About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 01

 Lecture Numbers: 01 A

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Introduction to subject

Introduction to fuels

properties of fuel oil

 About Course
Fuel and Energy CH-310
Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh
Course Duration: 30 Contact Hours( Two Lecture/week)
 Sessional assessments 50% , Mid-term exam 20%
 End of semester exam 30%
• Online Quiz Students’ performance in best 3 quizzes out of 5 (of 5% marks each)
15%
• Homework Assignment Student’s performance in homework activities 5 %
• Open ended problem(s) Students’ performance in open ended problem(s) 10 %
• Viewing of recorded lectures Students’ viewing of recorded lectures 10%
• Live sessions Students’ attendance during live sessions 10 %
Books:
1. Marion L Smith, Fuels and Combustion, : McGraw-Hill, 1952
2. Peter Mullinger, Barrie Jenkins, Industrial and Process Furnaces, Elsevier, 2008
 About Course

 Course Learning Outcomes/Objectives:

Upon successful completion of the course, the student will be able to:

 Observe and Discuss the basic properties of the fuels, principles and the
concepts of energy generation

 Solve for the different problems occur in different types of combustor.

 Analyze different energy recovery systems.

 Observe the basic properties of the fuels, principles and the concepts of
energy generation
 Fuel is a substance that produce heat
 It may produce by combustion nuclear methods.
 Mainly fuel is classified into solid, liquid and gas,
 Other fossil fuel, by product chemical and nuclear fuel,
 Basic terms for coal
 Coalification
 Carbonization
 Gasification
 Coal origin

Plants and other life forms, after their death, drifted down to the bottom of
the swamps
where they were compressed and anaerobic decomposition takes place
to form peat.
Coal was formed due to the compression of the peat at high temperature
and pressure.
Temperature + pressure + Lot’s of time
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 01

 Lecture Numbers: 01 B

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

 Review of last lectures

Introduction to subject

Introduction to fuels
Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Origin of Coal and Analysis of Coal

Mining of Coal

 storage of coal

Grinding and pulverizing

properties of fuel oil

 Analysis of Coal

Proximate Analysis
•Moisture
air dried( Drying at desiccators)
oven dried (At temperature of 110oC
• Volatile matter ( 7 min at 950oC)
•Ash content ( 1 hr at 750oC )
•Fixed Carbon ( 100 – Ash content - moisture – VM)
•Gross calorific value Kcal/kg

Ultimate Analysis ( CNHS Analyzer )

•Carbon
•Hydrogen
•Oxygen
•Nitrogen
•Sulfur
 South Africa Coal sample

Specification Given by the Test Result in our Lab. as on

Rejection
Supplier ADB basis

GCV K-cal / Kg 6645 Bellow 6300 6552

Total Moisture % 7.9 Above 12 8.43

Inherent Moisture % 3 No Rejection 2.81

Ash % 14.2 Above 15 14.40

Sulphur 0.79 Above 01 0.68

Volatile Matter % 28.1 No Rejection 27.20

 Local Coal Sample results

Proximate Test Parameters (sample no 7)

S.No Parameters Unit Basis Results

1 Total Moisture % ARB 18.50

2 Ash % DB 17.79

3 Volatile Matter % DB 42.50

4 Fixed Carbon % DB 21.21

5 Sulphur % DB 6.96

6 Gross Calorific Value (K cal / kg) DB 5250.50

 Surface open pit mining

Under Ground coal

mining
Coal storage
 Coal Washing or cleaning

Coal cleaning is a process by which impurities such as sulfur,

ash, and rock are removed from coal to upgrade its value
Coal Transportation to plant and in the plant
Pulverizing of Coal
Pulverizing of Coal
 Crude origin

• The beginning of crude oil formation happened millions of years ago. Oil is a
fossil fuel that has been formed from a large amount tiny plants and animals such
as algae and zooplankton. These organisms fall to the bottom of the sea once they
die and over time, get trapped under multiple layers of sand and mud.

• As time goes by, heat and pressure began to rise as the organisms
get buried deeper and deeper below the surface. Depending on
the amount of pressure, heat and the type of organisms,
determines if the organisms will become natural gas or oil. The
more heat, the lighter the oil.

• If there is even more heat and the organisms were made up of

mostly plants, then natural gas is formed.

• Once the oil and natural gas is formed, it migrates through pores in
the rock until it gets trapped under cap rock and clay where the
oil can no longer get through. This is where we find oil today!

POSTED ON JULY 5, 2017 BY JESSICA LEE

Carbide Theory
According to this theory, hydrocarbons present in the petroleum are
formed by the action of water and inorganic chemicals

Ca+2C CaC2 Calcium Carbide

4Al + 3C Al4C3 Aluminium Carbide
CaC2+H2O Ca (OH)2 + C2H2 Acetylene
Al4C3 + H2O 4 Al(OH)3 + 3CH4

The unsaturated hydrocarbons which are produced along with the

saturated hydrocarbons react with hydrogen to produce saturated
hydrocarbons.

Engler’s Theory:
Composition of petroleum: Crude petroleum obtained from different places
has a composition which varies with in a narrow range. The ultimate analysis
shows. Carbon = 79.5 to 87.1%, Hydrogen = 11.5 to 14.8% Sulphur = 0.1 to
3.5%, Nitrogen + Oxygen = 0.1 to 0.5%
Metals have been found in the petroleum ash. The most widely occurring
metals include silicon, iron, aluminium, calcium, magnesium, nickel and
sodium
 Properties of Liquid Fuels

• Flash Point momentary flash

• Fire Point continous flam > flash point
• Pour Point loses its flow
• Cloud Point wax cloud appearence
• Freezing Point freazed> cloud point
• Smoke Point at smoke start
• Aniline Point aniline and solvent micible
• Octane Number high octane burning good
• Cetane Number high cetane burning good
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 01

 Lecture Numbers: 02 A

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

 Review of last lectures

Origin of Coal and Analysis of Coal

Mining of Coal
Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

storage of coal

Grinding and pulverizing

properties of fuel oil

Coal storage
 Coal Washing or cleaning

Coal cleaning is a process by which impurities such as sulfur,

ash, and rock are removed from coal to upgrade its value
Coal Transportation to plant and in the plant
Pulverizing of Coal
Pulverizing of Coal
 Crude origin

• The beginning of crude oil formation happened millions of years ago. Oil is a
fossil fuel that has been formed from a large amount tiny plants and animals such
as algae and zooplankton. These organisms fall to the bottom of the sea once they
die and over time, get trapped under multiple layers of sand and mud.

• As time goes by, heat and pressure began to rise as the organisms
get buried deeper and deeper below the surface. Depending on
the amount of pressure, heat and the type of organisms,
determines if the organisms will become natural gas or oil. The
more heat, the lighter the oil.

• If there is even more heat and the organisms were made up of

mostly plants, then natural gas is formed.

• Once the oil and natural gas is formed, it migrates through pores in
the rock until it gets trapped under cap rock and clay where the
oil can no longer get through. This is where we find oil today!

POSTED ON JULY 5, 2017 BY JESSICA LEE

Carbide Theory
According to this theory, hydrocarbons present in the petroleum are
formed by the action of water and inorganic chemicals

Ca+2C CaC2 Calcium Carbide

4Al + 3C Al4C3 Aluminium Carbide
CaC2+H2O Ca (OH)2 + C2H2 Acetylene
Al4C3 + H2O 4 Al(OH)3 + 3CH4

The unsaturated hydrocarbons which are produced along with the

saturated hydrocarbons react with hydrogen to produce saturated
hydrocarbons.

Engler’s Theory:
Composition of petroleum: Crude petroleum obtained from different places
has a composition which varies with in a narrow range. The ultimate analysis
shows. Carbon = 79.5 to 87.1%, Hydrogen = 11.5 to 14.8% Sulphur = 0.1 to
3.5%, Nitrogen + Oxygen = 0.1 to 0.5%
Metals have been found in the petroleum ash. The most widely occurring
metals include silicon, iron, aluminium, calcium, magnesium, nickel and
sodium
 Properties of Liquid Fuels

• Flash Point momentary flash

• Fire Point continous flam > flash point
• Pour Point loses its flow
• Cloud Point wax cloud appearence
• Freezing Point freazed> cloud point
• Smoke Point at smoke start
• Aniline Point aniline and solvent micible
• Octane Number high octane burning good
• Cetane Number high cetane burning good
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 02

 Lecture Numbers: 01 A

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

 Review of last lectures

Origin of Coal and Analysis of Coal

Mining of Coal

storage of coal

Grinding and pulverizing

Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Grinding and pulverizing

Gasification

Under ground Coal Gasification

Pulverizing of Coal
 Gasification

 Gasification is a process that converts biomass- or fossil fuel-based

carbonaceous materials into carbon monoxide, hydrogen and
carbon dioxide. This is achieved by reacting the material at high
temperatures, without combustion, with a controlled amount of
oxygen and/or steam.
 With underground coal gasification (UCG), the actual process takes
place underground, generally below 1,200 feet. The underground
setting provides both the feedstock source as well as pressures
comparable to that in an above-ground gasifier. With most UCG
facilities, two wells are drilled on either side of an underground coal
seam. One well is used to inject air or oxygen (and sometimes steam)
into the coal seam to initiate the gasification reactions.
 The second well is used to collect the synthesis gas (syngas) that is
formed from the gasification reactions and to pipe it to the surface for
additional processing and use. A pair of wells can last 8-10 years.
 The UCG reactions are managed by controlling the rate of oxygen or
air that is injected into the coal seam through the injection well.
Gasification
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 02

 Lecture Numbers: 01 B

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Grinding and pulverizing

Gasification

Under ground Coal Gasification

Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Liquid fuel Origin

Fuel processing

Properties of fuel
 Crude oil/ petroleum
 Called crude oil/rock oil
 Naturally occurring Brown to black coal mainly comprises of
Hydrocarbons, found under the earth crust onshore/offshore.
 Offshore drilling is a mechanical process where a wellbore is drilled
below the seabed. It is typically carried out in order to explore for and
subsequently extract petroleum which lies in rock formations beneath
the seabed.
 Onshore oil production requires the drilling of deep holes down into the
earth's surface to reach the oil below.
 Petroleum flows out itself due to internal underground pressure or
mechanically pumped out.
 Crude Origin

• The beginning of crude oil formation happened millions of years ago. Oil
is a fossil fuel that has been formed from a large amount tiny plants and
animals such as algae and zooplankton. These organisms fall to the
bottom of the sea once they die and over time, get trapped under
multiple layers of sand and mud.

• As time goes by, heat and pressure began to rise as the organisms get
buried deeper and deeper below the surface. Depending on the
amount of pressure, heat and the type of organisms, determines if the
organisms will become natural gas or oil. The more heat, the lighter the
oil.

• If there is even more heat and the organisms were made up of mostly
plants, then natural gas is formed.

• Once the oil and natural gas is formed, it migrates through pores in the
rock until it gets trapped under cap rock and clay where the oil can no
longer get through. This is where we find oil today.
Carbide Theory
According to this theory, hydrocarbons present in the petroleum are
formed by the action of water and inorganic chemicals

Ca +2C CaC2 (calcium Carbide)

4Al +3C Al4C3 (Aluminum Carbide)
Reaction with water
CaC2 +2H2O Ca(OH)2 + C2H2 (Acetylene)
Al4C3 +12H2O 4Al(OH)3 + 3CH4 (Methane)
Hydrogenation
C2H2 +H2 C2H4 +H2 C2H6
Polymerization
3C2H2 C6H6

The unsaturated hydrocarbons which are produced along with the

saturated hydrocarbons react with hydrogen to produce saturated
hydrocarbons.
Engler’s theory or organic theory:-
this theory was proposed by Engler in 1900.
He proposed that petroleum has been formed by the
decay and decomposition of dead animals (preferably
the sea animals) under high temperature and
pressure. The sea animals, which died due to various
reasons, were deposited at the bottom of the sea.
Gradually, these were covered with mud, silt and
sand. Under high temperature and pressure, these
animals were decomposed into petroleum.
Composition of petroleum:
Crude petroleum obtained from different places has a composition which
varies with in a narrow range. The ultimate analysis shows.

Carbon = 79.5 to 87.1%,

Hydrogen = 11.5 to 14.8%
Sulphur = 0.1 to 3.5%,
Nitrogen + Oxygen = 0.1 to 0.5%

Metals have been found in the petroleum ash. The most widely occurring
metals include silicon, iron, aluminum, calcium, magnesium, nickel and
sodium
Three phase separator
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 03

 Lecture Numbers: 01A

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Liquid fuel Origin

Fuel processing
Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Pre treatment of fuel

Properties of fuel
 Pretreatment of Oil before Refining

First Oil and gas separated

Petroleum oil is made free of water, sediments and
salts present in it.
Also made free of some dissolved gases into it.
Crude oil as it comes from well may contain (water,
salt and sediments) up to (water 25%), (salts 2000-
5000mg/L) and (sediments 1-1.5%).
Refining Limit (water 0.3%), (salt<50mg/L) and
sediments trace amount.
 Pretreatment of Oil before Refining

Excess Water
Require extra heat for distillation
Require high cost for transportation
Forms emulsion which absorb material like resin
Salt
Causes scaling, corrosion and reduce heat transfer.
Sediments
causes erosion and scaling.
 Pretreatment before refining

Mechanical Methods
Centrifuging, filtration and settling
Physiochemical Methods
Emulsion breaker are added
Emulsion breakers are costly and cause corrosion and sludge
formation
Stabilization: Removal of dissolved gases from crude oil by
heating is called stabilization.
Electrical Dehydration of Crude oil
Electrical Desalting of crude oil
Stabilization of Crude oil
 Classification of Petroleum

By the presence of H.C

Paraffinic crude oil petroleum (CnH2n+2)
Naphthenic crude oil petroleum (CnH2n)
Asphaltic (aromatic) crude oil petroleum (C6H2n-6)
Mixture [(CnH2n+2)+ (CnH2n)+ (C6H2n-6)]
 Refining of Petroleum
Refinery Gas (LPG) propane and butane
Gasoline/Petrol (30-2000C)
Naptha (120-2000C)
Solvent Spirit or Jet Fuel (130-2600C)
Kerosene (140-2900C)
Diesel (140-3000C)
Gas oil (180-3500C)
DISTILL
ATION Lubricating oil (200-3500C)
Petroleum Petrolatum (220-3500C)
Light fuel oil (>2000C)
Heavy fuel oil (>2500C)
Road making bitumen or tar
Wax
Residue pitch/coke
 Punjab crude oils and well locations.  Sindh crude oils and well locations.
 Tando Adam Crude Oil well#3, Sindh,
 Toot Crude Oil, Punjab, Pakistan Pakistan

 Adhi Crude Oil Punjab, Pakistan  Tando Adam Well # 7 Deep, Sindh,
Pakistan.
 Balkassar Crude Oil Well # 2, Punjab,
Pakistan  Kunnar Well # 10, Sindh, Pakistan.

 Khaur Crude Oil, Punjab, Pakistan  Dabhi (North), Sindh, Pakistan

 Chak Naurang Crude Oil, Punjab,  Dabhi (South), Sindh, Pakistan.

Pakistan.
 Golarchi Well # 8, Sindh, Pakistan.
 Dakhni Crude Oil, Punjab, Pakistan
 Badin Well#8, Sindh, Pakistan.
 Sadkal Crude Oil # 2, Punjab, Pakistan
 Umer Well#12, Sindh, Pakistan.

 Siraj South Well#12, Sindh, Pakistan

 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 03

 Lecture Numbers: 01B

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Pre treatment of fuel

Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Properties of fuel
 Cracking

Breaking of higher boiling petroleum fractions into lower boiling

petroleum fractions.
Or
Decomposition of larger molecules of petroleum into smaller
molecules.
Endothermic Reaction
1. Thermal Cracking-action of heat
2. Catalytic cracking-action of catalyst
 Pyrolysis

Mild thermal cracking.

Action of steam(heat).
Done for production of lighter products- olefin (ethylene),
diolefin, naphthene polymers, benzene, toluene.
 Visbreaking

Viscosity breaking/reduction
By heat
It is done to reduce viscosity of heavy fuel oil without
coke formation.

Hydrocracking
Cracking in the presence of Hydrogen
 Specific Gravity

 The specific gravity is the ratio between the density of an

substance with a density of a reference substance.
 For liquid we use water as reference
 And for gases air is used.
Hydrometer is used for determination of S.G
 API Gravity

American Petroleum Institute gravity is Measure of heavy

or light petroleum liquid as compared with Water.
API gravity = (141.5/SG at 60°F) - 131.5
API is >10, lighter liquid, floats on water
API is <10, heavy liquid, sinks in water.

Molecular weight
Crude: 230-250, gasoline: 100-130, diesel: 200-280
 Viscosity is Important because…

 High viscosity fuels can not be properly atomized resulting in loss of

fuel.
 High viscosity oil is preheated to reduce viscosity to minimize
pressure drop
 It affect the flow through pipe line and nozzles in burner.
 High viscosity lubricating oil reduces it fluidity cause undue friction
Viscosity Index (VI)
Change of viscosity with change in temperature.
A fluid with a high viscosity index exhibits a small change in viscosity
with temperature. A fluid with a low viscosity index exhibits a large
change in viscosity with temperature.
The rate of change of viscosity of an oil from 1000Fto 2100F.
 Flash Point

The min temperature at which a particular compound gives

off sufficient vapors to ignite in air.
Or
The temperature at which vapor of liquid will ignite.
Or
The min temperature at which liquid fuel gives enough
vapors which produce momentary flash when exposed to
flame.
 Flash Point gives Idea of…

Nature of B.P diagram of the system

Amount of low Boiling fractions present in Liquid fuel
Explosion hazards
Volatility of fuels.
Flash point is Less than 230C (dangerous, highly inflammable)
Safe value is >60-660C.
Flash point values of different fuels.
Curde oil: -10 to 00C, Diesel: -40 to 300C, lube oil: 130 to
3000C, Fuel oil: >660C
 Fire Point

It is the minimum temperature at which liquid fuel vapors

produce a continuous flame , instead of momentary flame.
Fire point is higher than flash point.
Determined by same apparatus as for flash point.
Gives idea of fire hazard, during storage and use of oil
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 04

 Lecture Numbers: 01A

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Pre treatment of fuel

Properties of fuel
Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

• Properties of fuel
 Cloud Point

Feul oil is cooled at a specified temperature at which it

becomes cloudy or hazy.
This haziness is due to separation of crystals of wax or
increase of viscosity at Lower temperature.
Pour Point:
The minimum temperature at which fuel oil will
pour/flow when cooled under specified conditions.
If fuel oil is bellow this temperature it cannot flow.
Important : cold weather or high altitudes
 Freezing Point

It is the temperature at which Fuel oil freezes

completely and can not flow at all.
Smoke Point:
This is maximum height of flame in ‘mm’ without
smoke formation when the kerosene is burned in a
standard lamp under closely controlled conditions.
Smoke-aromatic hydrocarbons
Standard smoke point of kerosene 20-30mm.
 Aniline Point

It is the temperature at which Fuel oil is completely

miscible with an equal volume of aniline.
It is the measure of aromatic content of fuel oil, hence it
is characteristics property of diesel.
Higher aniline point , better diesel fuel and lubricant ,
high cetane number
Diesel Index:
An alternative method of expressing the quality of
diesel oil is by use of diesel index.
Diesel Index= Aniline point*0F*API gravity/100
 Octane Number

It is the anti-knock rating of gasoline or petrol.

Higher the octane number , better the petrol.
It is the property used in the spark ignition engine and
express its knocking characteristics.
Cetane Number:
It denotes the ignition quality and anti-knocking rating
of diesel fuel.
Higher the cetane number , better the diesel.
 Color

Color of petroleum products indicates the degree of

refinement. Distillates are lighter in color than the
residual oil.
Auto Ignition Temperature
The lowest temperature at which it will spontaneously
ignite in a normal atmosphere without an external
source of ignition. Never operate a system above a
fluid auto-ignition temperature.
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 04

 Lecture Numbers: 01B

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Pre treatment of fuel

Properties of fuel
Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Storage and handling

 Storage and Handling

Design of storage tanks for crude oil and their products requires
following considerations
1. The vapor pressure of material to be stored
2. The storage temperature and pressure
Most storage tanks are designed according to American
Petroleum Institute API-650 specification
 Types of Storage Tanks

1. Fixed roof tanks

2. External floating roof tanks
3. Internal floating roof tanks
4. Domed External floating roof tanks
5. Horizontal Tanks
6. Pressure tanks
7. Variable vapor space tanks
8. LNG tanks
 Ignition Temperature

It is the minimum temperature at which the fuel ignites

(catches fire) in an oxidizing atmosphere without
any external source of fire
 Reforming of Petroleum

The conversion of straight chain hydrocarbon into

branched chain hydrocarbon is called reforming of
petroleum.
By the process of reforming, the octane number of a
gasoline is improved. The process of reforming is
carried out in the presence of catalyst.
n-alkanes burn in internal combustion engine with
explosion and produce knocking but branched chain
hydrocarbons burn smoothly.
Transportation of Crude Oil
Storage of Liquid Fuel
 Storage losses

 Working losses
 Filling
 Emptying
 Evaporation losses
 Breathing
 Standing
 Boiling
 To prevent the evaporation losses install a vapor recovery unit
Vapor Recovery Unit
Storage of Gaseous Fuel
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 05

 Lecture Numbers: 01A

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Pre treatment of fuel

Properties of fuel

Storage and handling

Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Color of petroleum

Secondary fuels
 Color

 Saybolt color (reference ASTM D156, ASTM D6045) is primarily used in

characterizing fuels including automobile and aviation gasoline,
jet fuel, diesel fuel and other petroleum products. The Saybolt
color scale varies from near water white (30) to dark yellow (-16).

 The visual Saybolt Color scale is defined in ASTM D156 Standard Test
Method for Saybolt Color of Petroleum Products (Saybolt Chromometer
Method).

 Saybolt Color scale is used for slightly yellowish but low Chroma
petroleum products such as mineral oil, kerosene, gasoline, naphtha,
aviation fuels, white petroleum waxes
Color
Color
 Secondary fuels
 depend upon the state of occurrence, fuels are classified as solid

liquid and gaseous fuels.

 Fuel in each general division further classified as primary and

secondary fuels.

 Primary fuels are coal, wood, petroleum(crude oil) natural gas etc.

 Secondary fuels are fuels that are derived from some primary fuel or

fuels through chemical or physical processes, These are fuels that are

not found as a natural resource. Eg fuel oil and kerosene (derived

from petroleum) coke oven gas (derived from coal),

 Secondary fuels
 Secondary fuels are further classified into manufactured fuel
and by product fuels,

 Gasoline is the best example of a secondary fuel, as it must

be made from oil through distillation processes.

 Other are coke used for iron making and producer gas
made for industrial heating purpose.

 By product fuels are those which are co-product

unavoidable product of regular manufacturing process e.g
bagasse, tar, refinery gas.
 Secondary fuels
 Molecular hydrogen can be a secondary fuel as well, but this is
often made in a fuel cell. This process allows water to be
separated into hydrogen and oxygen, but the energy to do this
must come from a primary energy source (either another fuel like
coal or a primary energy flow like hydropower).

 Coke oven gas is formed by heating coal to 1100 °C without

access of air. The classic composition of coke gas: hydrogen (H2 -
51%), methane (CH4 - 34%), carbon monoxide (CO - 10%),
ethylene (C2H4 - 5%). The composition may also include benzene
(C6H6), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and other
components
 Secondary fuels
 Prepared coal is "coked", or heated in an oxygen-free atmosphere until all
volatile components in the coal evaporate. The material remaining is
called coke.

 Producer gas is a combustible gas manufactured by blowing a mixture of

steam and air upwards through a bed of hot coke, or coal, such that
the fuel is completely gasified.

 Producer gas A gas mixture containing carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen

(H2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N2).

 Refinery gas is defined as non-condensable gas obtained during distillation

of crude oil or treatment of oil products (e.g. cracking) in refineries. It
consists mainly of hydrogen, methane, ethane and olefins.
Secondary Fuels
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 06

 Lecture Numbers: 01A

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Color of petroleum

Secondary fuels
Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Combustion

Principles of Combustion

Types of Combustion
 Combustion and principles

 Combustion is a chemical process in which a substance reacts rapidly with

oxygen and gives off heat. The original substance is called the fuel, and the
source of oxygen is called the oxidizer. The fuel can be a solid, liquid, or gas,

 Combustion is the scientific word for burning.

 Fire is the visible effect of the process of combustion

 All the fuel solid, liquid and gas contain basic elements as carbon,
hydrogen, sulfur and when react (burnt) with oxygen of air form carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapor and sulfur dioxide.

 The solid fuel burned in beds in lump(or pellet form) or in pulverized form
suspended in air stream.
 Combustion and principles

 The liquid fuel are either burnt by vaporizing and mixing with air before ignition, or
in the form of fine droplets which get evaporated while mixing with the air stream
during burning.

 The gaseous fuels are either burned in burner where the fuel and air is premixed
or fuel and air flow separately into a furnace and simultaneously mix together as
combustion proceeds.

 During the chemical reaction that produces fire, fuel is heated to such an extent
that (if not already a gas) it releases gases from its surface.

 Only gases can react in combustion. Gases are made up of molecules (groups
of atoms). When these gases are hot enough, the molecules in the gases break
apart and fragments of molecules rejoin with oxygen from the air to make new
product molecules – water molecules (H2O) and carbon dioxide molecules
(CO2) – and other products if burning is not complete.
Combustion and principles
 Combustion and principles

 The fuel must be heated to its ignition temperature for

combustion to occur. The reaction will keep going as
long as there is enough heat, fuel and oxygen. This is
known as the fire triangle.
 Types of Combustion

 SPOTANOEUS COMBUSTION

 RAPID COMBUSTION

 COMPLETE COMBUSTION

 INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION

 EXPLOSION
 Types of Combustion
 SPOTANOEUS COMBUSTION

 When a substance suddenly starts burning into a flame; without

the supply of any external cause such as heating; the combustion
is called spontaneous combustion.

 Substances which have relatively low temperature of ignition

generally burn by spontaneous combustion.

 It occurs by self-heating (increase in temperature due to

exothermic internal reactions), followed by thermal runaway
(self heating which rapidly accelerates to high temperatures) and
finally, auto ignition.
 Types of Combustion

 RAPID COMBUSTION

 Combustion in which a substance burns rapidly and produces

heat and flame is known as rapid combustion, such as combustion
of natural gas, LPG, petrol etc.

 This is usually attained by introducing external heat.

 Substances which undergo rapid combustion have lower ignition

temperature.

 This is used in a form of machinery, such as

internal combustion engines
 Types of Combustion

 COMPLETE COMBUSTION
 In complete combustion, the reactant burns in oxygen, producing a
limited number of products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen,
the reaction will only yield carbon dioxide and water. When elements
are burned, the products are primarily the most common oxides.

 The general equation for a complete combustion reaction is: Fuel +

O2 → CO2 + H2O
 Types of Combustion

A reaction or process which

 INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION

 A reaction or process which entails only partial burning of a fuel.

 This may be due to a lack of oxygen or low temperature,

preventing the complete chemical reaction.

 Carbon monoxide is produced as a by product from incomplete

combustion
• This may be due to a lack of
oxygen or low temperature,
preventing the complete
chemical reaction.
• Carbon monoxide is
produced as a by product from
incomplete combustion
Types of Combustion
 Types of Combustion

 EXPLOSION

 When combustion is accompanied by sudden production of

heat, sound and large amount of gas, it is called explosion

 An explosion is defined as the rapid increase in volume and

release of energy in an extreme manner.

 Firecrackers and bombs are substances which show explosion

 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 07

 Lecture Numbers: 01 A

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Combustion

Principles of Combustion

Types of Combustion

Requirements of Combustion
Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Requirements of Combustion

Solid fuel combustion

 Requirements of Combustion
Primary air: air admitted through the lump fuel bed and
required to burn the fixed carbon of the coal or for affecting
preliminary part of the operation of burning the fuel is called the
primary air.
 Primary air also act as carrier for different fuel like pulverized
coal, liquid fuel and gaseous fuel as it premixes with them.
Secondary air improves combustion efficiency by promoting
the fuel to burn completely and also helps in completing the
combustion of volatile matter.

Excess air is supplied to the combustion process to ensure each

fuel molecule is completely surrounded by sufficient combustion
air.
 Requirements of Combustion
 The pressure required to supply air to a furnace and to remove
the flue gases rom the furnace is called draught.
 It is of two types namely natural draught and artificial(or
mechanical) draught.
 Natural draught:
 It is produced by chimney, the resultant flow of the chimney gas
is controlled by dampers, natural draught produced by the
chimney is proportional to the height of the chimney and to the
density of the chimney gas.
 Natural draft allow natural circulation of air through system.
 A chimney is vertical or tubular structure built either by masonry,
concrete or steel.
 Requirements of Combustion
 Mechanical draught:
 Natural draft of the chimney is limited by practice consideration
 Draught for large furnaces is usually supplied by fans which is
called artificial or mechanical draft.
 Induced draught:
 In this system, a suction fan is installed at the base of chimney to
augment the natural draft of the chimney.
 Forced draught:
 In this system the fan is installed below, or in front of the grate to
force primary air through the fire bed and secondary air over the
grate.
 Requirements of Combustion
 Flame characteristics:
 Flame is a burning mixture of a combustible gas and vapor with
air, (or product of combustion).
 Solid fuel burn with a glow but little flame, there are different
types of flame.
 Luminous flame e.g. Candle, non aerated oil, tar, coke oven gas
flame.
 Non luminous e.g. hydrogen, carbon monoxide blast furnace gas.
 Long (lazy) flame like partially aerated flames, it is produced
when gas are burnt with less quantity of primary air.
 Limit of inflammability
 for burning a gaseous fuel a particular range ( minimum and
maximum) of concentration of fuel gas is required in gas air mixture.
 The limit for blast furnace gas is 37 % to 71% gas in gas-air mixture
lower limit is 37% and higher limit is 71%.
 It will burn only in the concentration range of 37 % to 71% and
explode if burning takes place in confined space.
 Limit of inflammability for coke oven gas is 5-32%, hydrogen 4-75%,
carbon monoxide it is 12.5-74%.
 Solid fuel combustion
The systems used for combustion of solid fuels are as follows:

Grate Firing System

Over feed
Traveling grate stoker
Single retort underfeed stoker
Pulverized Fuel Combustor
Fluidized Bed Combustor
 Solid fuel combustion
 Grate firing is a type of industrial combustion system used for solid
fuels.
 It is now used mainly for burning waste and biomass, but also for smaller
coal furnaces
 Over feed stokers are used for large capacity boilers where coal is burnt
as lumps (with out pulverization).
 The fresh coal is received on top surface.
 The fuel bed thickness varies from 10 to 30 cm and is divided into four
zones.
 The primary air enters from below the fuel bed and passes upward
through the grate in the ash zone gets heated in turn cooling the ash.
Solid fuel combustion
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 07

 Lecture Numbers: 01 B

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Requirements of Combustion

Solid fuel combustion

Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Solid fuel combustion

 Solid fuel combustion

Traveling grate combustion:

 An endless metal chain conveyor through which primary air passes.

 Coal feed rate is controlled by the thickness of the fuel bed and by the speed of the

grate.

 It can burn any type of small coal effectively.

 It can not burn the low ash coal(< 5%) because of protecting the grate form heat.

 It can not burn slacks containing high proportion fines <3mm which block the air

passage in the grate.

Solid fuel combustion
 Solid fuel combustion

 Single retort or underfeed stoker:

 The fresh fuel is forced into the fire from below by a screw conveyor.

 The ash that accumulates at the sides is removed.

 The grate is usually inclined so that the burned fuel and the ash

automatically move outward as the fresh fuel is forced from below.

 The air for combustion is supplied through tuyeres.

 The factor controlling the efficiency of such stokers are proper ratio of

air, air/fuel ratio, particle size of fuel,

Solid fuel combustion
 Solid fuel combustion

 The rate of combustion of solid fuel is slow because of the difficult of contact between

the fuel and air. It increases by pulverizing so that air and fuel come in close contact.
 Solid fuel combustion

 Fluidized bed combustion:

 In fluidized bed combustion coal particles bed is kept in moving/boiled

(fluidized).

 Coal particles are continuously introduced through inlet is agitated and ash is

carried over by combustion air blown from the bottom.

 Combustion chamber is vertical cylindrical shell, crushed coal is (-1.5mm) is

supported on perforated distributor.

 Combustion provide heat for steam generation, combustion chamber I

refractory lined.
Solid fuel combustion
 Liquid/gaseous fuel combustion
Oil may be burnt in two ways:
 It is vaporized before ignition so that it burns like a gas (vaporizing burner).
 It is broken into fine droplets which are injected into hot air so that they evaporate while
burning.
 Liquid/gaseous fuel combustion
 Automization burner have as arrangement for automization of liquid fuels before the actual
combustion takes place.
 There are three types of atomization burners, jet atomization burner, twin fuil or blast
atomization burner, rotary atomizing burner.
 Liquid/gaseous fuel combustion
 There are two methods of burning gaseous fuels:
1. Inside mixing type burning
2. Outside mixing type burning
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 08

 Lecture Numbers: 01A

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Requirements of Combustion

Solid fuel combustion

Solid fuel combustion

Liquid and gas combustion

Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Combustion problem calculation

 Combustion Problem Calculation

For the burning of fuel in the combustion chamber,

fuel contain by mass 88% C, 8% H2, 1% S and 3%
ash.
a) Calculate Stoichiometric Air required for
combustion.
b) If the air supplied is 20% more than stoichiometric
value, find the analysis of dry product by mass.
Combustion Problem Calculation
Combustion Problem Calculation
Combustion Problem Calculation
 Combustion Problem Calculation
 After combustion flue gases from a process contain the following volumetric
composition CO2 10.5%, CO 0.5%, O2 8%, N2 81%, determine gravimetric
composition.
 Combustion Problem Calculation

The analysis of coal used in a boiler trial is as follows:

82% C, 6% H2, 4% O2, 2% moisture and 6% ash.
a) Determine the theoretical minimum air required for
complete combustion of 1kg of coal?
b) If the actual air supplied is 18kg per kg of coal, the
hydrogen is completely burned and 80% of C burned to
CO2, the remainder to CO, determine the volumetric
analysis of the dry products of combustion?
Combustion Problem Calculation
Combustion Problem Calculation
Combustion Problem Calculation
Combustion Problem Calculation
Combustion Problem Calculation
Combustion Problem Calculation
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 08

 Lecture Numbers: 01B

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Combustion problem calculation

Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Combustion problem calculation

 Combustion Problem Calculation

The analysis of coal used in a boiler trial is as follows:

82% C, 6% H2, 4% O2, 2% moisture and 6% ash.
a) Determine the theoretical minimum air required for
complete combustion of 1kg of coal?
b) If the actual air supplied is 18kg per kg of coal, the
hydrogen is completely burned and 80% of C burned to
CO2, the remainder to CO, determine the volumetric
analysis of the dry products of combustion?
Combustion Problem Calculation
Combustion Problem Calculation
Combustion Problem Calculation
Combustion Problem Calculation
Combustion Problem Calculation
Combustion Problem Calculation
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 09

 Lecture Numbers: 01A

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Combustion problem calculation

Introduction to furnace

Classification of furnace
Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Introduction to furnace

Furnaces in industries
Kiln Furnace
Furnace
 Furnace material

Today's modern furnace uses stainless

steel, aluminized steel, aluminum, brass, copper, and
fiberglass. Stainless steel is used in the heat
exchangers for corrosion resistance. Aluminized
steel is used to construct the frame, blowers, and
burners. Brass is used for valves, and copper in the
electrical wiring.
 Furnace Refractories

Refractories
The main purpose of refractory material that is to contain the
heat generated by burning of the fuel in the furnace and to
minimize heat losses from the furnace. It is therefore
important that these materials have insulating properties and
are able to withstand high temperatures.

The oxides of aluminum (alumina), silicon (silica) and

magnesium (magnesia) are the most important materials
used in the manufacturing of refractories.
 Furnace Refractories

Scientists discovered that tantalum carbide (TaC) and hafnium

carbide (HfC) materials are capable of resisting temperatures of
nearly 4000 degrees Celsius
Magnesium oxide (MgO) has a very high melting point of 2800
degrees C
Silica bricks have a relatively high melting temperature
of 1695 deg C to 1710 deg C.
Both high alumina bricks and fire
clay brick contain aluminum oxide, which is a high hardness
compound, melting point 2054℃
Furnace refractories
 Furnace Efficiency

Complete combustion with minimum excess air

Optimum capacity utilization
Correct heat distribution
Operating at the optimum temperature
Reducing heat losses from furnace openings
Maintaining correct amount of furnace draught
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 09

 Lecture Numbers: 01B

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Introduction to furnace

Furnaces in industries
Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Steel industry furnace

 Furnace Efficiency

 A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace used for

smelting to produce industrial metals, generally pig iron,
but also others such as lead or copper. Blast refers to the
combustion air being "forced" or supplied above
atmospheric pressure.
 Ore, limestone and carbon in the form of coke are put
into the top of the blast furnace in layers. At the same
time, hot air called "wind" is blown inside the furnace. ...
The carbon monoxide then reduces the metal oxide to
the metal and makes carbon dioxide. This process is used
to make iron.
Furnace Efficiency
 Furnace Efficiency

Sillimanite brick Sillimanite is a kind of Flint clay brick High-grade

quality refractory raw materials and is fire clays can
used to produce high-alumina brick with withstand temperatures of 1,775
low creep, high refractoriness under °C (3,227 °F), but to be referred
load, high heat shock and micro- to as a "fire clay" the material
expansive, and furnace top. ... Its must withstand a
refractoriness is 1770~1830 ℃ minimum temperature of 1,515
°C (2,759 °F).

Silicon carbide brick

silicon oxide coating at
1200°C and is able to be
used up to 1600°C
Furnace Efficiency
Furnace Efficiency
Furnace Stove
 Furnace Problems

 Flame Impingement
 Flameout
 Hot Spot
 Spalled Refractory
 Ruptured Tubes
 Coke Buildup
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 10

 Lecture Numbers: 01A

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Steel industry furnace

Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Boiler and types of boiler

 BOILER

A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for

combustion heat to be transferred into water until it becomes
heated water or steam.
A boiler is an enclosed vessel in which water is heated and
circulated, either as hot water or steam, to produce a source for
either heat or power.
 The steam generated is used to heat buildings, provide hot water,
and provide steam for cleaning, sterilizing, cooking, and
laundering operations. Small package boilers also provide steam
and hot water for small buildings.
 Steam Utilization

 Driving machinery
(turbines, engines, excavators shovels)
 Moving materials as motive fuel
(Steam can also be used as a direct “motive” force to
move liquid and gas streams in piping. Steam jet ejectors
are used to pull vacuum on process equipment such as
distillation towers)
 Heat exchangers
 Steam for cleaning of equipments
 Cracking( saturated hydrocarbon to smaller hydrocarbon)
 Types of boiler

 Fire tube boiler

 Water tube boiler

 Fire-tube Boilers
 In fire-tube boilers, combustion gases pass through the
inside of the tubes with water surrounding the outside of
the tubes. The advantages of a fire-tube boiler are its
simple construction and less rigid water treatment
requirements.
Water tube boiler

 the water is inside the tubes and combustion gases

pass around the outside of the tubes. The advantages
of a water-tube boiler are a lower unit weight-per-
pound of steam generated, less time required to raise
steam pressure, a greater flexibility for responding to
load changes, and a greater ability to operate at high
rates of steam generation.
Water tube boiler
Developments in Water Tube Boiler
 Boiler Components

 Boiler components can vary, but the most common

components include a
 firebox,
 burners,
 drums,
 tubes,
 economizer,
 a steam distribution system,
 and a boiler feed water system.
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 11

 Lecture Numbers: 01A

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Introduction to furnace

Furnaces in industries

Steel industry furnace

Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Problems calculations
 About Course

 Subject: Fuel and Energy (CH-310)

 Week Number: 11

 Lecture Numbers: 01B

 Course Teacher: M. Umair Shaikh

Review of last lectures

Introduction to furnace

Furnaces in industries

Problem Calculations
Topics to be Covered in this Lecture

Waste Heat Recovery

Regenerator

Recuperator
 Waste Heat Recovery

A waste heat recovery unit (WHRU) is an energy recovery

heat exchanger that transfers heat from process outputs at high
temperature to another part of the process for some purpose,
usually increased efficiency
 Benefits of Waste Heat Recovery

Direct Benefits:
Recovery of waste heat has a direct effect on the
efficiency of the process. This is reflected by reduction in
the utility consumption & costs, and process cost
Indirect benefits:
Reduction in pollution:
Reduction in equipment sizes:
Reduction in auxiliary energy consumption
 Regenerator

A regenerative heat exchanger, or more commonly

a regenerator, is a type of heat exchanger where heat from the
hot fluid is intermittently stored in a thermal storage medium
before it is transferred to the cold fluid. To accomplish this the
hot fluid is brought into contact with the heat storage medium,
then the fluid is displaced with the cold fluid, which absorbs
the heat.
 Recuperator

A recuperator is a special purpose counter-flow energy

recovery heat exchanger positioned within the supply and
exhaust air streams of an air handling system, or in
the exhaust gases of an industrial process, in order to recover
the waste heat. Generally, they are used to extract heat from
the exhaust and use it to preheat air entering the combustion
system