753866

research-article20182018
SGOXXX10.1177/2158244017753866SAGE OpenMeseret

Article

SAGE Open

Discrepancy Between Rhetoric and

January-March 2018: 1­–12
© The Author(s) 2018
DOI: 10.1177/2158244017753866
https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244017753866

Practice: A Qualitative Study Assessing journals.sagepub.com/home/sgo

Barriers Associated With Prisoner

Rehabilitation at Hawassa Correctional
Facility, Southern Ethiopia

Fitsum Meseret1

Abstract
It is widely documented that prisons in Ethiopia are inhumane and substandard and that inmates serving time in prison
are mistreated and neglected. Yet, not much is known about the reason why the correctional system fails to be an
agent of rehabilitation. By employing focus group discussion (FGD) and in-depth interview to collect data from prison
inmates and prison staff, this study examined the factors that affected prisoner rehabilitation at Hawassa correctional
facility, Southern Ethiopia. The finding of the study suggested that Hawassa correctional facility failed to fulfill its primary
function of correction. A range of institutional- and inmate-related factors counteracted the very role of the institution
as a rehabilitative agent. Six key factors were identified as barriers to successful prisoner rehabilitation: inadequacy of
treatment personnel, underfunding of programs, absence of treatment personnel on administrative positions, weak inmate
classification system, correctional officers’ low level of treatment orientation, and the inmate subculture. The prison
administration, in alliance with other stakeholders, should put in place the requisite reform to address these barriers
associated with prisoner rehabilitation.

Keywords
rehabilitation, prison inmates, prison staff, Hawassa correctional facility, Ethiopia

Introduction century (Chavez & Dawe, 2007; Cullen, 2012; Cullen &
Gendreau, 2000; Redondo, Garrido, & Sánchez-Meca, 2001;
The major goal of rehabilitation is to change offenders’ Warren, 2007).
behavior and prevent future offending through correctional Although correctional policy moved away from rehabilita-
programs designed to address the factors that cause offenders tion, some revisionist scholars became interested in revitaliz-
to break the law (Adler, Mueller, & Laufer, 2007; ing rehabilitation’s legitimacy by challenging the “nothing
Andargachew, 2004; Nagin, Cullen, & Jonson, 2009; works” doctrine (Cullen & Gendreau, 2000; Redondo et al.,
Robinson & Crow, 2008). However, there has been high 2001). These scholars contributed to the reemergence of opti-
debate throughout correctional history, mainly in Western mism in rehabilitation by conducting large body of meta-ana-
society, regarding the efficacy of rehabilitation in reducing lytic studies, which proved the effectiveness of correctional
recidivism. For most of the 20th century, rehabilitation per- treatment programs in decreasing recidivism (e.g., Andrews
sisted as the dominant philosophy of correction, enjoying et al., 1990; Antonowicz & Ross, 1994; Izzo & Ross, 1990;
considerable political and public support, with scholars plac- Lipsey, 1992; Redondo, Garrido, & Sánchez-Meca, 1997;
ing a great deal of confidence in its efficacy to reduce recidi- Tobler, 1986; Whitehead & Lab, 1989). These series of meta-
vism. Nonetheless, onwards of the 1970s, rehabilitation lost analyses, which were mainly conducted in North America
its status as the dominant theory of correction mainly because
of Martinson’s (1974) influential “nothing works” essay, in
which he reviewed 231 studies of prison rehabilitation pro- 1
Wolaita Sodo University, Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia
grams and concluded that programs had been largely ineffec-
Corresponding Author:
tive. Martinson’s finding prompted a shift from the Fitsum Meseret, Lecturer of Sociology, Wolaita Sodo University, Wolaita
rehabilitative approach to the punitive one, which became Sodo, Ethiopia.
the dominant sentencing practice in the last quarter of the Email: [email protected]

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2 SAGE Open

and Europe, specifically demonstrated that “the rehabilitation issues of prisoners, suggest that prison condition is harsh in
programs that achieve the greatest reductions in recidivism the country, with prisoners largely suffering from extreme
use cognitive-behavioural treatments, target known predic- overcrowding, malnutrition, and unhygienic conditions (e.g.,
tors of crime for change, and intervene mainly with high-risk Addisu, 2012; Gosaye, 2003; Mintewab, 2005; Shambal,
offenders” (Cullen & Gendreau, 2000, p. 110). 2007; Yitayal, 2006). However, although this kind of research
In the context of Africa, prisoner rehabilitation has been assessing detention conditions in Ethiopian prisons is com-
recognized as one of the major functions of the correctional mon, there is paucity of studies that assess whether or not
system. Regional instruments of penal reform such as the prisons are effective in implementing rehabilitation schemes,
Kampala Declaration (1996), the Arusha Declaration (1999), making our knowledge of the issue meager. Therefore, this
and the Ouagadougou Declaration (2002), which have been study was conducted with the objective of filling this gap by
accepted by the majority of African states, promote the use of vividly investigating the extent to which prisoner rehabilita-
rehabilitation programs to change criminal behavior and tion was implemented at Hawassa correctional facility, one
facilitate a smooth reintegration of prisoners into society of the correctional facilities in southern Ethiopia.
after imprisonment (Dissel, 2007; Sarkin, 2008). Based on what the evidences show, the central argument
However, unlike the case in North America and Europe, of the study is that prisoner rehabilitation appeared to exist
the debate surrounding rehabilitation has not been the domi- only at the rhetoric level at Hawassa correctional facility
nant feature of the correctional discourse in Africa. Review without being supported by the necessary practical measures.
of the existing literature reveals paucity of meta-analytic or As it will be discussed in the forthcoming sections, unlike
other forms of studies, which investigate whether or not many correctional studies conducted in Africa, this study
rehabilitation programs are effective in reducing recidivism. demonstrated that it is not only administrative factors but
But rather, owing, perhaps, to the fact that rehabilitation is a also inmate-related factors that affect the effectiveness of
relatively new correctional philosophy in many African prisoner rehabilitation, a finding that can be taken as a major
countries, much of the correctional studies in the continent contribution to the field of correction in the context of the
aim at investigating the extent to which the correctional sys- continent.
tem implements rehabilitation practices in accordance with
national penal policies and regional instruments.
The majority of these studies documented that there exists Materials and Methods
a huge gap between policy and practice with regard to pris- Study Setting
oner rehabilitation in Africa. The studies found that the
prison system generally failed to implement effective reha- This study was conducted at Hawassa correctional facility,
bilitation schemes as a result of numerous constraints. To one of the 23 correctional facilities found in Southern Nations,
illustrate, studies conducted in Nigeria demonstrated that the Nationalities, and Peoples’ Region (SNNPR). The correc-
prison system fell short of attaining the rehabilitation goal tional facility was established in 1970 during the imperial
due to extreme overcrowding, inadequate rehabilitative regime, and it is currently administered by SNNPR prison
facilities and programs, and shortage of well-qualified per- administration commission. The facility houses both male
sonnel (Gloria, 2014; Tanimu, 2010; Tenibiage, 2010). and female inmates in separate living quarters, and pretrial
Similarly, studies in South Africa found that overcrowding, detainees are also placed in the facility. Inmates are housed in
lack of resources, shortage of specialist personnel, and inad- 19 dormitories, out of which 14 are for male inmates and five
equacy of rehabilitation equipments hampered the effective for female inmates. The inmate population varies from time
rehabilitation of prisoners (McAree, 2011; Thinane, 2010). to time, often ranging between 1,400 and 2,000. In terms of
In studies from Kenya, it was found that overcrowding, organizational structure, the correctional facility is composed
availability of illicit drugs in prisons, poor working condition of four departments: department of correction and rehabilita-
of prison staff, and inadequacy of well-qualified profession- tion, department of finance and procurement, human resource
als (such as sociologists, psychiatrists, psychologists, coun- department, and department of inmate affairs. At the time this
selors, and social workers) impeded effective rehabilitation study was conducted, the total number of employees was 168,
of offenders (Nyaura & Ngugi, 2014; Omboto, 2013). out of which 134 were custodial personnel and 34 were non-
Finally, a study in Zimbabwe identified shortage of person- custodial personnel. The correctional facility was selected for
nel and lack of resources as the major challenges confronting this study because of its proximity to the researcher as it was
rehabilitation (Rupande & Ndoro, 2014). Moreover, studies located at his home town.
found the prison condition in African countries to be puni-
tive, depriving, and dehumanizing, with the physical and
Ethical Consideration
psychosocial needs of prisoners largely neglected (Dissel,
2007; Omboto, 2013; Sarkin, 2008; Tanimu, 2010). Permission to conduct research at Hawassa correctional facil-
Studies of penal governance in Ethiopia, most of which ity was approved by the head of SNNPR prison administration
are concerned with conditions of detention and human rights commission and the director of the facility. Participation in the
Meseret 3

study was voluntary and informants were required to sign After establishing rapport with treatment staff and Kabos,
informed consent forms. The aim and purpose of the study as the researcher was able to identify male inmates who par-
well as method of data collection were thoroughly explained ticipated in the study. Treatment personnel were also help-
to each informant. Informants were clearly informed that they ful in arranging a setting where FGDs and in-depth
had the right to withdraw from the interview at any time and to interviews were undertaken. While in-depth interview
skip questions they did not want to answer. Informants were took 30 min on average, FGD took 1½ hr. Because of
also assured confidentiality. some constraints, reaching female inmates came to be
tough for the researcher. Although the prison administra-
tor allowed the researcher to interview female inmates,
Study Design and Sampling
there came restrictions from female correctional officers
The study was entirely qualitative and employed focus group who worried about the entrance of a male researcher into
discussion (FGD) and in-depth interview as methods of data the premise of female inmates, leading the researcher to
collection. Informants of the study were prison inmates, cor- quit the interview soon after interviewing few inmates.
rectional officers, and treatment staff. Purposive and snow- Because of their being few in number, the researcher
ball sampling techniques were employed to recruit informants decided to include all treatment staff in the study. In-depth
into FGD and in-depth interview. A total of 30 informants—15 interview was conducted with each treatment staff on
prison inmates, seven treatment staff, and eight correctional scheduled days. Interviews were held in offices and some
officers—participated in the in-depth interview. Prison convenient places in the facility and took 30 to 40 min.
inmates who had stayed long in the facility (5 years and more) Correctional officers were also approached for in-depth
were purposively selected to take part in the in-depth inter- interview, which was scheduled in two ways. In some
view assuming that they had relatively better institutional cases, officers were interviewed on days they were free of
experience, which might help them provide in-depth and reli- discharging duties, and in other cases, they were inter-
able information about prisoner rehabilitation at the correc- viewed at times they became free replaced by officers in
tional facility. Indeed, they offered a detailed account of the the next shift. Interviews with officers took 20 to 30 min.
rehabilitative performance of the correctional facility, which Unstructured interview guides, which were developed in
helped the researcher to adequately address the objective of English and then translated into Amharic, were used to
the study. Career criminals with history of recidivism and conduct FGDs and in-depth interviews. Because audio
membership to criminal gangs were selected for the in-depth recording was not allowed by the prison administration,
interview by using the snowball sampling technique. The the researcher was obliged to rely only on note taking dur-
researcher established initial contact with some of these ing individual interviews and FGDs.
inmates and asked them for referral to other inmates. The
finding from these inmates was essential in indicating the
nature of the prison subculture and its debilitating impact on
Data Analysis
rehabilitation. Treatment staff and correctional officers were Data were analyzed using thematic analysis. Field notes of
purposively selected for the in-depth interview considering interviews and FGDs were transcribed in Amharic and tran-
that their institutional experience could allow them scrutinize scripts were translated to English after they were checked for
the factors that affect the rehabilitation process. The correc- accuracy through repeated reading and revision of field
tional officers who participated in the study were the lower notes. Following transcription, it was important to read and
level officers who were in charge of keeping prison security reread the transcripts to become familiar with the material
and discharging such roles in prisoner rehabilitation as escort- and thereby go through the coding process. Manual coding
ing inmates attending treatment programs. Information from technique was used to organize the data by identifying
officers helped the researcher to find out the impact of prison themes and categories containing similar ideas. The analysis
subculture and lack of inmate classification system on reha- was based on themes of interview guides and emergent
bilitation. Finally, three FGDs were conducted with inmates, themes derived from the data itself.
each group consisting of eight participants, giving a total of
24 participants. The sampling technique and selection criteria
used to select FGD participants were more or less similar with
Results
that used to select in-depth interview informants. Different factors have been found to affect prisoner rehabili-
tation at Hawassa correctional facility. The major factors
identified by informants of the study are presented in six
Data Collection
themes in this section: inadequacy of treatment personnel,
This study was conducted from February to April 2014. absence of treatment personnel on managerial positions,
Prison inmates who participated in the study were selected underfunding of rehabilitation programs, correctional offi-
with the help of treatment staff and cell heads who were cers’ low level of treatment orientation, weak inmate classi-
known as Kabo in the language of the prison community. fication system, and the inmate subculture.
4 SAGE Open

Inadequacy of Treatment Personnel facility. Those who occupied the top administrative posi-
tions, including the prison administrator and deputy adminis-
The employment policy of Hawassa correctional facility trator, were custodial personnel. Even the correction and
appeared to be biased as it geared toward the disproportion- rehabilitation department, which was in charge of delivering
ate recruitment of custodial staff at the expense of treatment rehabilitative services, was headed by custodial personnel
staff. A stark difference in the proportion of treatment and who did not possess specific qualifications consistent with
custodial staff is discernible if one examines the staff profile the function of the position.
of the institution: While there were 134 correctional officers This condition, on its part, tended to have detrimental
in charge of security, there were only seven treatment per- effect on prisoner rehabilitation. The administrative custo-
sonnel in charge of delivering rehabilitation services. dial personnel, who were trained in police science, were
Shortage of treatment personnel came to have chilling more concerned about security and control, scarcely both-
effect on the delivery of rehabilitation services. It became ering about treatment and rehabilitation. They were often
difficult for the available staff to handle tasks effectively resistant to the efforts of treatment staff to expand rehabili-
given the large number of inmates in need of services and the tation programs and elevate the institution to the level of a
absence of extra personnel to share responsibilities. This well-qualified rehabilitation center. This point was best
point was clearly expressed by a legal educator, one of the explained by a female vocational trainer who was an
treatment staff of the institution: employee of a nongovernmental organization (NGO) work-
ing on the rehabilitation of female inmates at the correc-
It is very difficult for me to discharge duties effectively as I’m
tional institution:
the only legal educator assigned to deliver service for all of the
inmates serving time here. On top of this, having other duties as
In addition to the existing programs, we had once an interest to
legal personnel such as serving as an attorney and prosecutor for
commence training in information technology. To this end, we
the institution, it is hardly possible to concentrate on legal
requested the prison administration to appropriate a room where
education with all energy and time.
the training would be delivered. Initially, the prison
administration promised that it would help us launch the
Similarly, the psychologist of the institution echoed the chal- program by allocating the room timely. On the basis of this, we
lenges of delivering rehabilitation services in a context where bought computers, employed trainers, and requested the prison
few treatment staff were available for large number of administration to give us the promised room. However, the
inmates. He remarked, prison administrators failed to fulfill their promise claiming that
they need the room for other purpose.
It is ridiculous to claim that there is rehabilitation in a context
where only one psychologist, one sociologist, one legal educator, Some treatment staff even went far beyond their professional
and two vocational trainers are in charge of delivering duties to help the institution achieve its rehabilitation goal,
rehabilitative services. What makes conditions even worse is the although their effort was not translated to success due to lack
large number of inmates to whom you are expected to deliver of support from the managerial personnel. The best illustra-
the services. In my specific case as a counselor, counseling tive case in point is the failed project of establishing a library
requires establishing frequent relationships with clients through
for inmates serving time at the correctional facility. One of
series of follow-up sessions to bring successful change, which is
the treatment staff remarked,
unthinkable in the context of our institution.
Because there was no library service for inmates, we decided to
The fierce shortage of treatment staff also curtailed the par- establish library at the facility. We disseminated a proposal to
ticipation of inmates in rehabilitation programs delivered at different schools, higher educational institutions, and NGOs,
the correctional institution. For example, it is no surprise that requesting them to donate books to the library planed to be
insignificant proportion of the total inmate population was established. Unexpectedly, we were able to collect many books
enrolled in vocational training in a situation where only two from these organizations. Accomplishing this, we requested the
vocational trainers were available to deliver training. At the prison administrators to deliver the room they promised to
time this study was conducted, out of the total inmate popu- reserve for the library. However, they responded that the room
lation (which was around 1,300), it was only 23 inmates who was to be used for other purpose. It was heartbreaking response.
We did everything not because it was our duty, but because we
were enrolled in metalwork and 35 inmates who were
were enthusiastic to change and improve the institution and
enrolled in woodwork. help inmates.

Absence of Treatment Personnel at Managerial It was not only treatment staff but also inmates who wit-
nessed the unresponsiveness of the managerial personnel to
Positions rehabilitation and treatment efforts. It was noted that the
It was found that treatment personnel were not represented managerial personnel were not concerned whether or not
on any of the managerial positions within the correctional inmates were rehabilitated. They tended to reject repeated
Meseret 5

requests from inmates who demanded the institution to After prison fellowship departed, we requested the prison
expand rehabilitation programs. An inmate asserted, administration to appropriate budget to the program. But, the
response was discouraging. Surprisingly, the administrators told
We frequently request the prison administrators to commence us to borrow money from the prison to run the program and to
new rehabilitation programs since the existing ones are not pay it back by selling the furniture we produce in our production
sufficient for the whole inmate population. However, they often unit. Because of shortage of budget, there have not been trainees
respond that we don’t have the right to ask questions about graduated in woodwork since 2010.
rehabilitation. Once, one of the prison administrators said on a
meeting “you are here not to be rehabilitated, but to be
incarcerated.”
Correctional Officers’ Low Level of Treatment
Orientation
In a similar way, another inmate, FGD participant, stated The other barrier impeding the rehabilitation process was
the following when he explained the reluctance of the man- correctional officers’ resistance to rehabilitative ideas. It was
agerial personnel toward rehabilitative efforts initiated by noted that most correctional officers preferred a more puni-
inmates: tive prison environment as they had a strong conviction that
rehabilitation would not bring change in offenders and deter
Once, an engineer who was imprisoned here sought to help the them from further offenses. Officers were generally reluctant
institution to commence vocational training in cobblestone and to play supportive roles expected from them in relation to
brick production. According to his plan, inmates were to be
rehabilitation programs. In this regard, the most commonly
given training and then to be organized in small and micro
enterprises so that they would earn money supplying production
raised issue was lack of interest among officers to escort
to the outside market. He told the prison administrators his plan inmates who participate in rehabilitation programs. The psy-
and requested them to provide support for the commencement of chologist of the institution pointed out,
the program. But, the administrators were not collaborative and
his plan failed to come true. When I need a client for counseling, I request officers to escort
the client to the counseling room. Although there are few
collaborative officers, most of the officers resist such requests.
Underfunding of Rehabilitation Programs In some instances, they say “why is counseling needed for such
vagabonds who will be back to the prison again?” In other
The budget policy of the correctional facility appeared to
instances, they refuse to escort my clients claiming that they are
work to the disadvantage of the rehabilitation goal. The serious offenders. Even when they are willing to escort, they
prison administration had rarely been interested to allocate don’t bring clients on time. And sometimes, they force me to
budget to the inception of rehabilitation programs. Most of stop before I finish a session. While a session should be of 50
the programs were incepted by NGOs working on prison- minutes, they would tell me to stop at the 20th or 30th minute,
ers. Specially, an NGO called prison fellowship played tre- claiming that they should take the inmates back to their premise.
mendous role in establishing educational and vocational
programs. For vocational programs, the prison administration had
The prison administration also remained indifferent to assigned officers whose regular and exclusive duty was
appropriate budget to the execution of existing programs. escorting trainees to workshops where training was delivered.
There were cases that some programs were officially However, even in this case, officers would not often discharge
launched, but remained nonfunctional for many years due to their responsibility appropriately. Cases of absenteeism were
shortage of budget. One of the treatment staff asserted, reported to be common. A vocational trainer remarked,

I was employed in this institution in 1999 as a vocational trainer Although the prison administration has assigned two officers to
for weaving. However, it was only in the year 2005 that inmates escort our trainees regularly, there are many occasions when
were trained and graduated in weaving. In all the other years, either one of them or both of them are absent from job. We have
there was no training in weaving because budget wasn’t repeatedly complained to the prison administration to give
allocated to the program. Every year, I request the prison solution to the problem. However, solution hasn’t been given yet
administration to allocate budget to the program, although it as the prison administrators don’t worry about the rehabilitation
always fails to respond. The program is not in existence, but I of inmates. What they worry about is security and control.
am still the employee of the institution.
Treatment staff further blamed correctional officers for their
Similar claim was evident in the case of woodwork program. tendency to tightly inspect inmates during training sessions.
The program failed to train and graduate trainees because The surveillance by escorting officers created a sense of dis-
prison fellowship’s project phased out and the prison admin- tress among trainees/clients, which made them lose interest
istration failed to appropriate budget after the departure of in sessions. It also prevented trainers/counselors from han-
prison fellowship. A vocational trainer in charge of wood- dling sessions effectively. The psychologist of the institution
work program explained, remarked,
6 SAGE Open

One of the problems I encounter in delivering counseling is the Every time a new comer arrives, the first thing he is asked is
violation of the principle of confidentiality. Escorting officers about the offense he committed. It is common to hear cases of
often stay too close to the gate of the counseling room, which murder in which victims are close associates such as parent,
creates discomfort among clients and reduces their confidence spouse, and sibling. When you are frequently exposed to such
to tell problems without fear. stories, your fear of crime tends to be low. You may take the
offense you commit easy comparing it with such serious
A similar case was raised by a vocational trainer: offenses. When you detain a murderer and a thief together, the
result is that the thief would start to say “people kill their close
Escorting Officers often stand close to the gate of the workshop relatives, what is the big deal about my offense?”
looking after the trainees. The trainees are not comfortable with
this. They don’t follow the lesson attentively as their attention is In addition, the detention of novice offenders with serious
diverted towards the officers. offenders was reported to act as a factor enhancing future
criminality. As the correctional facility was a relational social
Moreover, it was found that correctional officers had the system where the influence of the informal inmate group was
tendency to engage in practices that were disruptive to the high, it is no surprise that novice offenders were socialized to
rehabilitation of inmates. One of such practices, which sig- the criminal attitude and values of serious offenders as well as
nificantly impeded rehabilitation, was the smuggling of ille- the knowledge and techniques of committing further offenses.
gal substances to the prison. An inmate, FGD participant, Novice offenders were tempted to imitate the criminal
explained, behavior of serious offenders mainly because they were
influenced by the repeated rhetoric of serious offenders who
Most of the officers are engaged in illegal prison trade selling would often concentrate on the material and financial bene-
contrabands such as drugs, chat, and alcohol. They sell these fits felony offers. A correctional officer asserted,
substances at exorbitant price. How can it be said that inmates
are being rehabilitated while they are allowed to engage in such Here, there are serious offenders whose livelihood is based on
deviant behaviors? what they earn from property offenses. They tell minor offenders
that they would benefit more if they engaged in higher level
offenses, and they teach them the techniques of committing the
Weak Inmate Classification System offenses. Novice offenders easily fall under their influence and
The finding of the study suggested that there was no well- take them as role models.
developed inmate classification system at Hawassa correc-
tional facility. Sex was the only classification variable The detention of juvenile delinquents with adult criminals
employed to classify inmates: Male and female inmates were also exerted its own peculiar effect on rehabilitation. Being a
housed in separate premises within the facility. With this facility for adult criminals, the penitentiary did not appear to
exception, inmates were detained together, irrespective of be a suitable place for the rehabilitation of juvenile offend-
their risk level and the type of offense they committed. ers, but rather a setting where they became susceptible to the
Serious and novice offenders as well as juvenile delinquents negative influences of adult criminals.
and adult criminals were housed together. For one thing, juvenile delinquents were exposed to a
The consequence of the weak inmate classification sys- social learning process in which they came to imitate serious
tem was multifaceted. One of the consequences was that it offenses from adult criminals, a condition that reinforced
left inmates vulnerable to the threat posed by violent offend- criminal behavior. An inmate explained,
ers. It also presented itself as a risk factor impeding rehabili-
tation: Failure to separate juvenile delinquents from adult Most of the delinquents here are sentenced for such minor offenses
criminals as well as novice offenders from serious offenders as gambling, petty theft, and conflict with parents. Their cases are
produced conditions that constrained attitudinal and behav- not serious and they can be treated easily. However, this isn’t the
right place for their rehabilitation. Instead of rehabilitation, they
ioral changes expected from inmates.
learn further criminal behaviors from adult criminals.
The detention of novice offenders with serious offenders
in a single facility counteracted rehabilitation in various
In a similar way, another inmate portrayed,
ways. One of the problems noted was the reduced feeling of
guiltiness among novice offenders that resulted from their This place is not good for delinquents. There is nothing good
daily exposure to serious offenders. During their confine- that they learn here. Most of the rhetoric here is about crime.
ment, novice offenders became accustomed to different cases Some offenders are so proud of the offense they commit that
of serious and violent offenses, and, in some cases, they they always talk about it. Even some who are sentenced for
established acquaintanceship with the offenders themselves, murder do not regret, but regard themselves as heroes. Especially,
an experience that could work to the detriment of self-criti- it is during the night time when inmates gather in dormitories
cism and regret as they might come to develop the thinking that these individuals proudly talk about their offenses. The
that their offense was insignificant compared with what oth- delinquents are exposed to such stories every day since they are
ers did. An inmate, FGD participant, said, not housed in separate dormitories.
Meseret 7

The criminogenic effect of the correctional setting came to A typical manifestation of this phenomenon was the
be further confirmed by numerous cases of recidivism among case of a group of inmates who were known as Workegnoch
delinquents. An inmate asserted, (which literally means workers) in the language of the
prison community. Workegnoch were career criminals who
During my five years stay here, I have observed delinquents had a well-established criminal experience and association
who returned to this prison four and five times. Every time they with criminal gangs prior to incarceration. They most often
came, they were sentenced for offenses more serious than came from an economically underprivileged family resid-
previous offenses. It is less probable that these delinquents will ing in slums and disorganized neighborhoods, and they
quit committing offenses in the future as it is common to see
were committed more frequently for property offenses.
inmates who used to return to this prison frequently at early ages
and who still do the same during adulthood.
Recidivism was common among Workegnoch. Most of
them were familiar with the correctional environment as
Sexual harassment and abuse perpetrated by adult inmates they frequently returned to the facility committing subse-
stood out as the other threats the correctional facility posed quent offenses.
to the well-being of juvenile offenders. It was reported that Having commonly shared attributes in terms of criminal
juvenile delinquents faced constant threat of rape by adult history, criminal identity, and preprison experience, it was
criminals because of their inability to defend themselves. common among Workegnoch to organize into informal social
The rapists also exploited the naivety and inexperience of the groups during imprisonment. They constituted a subculture
delinquents for their purpose. In most instances, they applied with peculiar argot system, value system, normative system,
tremendous pressures in the form of bribes to the delinquents and behavioral patterns. There also existed a well-established
to abuse them sexually. An inmate remarked, pattern of social interaction within the group.
Among other things, the informal group was mainly char-
Juvenile delinquents are victims of sexual abuse perpetrated by acterized by anticonventional normative system. For
homosexual adults. The perpetrators often give the delinquents instance, in contrast to the mainstream culture, the group
money and buy them food, soft drinks, cigarette, and drugs in attached high value to criminal career. Crime was regarded
order to attract them and do what they want. In my three years as an occupation upon which livelihood was based and a
stay here, I came to know six delinquents who were raped by valuable means of earning better economic benefits. In fact,
homosexuals being deceived in such way. by calling themselves Workegnoch and the crimes they com-
mit work, they conveyed the message that crime was a nor-
Similarly, another inmate, who was working as a co-coun- mal behavior out of which they made a career, just like
selor at the correctional institution, explained how homo- people in other professions were committed to their career
sexual inmates deceive and rape delinquents: for survival. The normative system also dictated that indi-
viduals with great achievement in their criminal career ought
Homosexual inmates usually get close to juvenile delinquents
to be highly respected and recognized and offered special
under the guise of helping and supporting them. Through time,
they put them under their influence and teach them some
privilege. Indeed, the group used a special argot called Gentle
behaviors such as drug abuse and smoking cigarette. In my Workegna to praise a member who was extraordinarily suc-
experience as a co-counselor, I have been able to identify three cessful in committing more sophisticated offenses. In addi-
delinquents who were victims of rape perpetrated by tion to being respected and feared, a Gentle Workegna was
homosexuals. They told me that they weren’t aware of being recognized as an informal leader of the group, assigned with
raped as they took drug at the moment the act was committed. a title called owner to indicate his leadership position.
Anticonventional normative orientation was also reflected
by behavioral patterns that Workegnoch displayed in the
The Deviant Inmate Subculture
facility. It appeared that Workegnoch were rarely interested
The inmate subculture was found to be one of the institu- to participate in constructive regime activities such as sport,
tional realities at Hawassa correctional facility. It appeared religious service, and rehabilitation programs, but they
that inmates had a propensity to organize into informal social highly inclined to illegitimate institutional behaviors such as
groups characterized by an antisocial normative system that gambling, violence, and substance abuse. Moreover,
stood against the rules and regulations of the prison adminis- Workegnoch commonly engaged in property offenses in
tration and the values and norms of the mainstream society. which the prison community was frequently victimized.
It became evident that inmates who mostly assimilated The assimilation of Workegnoch into deviant subculture
into the anticonventional prison subculture were those who tended to have both short-term and long-term effects on
had a well-developed and mature set of criminal value orien- rehabilitation. The short-term effect was related to the highly
tations upon admission. Specifically, inmates with previous reduced interest within the group to participate in prison pro-
history of conviction and membership to gang groups were grams that were important for rehabilitation. The normative
more likely to engage in prison antisocial behavior than the standard of the group, which dictated subscription to illegiti-
other inmate population. mate institutional behavior and unconventional means of
8 SAGE Open

success, impeded the likelihood of engagement in construc- officers’ low level of treatment orientation, and the inmate
tive rehabilitative activities such as educational and voca- subculture were identified as barriers to successful prisoner
tional training. One of the Workegnoch asserted, rehabilitation.
In a context of high level of prison overcrowding, inade-
Workegnoch are not interested in rehabilitation programs. They quacy of financial and human resource acted to the detriment
don’t have interest to participate in vocational training and have of prisoner rehabilitation in a range of ways. Severe shortage
legitimate job in the future. They are more worried about what of treatment staff seriously affected the accessibility and
offenses they should engage in to earn more money in the future. quality of rehabilitation programs delivered at the correc-
If a Workegna is found attending school, vocational training,
tional facility. Because programs were poorly staffed, the
and religious services, he will be ridiculed and labeled as
“deviant.”
quality of services was at a very minimal level, and the pro-
portion of the inmate population enrolled in programs was
In the case of long-term effect, the deviant subculture sup- significantly reduced. Financial constraint was a serious
plied numerous opportunities for a teaching–learning pro- challenge in the implementation of prisoner rehabilitation.
cess, whereby members came to imitate different criminal The extreme shortage of budget limited the scope of the
behaviors and techniques from each other, thereby reinforc- rehabilitation service, curtailed the quality of services, and
ing criminal identity and future criminality. The teaching– resulted in the abandonment of programs in some cases. This
learning process was noted to be hugely the function of crime finding is consistent with other findings, which have been
specialization: There existed a process of reciprocity, reported by investigators assessing prisoner rehabilitation in
whereby a given Workegna who specialized in specific African prisons (Gloria, 2014; McAree, 2011; Rupande &
offenses shared his experience for others who specialized in Ndoro, 2014; Tanimu, 2010; Thinane, 2010).
other offenses and vice versa. One of the Workegnoch It is well documented that the success of prisoner rehabili-
remarked, tation depends on the extent to which correctional officers
accept the rehabilitation philosophy and engage in rehabilita-
The group is consisting of different Workegnoch who are experts tive endeavors (Lambert, Hogan, Altheime, Jiang, &
in their respective work. The teaching and learning takes place Stevenson, 2009; Laswell, 2010). In this study, it was found
in such a way that a given Workegna train other Workegna the that correctional officers were generally indifferent to the
skills and techniques of his work and he is in turn trained the issues of rehabilitation and treatment. Most officers had neg-
skill and techniques of other works by fellow Workegna. In my ative attitude toward rehabilitation as they advocated a more
case, for example, I had no idea about burglary before I came in punitive prison environment. They were also blamed for
here. I was trained the techniques of the work by other their reluctance to play expected roles in the implementation
Workegnoch who specialize in it. In my turn, I taught them the of rehabilitation programs and their engagement in smug-
different techniques related to motorbike theft. gling of illegal substances into the prison. This result is con-
sistent with studies that have found prison officers’ lack of
Furthermore, the organization of Workegnoch into informal interest in rehabilitation as a factor impeding rehabilitation
deviant groups also served them as a fertile ground to recruit (Tanimu, 2010; Walsh, 2006) and other studies that have
fellow co-offenders for future crime. It was found that rela- reported the disruptive impact of officers’ involvement in the
tionships established within the group were further enhanced smuggling of drugs into prison (Gloria, 2014; Omboto, 2013;
and consolidated after imprisonment for the purpose of co- Tanimu, 2010). Literature indicates that correctional officers’
offending. One of the Workegnoch asserted, involvement in inmate treatment and rehabilitation depends
on the level of acceptance of the rehabilitation philosophy by
Most of the time, the friendship you establish with Workegnoch
administrators of the correctional institution (Laswell, 2010).
here also continues after imprisonment. What you do is that you
exchange telephone number so that you will keep in touch after
Officers would not likely be receptive of inmates’ rehabilita-
imprisonment. I have created such relationship with a Workegna tion and treatment if the management of a correctional facil-
whom I knew during my previous incarceration. We exchanged ity does not exhibit support for rehabilitation (Antonio,
telephone number at the time he was released and started to do Young, & Wingeard, 2009). Hence, in the context of Hawassa
work together after I was released. correctional facility, correctional officers’ indifference to
rehabilitation might be the reflection of a similar tendency,
which was evident among the administrative staff.
Discussion
Inmate classification system is developed to properly
The result of this study suggested that Hawassa correctional manage prisoners by effectively dealing with the varying
facility failed to fulfill its primary function of correction. A degrees of risks they present to the correctional environment.
range of institutional- and inmate-related factors counteracted It enables correctional institutions to effectively implement
the rehabilitative goal of the institution. Inadequacy of financial their rehabilitation goal by preventing the negative impact of
and human resources, absence of treatment personnel on mana- high-risk offenders on low-risk offenders (Farr, 2000). The
gerial positions, poor inmate classification system, correctional finding of the current study suggested that there was
Meseret 9

no well-developed inmate classification system at Hawassa explaining the relationship between engagement in illegiti-
correctional facility. Among other things, there was no segre- mate institutional behavior and future inclination to law
gation of minor offenders from serious offenders and juvenile violation:
delinquents from adult criminals. This condition, on its part,
affected rehabilitation in various ways. The detention of juve- . . . Values, attitudes, and behaviors that are contrary to an official
nile delinquents in adult facility made them susceptible to the prison regime are indicative of anti-social characteristics
negative influences of adult criminals in two ways. On one generally. Thus, disrespect for prison rules, loyalty to other
hand, juvenile delinquents faced constant threat of rape inmates, and disparagement of submission to prison authority are
taken to indicate disrespect for law, commitment to a criminal
inflicted against them by adult offenders, a finding concurrent
culture, and unwillingness to submit to legal authority. (p. 263)
with available studies, which indicate that juvenile delin-
quents placed in adult institution are at great risk of physical
Assimilation into the anticonventional prison subculture also
abuse and sexual assault (Arya, Ryan, Sandoval, & Kudran,
acted as a factor diminishing participation in prison rehabili-
2007; Vincent & Zeidenberg, 1997). On the other hand, juve-
tation programs. Inmates who subscribed into the subculture
nile delinquents came to be predisposed to a setting that
were found to have little or no interest in constructive reha-
prompted imitation of serious criminal offenses from adult
bilitative activities such as educational and vocational train-
criminals, a condition that enhanced the likelihood of future
ing delivered at the correctional facility. This corroborates
criminality. The detention of novice offenders with serious
Thomas and Foster’s (1972) observation that
offenders was also found to have adverse effect on rehabilita-
tion. Placed in a single facility with serious offenders, novice
as groups of inmates come to oppose the prison as an organization
offenders were exposed to a condition, which led to an and to highly value their interpersonal relations with one another,
increase in the intensity of criminal attitudes and socialization the solidarity of the inmate system increases and the probability
into a criminal subculture. Indeed, this is the reason why of the prison organization acting as an efficient change or
some criminologists argue that prison has the special capacity rehabilitation agent decreases. (p. 15)
to facilitate criminal thinking and identity in inmates with
little or no prior correctional experience (Walters, 2003). Moreover, subscription to the deviant prison subculture
The formal administrative structure of the prison system exposed inmates to a social learning process, in which differ-
and the informal inmate subculture are inseparable entities ent criminal techniques and skills were shared, a condition
between which there should be a smooth functional relation- that consolidated further criminal behavior. This is consistent
ship if prison administration as well as rehabilitation is to be with the finding of other studies, which have demonstrated
achieved successfully (Caldwell, 1956). Nonetheless, it is the capacity of prisons to enhance criminal thinking and
documented in the preponderance of the correctional litera- identity in inmates who assimilate into the inmate subculture
ture that prison inmates assimilate into a subculture that pre- (Camp & Gaes, 2005; Garabedian, 1964; Roxell, 2011;
scribes illegitimate standards of behavior opposed to Thomas & Foster, 1972; Walters, 2003). In addition to shar-
behavior prescribed by the conventional society and the for- ing criminal techniques and skills, there was also a common
mal prison authority (Caldwell, 1956; Garabedian, 1964; practice of recruiting fellow co-offenders for future crime.
Johnson, 1960). Consistently, it was found in the current Relationships established in the prison often continue after
study that inmates with previous history of conviction and imprisonment for the purpose of co-offending. In relation to
membership to criminal gangs organized into informal this, Roxell (2011) found that inmates who incline to the
groups characterized by anticonventional value system and inmate counterculture become more interested in creating
normative standards. These inmates, who already had a well- new contacts for the purposes of future criminality.
developed criminal value orientation upon admission, vio- Above all, managerial incompetence was cited as the
late prison rules frequently by engaging in illegitimate major factor contributing to the rehabilitative failure of the
institutional behaviors such as violence, gambling, drug correctional facility. Administrative positions in the correc-
abuse, and theft. This finding is in agreement with the impor- tional facility were dominantly occupied by custodial per-
tation model, which claims that inmates with more extensive sonnel who were trained in police science and had little
arrest and incarceration histories, prior involvement with knowledge about rehabilitation, which resulted in failure to
gangs or security threat groups, serious substance abuse put in place effective rehabilitative schemes. The prison
problems, and previous use of violence are more likely to administration was highly inclined to the custodial goal, and
import antisocial behaviors to prison and engage in further rehabilitation was a mere rhetoric used to elicit reputation. In
disruptive activities during incarceration (DeLisi, Trulson, relation to this, literature indicates that custodial-oriented
Marquart, Drury, & Kosloski, 2011; Dhami & Ayton, 2007; prison administration largely focuses on improving security,
Lahm, 2008; Reisig & Lee, 2000). safety, and order rather than delivering effective rehabilita-
The frequent involvement of inmates in institutional mis- tive intervention (Craig, 2004; Howells, Heseltine, Sarre,
conducts can be taken as a predictor of the likelihood of Davey, & Day, 2011; United Nations Office on Drug and
future offenses. Tittle (1974) stated the following while Crime [UNODC], 2006).
10 SAGE Open

Conclusion and Recommendation Funding

The result of this study indicated that prisoner rehabilita- The author(s) received no financial support for the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.
tion was a highly neglected issue at Hawassa correctional
facility despite the claim that it was the principal goal of the
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12 SAGE Open

Warren, R. (2007). Evidence-based practice to reduce recidivism: Author Biography

Implications for state judiciaries. Washington, DC: U.S.
Fitsum Meseret is a lecturer of sociology at Wolaita Sodo
Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections.
Whitehead, J. T., & Lab, S. P. (1989). A meta-analysis of juve- University, Ethiopia. She attended undergraduate study at Gondar
nile correctional treatment. Journal of Research in Crime and University, Ethiopia, and graduated in BA degree in sociology in
Delinquency, 26, 276-295. 2008. She did postgraduate study at Addis Ababa University,
Yitayal, M. (2006). The disposition of prisoners in Ethiopia Ethiopia, and graduated in MA degree in sociology (health and
(Unpublished master’s thesis). Addis Ababa University, Addis well-being) in 2014. As a lecturer of sociology, she is engaged in
Ababa, Ethiopia. teaching, research, and community service.