (Roux et al., 2019).
 Oxpeckers and different mammals
Yellow-billed oxpeckers (Buphagus africanus) are one of the world’s few
obligate mammal gleaners. They exhibit a repertoire of highly divergent
adaptations for life with large mammals (like waterbucks or giraffes).
These include short, sharp claws that facilitate clinging to hides, as well as
long stiff tails that can be used to support the oxpecker when they are
clinging onto the bodies of large mammals. This relationship is beneficial
to the large mammals too since these oxpeckers have beaks that are
laterally flattened and have a sharp cutting edge suitable for handling
ticks in their host (Koenig, 1997), which serve as food to the symbiont.
 Black walnut tree
A particular type of amensalism interaction is competition. An example of
this is the black walnut tree. When it reaches 15-25 years of age, it
accumulates allelopathic chemicals that have a detrimental effect on
nearby plants, not allowing them to grow. The chemical juglone is
responsible for this allelopathic behavior, providing growth inhibition to
other competitors for resources (Inderjit & Keating, 1999).
 Rhizobium-legume
Since nitrogen is an essential nutrient, plants require it to grow. Even though N2 gas is a
major constituent of the atmosphere, it is chemically inert and therefore unavailable as a
source of nitrogen for use by most living organisms. However, eukaryotic organisms are
unable to fix nitrogen since they do not have the enzymatic machinery to convert inert
N2 to usable nitrogen. Because of this, different types of symbiotic relationships have been
established between eukaryotes and diazotrophic bacteria that have this function.

Some bacteria can reduce N2 and thereby “fix” atmospheric nitrogen using the
enzyme nitrogenase. Many legumes have taken advantage of this special bacterial asset by
going into partnership with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, Rhizobium.

In exchange for supplying resources to its bacterial symbiont, the plants receive a supply
of reduced nitrogen. Overall, the legumes create a highly specialized environment within
their roots, which are suitable for the bacteria to fix nitrogen.

These specialized plant structures are called nodules; usually, they are found on roots, but
they also occur on the stems of some legumes (Russo et al., 1992). The symbiotic complex
is often referred to as a “symbiosome”.

This structure is known as the basic nitrogen-fixing unit of the nodule. The nitrogen fixed
by bacteroids in the symbiosome is exported as ammonium to the host plant cytoplasm,
where it is assimilated and transported toward the other organs of the plant. Vice versa,
reduced carbon compounds, essential to the bacteria, from the plant are transported to the
nodule. Many other metabolites can also be exchanged between the host plant and the
symbiosome (Coba de la Peña et al. 2017).
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 CONCLUSION

Symbiosis is the phenomenon by which two organisms maintain

relationship with each other to be mutually benefitted. In symbiotic
mode, organisms develop a special relationship with certain other
organisms to obtain nourishment. Organisms involved in this type
of relationship are called as symbionts. e.g. Rhizobium bacteria and
Leguminous plants are symbionts exhibiting symbiosis. Plants
cannot utilize atmospheric nitrogen directly. Hence, leguminous
plants establish a symbiotic relationship with bacteria like
Rhizobium. Both the organisms of symbiotic relationship are
mutually benefited. Leguminous plant provides shelter and
nourishment for the bacteria and in turn bacteria fix atmospheric
nitrogen to the plant. Symbiosis can be defined as any kind of
relationship or interaction between two dissimilar organisms, each
of which may receive benefits from their partners that they did not
have while living alone (Angel ard & Bever, 2013). Previously, the
term was restricted to a mutualistic relationship wherein both
organisms benefit from the interaction. In mutualism, the
relationship between the two organisms depends on each other.
Each one gains benefits from the other. This is the type of
relationship between different species where both of the organisms
in question benefit from the presence of the other. At present, the
scope of the term has become broader. Now, the term includes other
forms of associations like parasitism and commensalism. More than
a century ago, Anton de Barry proposed the original definition of
symbiosis as a long-term relationship between two different species.
To complement his original definition, it can be added, mutualism,
(beneficial for both), commensalism (beneficial for one, neutral for
the other), and parasitism (beneficial for one, costly for the other).
 REFERENCE

. WEKIPEDIA
.WWW.Biologyonline.com
.CHATGPT