Polarization Photography

(a) Without Polarizer (b) With Polarizer

Figure.1
Figure.2

(a) Without Polarizer (a) Without Polarizer (b) With Polarizer

(b) With Polarizer
Figure 3 Figure 4
Polarization Photography : Reflections

Reduce Reflections
Polarization Photography : Underwater

• Underwater pipelines
and communication
• Offshore structures
• Offshore drilling rigs

• Vessel inspection

• Marine biology

• Recreational photography

• Underwater mapping
 Polaroid sunglass

Light waves polarized

perpendicular to the highway

Light waves polarized

parallel to the highway

Reduce glare off the roads while driving

Polarized Light

Polarized Light
Vibrations lie on one single
plane only.

Unpolarized Light
Superposition of many beams,
in the same direction of
propagation, but each with
random polarization.
 Representation

E E

Unpolarized Polarized
 Representation

Unpolarized Polarized
Plane of vibration and plane of polarization
 Production of polarized light

Polarized light can be produced by

1. Reflection
2. Refraction
3. Scattering
4. Selective absorption (dichroism)
5. Double refraction
 polarized light by reflection

Scottish
scientist
Sir David
Brewster
 Polarized light by reflection
The tangent of polarizing angle is equal to the refractive
index of the medium.
t𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑝 = 𝜇
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑝
From Snell law, 𝜇= … … … (1)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑝
From Brewster’s law, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑝 = 𝜇 … … 2
From equations (a) and (2)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑝
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑝 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑝
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90𝑜 − 𝑖𝑝
𝑟𝑝 = 90𝑜 − 𝑖𝑝
𝑖𝑝 + 𝑟𝑝 = 90𝑜
From equation (1)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑝
𝜇= = = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑝
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90 − 𝑖𝑝
𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑝
 Mathematical problem
The refractive index for plastic is 1.25.
Calculate the angle of refraction for a ray of
light incident at polarizing angle.

t𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑝 = 𝜇 = 1.25
𝑖𝑝 = 51.34 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝑜
𝑖𝑝 + 𝑟𝑝 = 90
𝑜
𝑟𝑝 = 90 − 51.34𝑂 = 38.66𝑜
 Polarized light by reflection

Applications of Brewster’s law

1. Brewster's law can be used to determine the
reflective Indies of opaque materials.
2. It is used to calculate the polarizing angle for
total polarization of reflected light, if
reflective index of the material is known.
3. Brewster's angle can be utilized for
transmitting a light beam in into or out of an
optical fiber without reflections losses.
 Double refraction

 The speed of light in matter

c Optically isotropic: the speed of light is
independent of the direction of propagation in
medium and of state of polarization of the light.

double refraction
𝑐 (birefringence)
v =
𝑛

Optically anisotropic: the index of refraction and

speed are dependent on the direction of propagation
in medium and of state of polarization of the light.
 Seven crystal system

Polarizing microscope is normally used for the characterization of anisotropic crystals

 Seven crystal system

Polarizing microscope is normally used for the characterization of anisotropic crystals

 Double refraction:
When light incident on a certain crystal (anisotropic crystal), it is split
into two refracted rays (as shown in Fig) differing in their properties.
The phenomenon of causing two refracted rays by an anisotropic
crystal is called double refraction or birefringent.

Ordinary ray (o-ray): obey Snell’ law of refraction at the

crystal surface.
Extraordinary ray (e-ray): does not obey Snell’ law
of refraction at the crystal surface.
 positive and negative crystals
v0>ve n0<ne
v0<ve positive crystal
For negative crystals, 𝑣𝑜 < 𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇𝑒 < 𝜇𝑜 n0>ne
For positive crystals, 𝑣𝑜 > 𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇𝑒 > 𝜇𝑜
negative crystal
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦
𝑣𝑒 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐸 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦
𝜇𝑜 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦
𝜇𝑒 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝐸 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦

Optic axis it is a direction in the crystal in which v0=ve

positive crystal

negative crystal
 Fast and Slow Rays

• The ray with the lower index is called the fast ray
𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑐
– Recall that, 𝜇 =
𝑣𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖
– If 𝜇𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 1.486, 𝑣𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 2.02 × 1010 𝑚/𝑠

• The ray with the higher index is the slow ray

– If 𝜇𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 1.658, 𝑣𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 1.81 × 1010 𝑚/𝑠
Expression for birefringence

Consider 𝑑 is the thickness of

the crystal, 𝑣𝑠 is the velocity
of the slow ray and 𝑣𝑓 is the
d velocity of the first ray and
the first ray travel extra Δ
distance.
 Expression for birefringence
The time taken by the slow ray to pass through the crystal is
given by:
𝑑
𝑡𝑠 = … … … (1)
𝑣𝑠
The time taken by the first ray to pass through the crystal is given
by:
𝑑
𝑡𝑓 = … … … (2)
𝑣𝑓
During this same interval of time the fast ray has already passed
through the crystal and has travelled an additional distance ∆ in
air .
∆ 𝑑 ∆
𝑡𝑠 = 𝑡𝑓 + = + … … … … (3)
𝑣𝑎 𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑎
𝑣𝑎 = 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
 Expression for birefringes
❑ Substituting equation (1) into equation (3) yields
𝑑 𝑑 ∆
= +
𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑎
𝑣𝑎 𝑣𝑎
∆= 𝑑 −
𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑓
𝑣𝑎 𝑣𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜇𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇𝑓 =
𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑓
𝑣 𝑣
∆= 𝑑 − = 𝑑 𝜇𝑠 − 𝜇𝑓
𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑓
∆= 𝑑 𝜇𝑠 − 𝜇𝑓
This is a relation between retardation, thickness of the crystal and
birefringence.
 Types of Retarders/waveplates
A wave plate is an optical device that alters the polarization state of
light wave travelling through it.

Types of wave plates

1. Full wave plates

2. Half wave plates
3. Quarter wave plates

❑ Full wave plates: The thickness of an anisotropic crystal is

adjusted so that it introduce 𝜆 path difference between o- and e-
ray

𝜆 = (𝜇𝑒 −𝜇𝑜 )𝑑
 Quarter wave plate
𝜆
The thickness adjusted so that it introduce path
4
difference between o- and e-ray
𝜆
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙, 𝜇𝑒 > 𝜇𝑜 , = (𝜇𝑒 −𝜇𝑜 )𝑑 Quarter-wave
4
𝜆 plate
𝑑=
4(𝜇𝑒 −𝜇𝑜 ) The slab is
𝜆 called quarter-
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙, 𝜇𝑜 > 𝜇𝑒 , = (𝜇𝑜 −𝜇𝑒 )𝑑 wave plate if
4 phase difference
𝜆 of o-wave and e-
𝑑=
4(𝜇𝑜 −𝜇𝑒 ) wave is π/2 after
2𝜋 𝜆 𝜋 they passing
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛿 = × = through the slab.
𝜆 4 2
❖It is used to produce elliptically or circularly
polarized light
 Half wave plate
𝜆
The thickness adjusted so that it introduce 2 path
difference between o- and e-ray
𝜆
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙, 𝜇𝑒 > 𝜇𝑜 , = (𝜇𝑒 −𝜇𝑜 )𝑑
2
𝜆
𝑑=
2(𝜇𝑒 −𝜇𝑜 )
𝜆
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙, 𝜇𝑜 > 𝜇𝑒 , = (𝜇𝑜 −𝜇𝑒 )𝑑 Half-wave plate
2
𝜆
𝑑= The slab is called
2(𝜇𝑜 −𝜇𝑒 )
2𝜋 𝜆
half-wave plate if
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛿 = × =𝜋 phase difference of
𝜆 2
❖ Half wave plate rotate the plane of polarization of o-wave and e-wave
incident plane polarized light through an angle 2θ is π after they
passing through the
slab.
Problem 2. Calculate the thickness of mica sheet required for making a quarter
wave plate for λ = 5460 Å . The indices of refraction for the ordinary and extraordinary
rays in mica are 1.586 and 1.592.
-8 -2
Hint: t =λ/4 (µE -µo)= 5460 x 10 /4 (1.592 -1.586) =2.275 x 10 cm

Problem 3. Calculate the thickness of a double refracting plate capable of producing a

path difference of “λ/4 between ordinary and extraordinary waves. (λ = 5890 Å ,µo = 1.53
and µE = 1 .54)

Hint: t = λ/4(µE -µO) = 5.890 x 10-5 /4(1.54 -1.53) = 1 .47 x 10 -3 cm.

Problem 4. Calculate thickness of quarter wave plate for light of wavelength 5000 λ.
Given µo = 1.54 and ratio of velocity extraordinary to ordinary wave is 1.006.
-10 -5
Hint: t = λ /4(µE -µO) =5000 x 10 /4(1.54 -1.53)T=1.25 x 10 cm
 Optic axis
❑ An imaginary line passing through one of the blunt corners and making
equal angles with all the three faces is called optic axis.
 Principal section
A plane containing optic axis and perpendicular to the opposite faces of the crystal is
called principal section of the crystal.
optic axis

109°

71°
 Nicol prism
Principle : optic axis
❑ Optical Device.
❑ Double Refraction
❑ Transmit extra-ordinary ray and Canada balsam
cut off ordinary ray
Construction:
❑ Length is 3 times as its width 𝜃𝑐 E-ray
❑ End Faces grounded – 68 and
112 instead of 71 and 109
❑ Cut into two pieces – O-ray
grounded – polished –
cemented (With Canada O-ray, 𝜇𝑜 = 1.66, E-ray, 𝜇𝑒 = 1.49
balsam) . Canada balsam, 𝜇𝑐𝑏 = 1.55
Working:
.
❑ Light entered the faces
❑ Canada balsam acts as Rarer medium for O-ray 𝜇𝑜 = 1.66 > 𝜇𝑐𝑏 = 1.55
❑ Canada balsam acts as Denser medium for E-ray 𝜇𝑒 = 1.49 < 𝜇𝑐𝑏 = 1.55
❑ The e-ray is transmitted while the o-ray is internally reflected
O-ray: E-ray:
Total internal reflection > critical angle Plane polarized
1.55
𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 = 69𝑜
1.66
 Nicol prism as analyser

Nicol Prism can also be used as an analyzer in addition to being used as an

polarizer.
 Optically activity
❑ The ability of an optical substance to rotate the plane of
polarization of a beam of light that is passed through it
❑ The intensity of optical activity is expressed in terms of a
quantity, called specific rotation.
❑ the specific rotation depends upon the temperature and upon the
wavelength of the light.
 Optically activity
The optical activity is of two types:
Dextrorotatory or the d-form
Dextrorotatory in Greek means right rotating, if the
compound rotates the plane polarised light to the right,
i.e., clockwise direction, it is called dextrorotatory or the
d-form and is indicated by placing a positive (+) sign
before the degree of rotation.

Laevorotatory or the l-form

Laevorotatory in Greek means left rotating if the
compound rotates the plane polarised light to the left,
i.e., anticlockwise direction, it is called laevorotatory or
the l-form and a negative (–) sign are placed before the
degree of rotation.
 Specific rotation of sugar solution by using a polarimeter
What is a polarimeter?

Part of polarimeter:
1. Sodium lamp
2. Polarizer
3. Sample Tube
4. Analyzer
5. Eyepiece
 Specific rotation of sugar solution by using a polarimeter
Objective: determination of sugar concentration in sugar-containing fluid

Apparatus: Polarimeter, a balance, measuring cylinder, beaker, volumetric

flask, funnel, dropper.
Specific rotation of sugar solution by using a polarimeter
 Specific rotation of sugar solution by using a polarimeter
For 20% concentration of sugar solution
❑ measure the 10 gm sugar
❑ Add 50 ml water in the beaker using

20 ml water of 20% sugar solution + 20 ml water = 40 ml water of 10% sugar solution

20 ml water of 10% sugar solution + 20 ml water = 40 ml water of 5% sugar solution
20 ml water of 5% sugar solution + 20 ml water = 40 ml water of 2.5% sugar solution
 Specific rotation of sugar solution by using a polarimeter
Filling the sample tube
❑ Open the one end of the sample tube
❑Sample tube has three part: (1) Silver cap, (2) Black washer, (3) lens
❑Fill the tube with deionized water
 Specific rotation of sugar solution by using a polarimeter
Placing the sample tube in sample holder
 Specific rotation of sugar solution by using a polarimeter
Calibrate the polarimeter machine (reading with water)
Main scale zero coincides with the Vernier scale zero
 Specific rotation of sugar solution by using a polarimeter
Reading with a solution of sugar and water:
Specific rotation of sugar solution by using a polarimeter
1
❑ VC= = 0.05
20
❑ MSR = 1 degree
❑ VSR = 2 × 0.05 = 0.1
❑ Total reading = 1 + 0.1 =
1.1 degree
 Specific rotation of sugar solution by using a polarimeter

Rotation angle (deg)

Concentration Angular
(%) rotation
(degrees)
20 w
10 x
5 y
2.5 z
Concentration (%)

𝜃 𝜃
𝑆𝜆𝑇 = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
𝑙× 𝑐 𝑐
From this calibration curve , you can determine the sugar
concentration of unknown solution, for example urine
This method is widely used in medical analysis for checking the
sugar content in blood, urine and other body fluids.
 Problem
The optical rotation of a sugar solution was measured as a function of sugar concentration
using a standard polarimeter and the following results were obtained.

Concentration of Optical
the sugar rotation
solution (%) (degrees)
60 39
50 32
40 26
30 20
20 13
10 7
5 4

(i) Draw a sugar concentration versus optical rotation plot. Label the axes
appropriately. Fit the data to a straight line.
(ii) From the graph, determine the specific rotation of the sugar solution.
(iii) Determine the percentages of sugar concentration for 23 degrees optical
rotation s.
 Effect of polarizer on natural light
𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
⟹ 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐼 = 𝐸𝑦2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑜 = 𝐸 2
In unpolarized light, all values of 𝜃 starting from 0 to transmission
2π are equally probable. axis
2𝜋
𝐼𝑜
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
0
2𝜋
𝐼𝑜 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
= න 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 2
0
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 /2
Thus if the unpolarized light of intensity 𝐼𝑜 is
incident on apolarizer, the intensity of light
transmitted through is 𝐼𝑜 /2

Polarization can rotate in

time if linearly polarized
beams of different phases are
combined.
Effect of analyzer on natural light
Effect of analyzer on plane polarized light-Malus law
The intensity of polarised light transmitted through the analyser varies as the square
of the cosine of the angle between the plane of transmission of the analyser and the
plane of the polarizer. This is known as Malus law and can be expressed as

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

1) 𝜃 = 0𝑜 then axis are parallel I= Io

2) 𝜃 = 90𝑜 then axis are perpendicular I= 0
3) 𝜃 = 180𝑜 then axis are parallel I= IO
4) 𝜃 = 270𝑜 then axis are perpendicular I= 0
 Mathematical Problem
Problem: Intensity of light through a polarizer and analyzer is maximum when their
principle planes are parallel. Through what angle the analyzing nicol must be rotated
1
so that the intensity gets reduced to of the maximum value.
4

Solution:
𝐼𝑜
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 =
4
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ±
2

𝜃 = 60𝑜 𝑜𝑟 120𝑜
Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles.

• Let us look at the result of superposition of

two waves linearly polarized at right angle to
each other (see fig. a)
• Consider two light waves travelling in the x-
direction
• One wave is polarized in the xy plane and the
other is polarized yz plane.
• The effect produced due to the super
positions of these two waves.
Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles.

❑ At a given time t, the optical vectors 𝐸𝑦 and 𝐸𝑧 produce a resultant optical vector of
magnitude , say A
❑ At a slightly later time t+Δt, they produce a resultant vector of amplitude B
❑ We will apply the principle of superposition to find the equation of the curve traced by
the resultant of the two vectors
Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles.
Two waves are represented as
𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸1 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 … . (1)
𝐸𝑧 = 𝐸2 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 … … . (2)
where, 𝛿 is the phase difference between the waves
The two waves have same frequency 𝑓 = 𝜔/2𝜋
According the the principle of superposition
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧
𝐸 = 𝐸1 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐸2 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 … . . (3)
Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles.
From equation- (2)

• From equation- (1)

Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles.

• Rearranging above equation,

• Squaring both the sides,

Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles.

• Dividing both side by E22

Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles.
• Above equation, is the general equation of
ellipse
• Hence, the tip of the resultant vector traces an
ellipse in Y-Z plane.
• The ellipse is constrained within a rectangle
having sides 2E1, and 2E2.
Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles.

Special cases:-
• When , ,then two waves are in
phase.
Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles.

• This is the equation represents a straight line,

having a slope (E2/E1).
• It means that, the resultant of two plane-
polarized waves is again a plane-polarized wave.
• When
• The two waves are in opposite phase.
Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles.
When

Equation (7) becomes

• This equation represents a straight line of a slope

(-E2/E1).
Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles.
• If,

• This is the equation of ellipse.

• Its major and minor axis considers with y-and z
coordinates axes.
• Thus the waves are out of phase by 900 and their
resultant wave is elliptically polarized wave.
• If,
• Then, equation (4) reduced to,
•
• This is the equation of circle. Hence result
wave is circularly polarized.