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Eric C. K. Cheng
Joanna K. M. Chan

Developing
Metacognitive
Teaching Strategies
Through Lesson
Study
Developing Metacognitive Teaching Strategies
Through Lesson Study
Eric C. K. Cheng · Joanna K. M. Chan

Developing Metacognitive
Teaching Strategies Through
Lesson Study
Eric C. K. Cheng Joanna K. M. Chan
Education University of Hong Kong ELCHK Lutheran Secondary School
Hong Kong, China Hong Kong, China

ISBN 978-981-16-5568-5 ISBN 978-981-16-5569-2 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5569-2

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Preface

Since the introduction of competency-based curricula (CBC) around the world to

prepare a workforce for Industry 4.0, metacognitive teaching has emerged as an
innovative research agenda in education. The key concept underpinning CBC is
that teachers need to help students develop metacognitive skills, including decision-
making, planning, monitoring and problem-solving. As the need to expand students’
capabilities to learn the competencies required for Industry 4.0 increases, it becomes
crucial for teachers to develop metacognitive teaching skills. It is suggested that
schools to implement CBC to enhance the metacognitive capabilities of students for
achieving self-regulation and lifelong learning. The CBC recently implemented in
Hong Kong has brought challenges for, and impacted on, curriculum implementation
and instructional design in schools. Developing and maintaining the professional
competency of teachers is a critical factor for successful curriculum reform. However,
pedagogies for implementing a competency-based curriculum to develop student
metacognition have not been effectively crafted because too few research has been
carried out to develop a collaborative lesson-planning platform for teachers to craft
such pedagogies.
This book addresses applying the Lesson Study approach for crafting metacogni-
tive teaching knowledge and skills to tackle the impact and challenges created by and
underlie the CBC. It discusses the potential of using Lesson Study for crafting peda-
gogies that could nurture student abilities for self-regulation for effective curriculum
implementation. Chapter 1 outlines the education for addressing Industry 4.0 and
self-regulation as the core learning outcome of the CBC. It raises a challenge on
effectively implementing the CBC to nurture student self-regulated competencies.
Chapter 2 articulates the critical characteristics of metacognition, metacognitive
teaching and the role of self-regulation in effective learning. It proposes metacogni-
tive pedagogies for implementing the CBC. Chapter 3 illustrates how Lesson Study
can craft metacognitive pedagogy through a case study conducted in Hong Kong.
Chapter 4 discusses the use of metacognitive teaching to enact the pattern of variation
of learning study. Chapter 5 argues that knowledgeable others, the essential nature of
lesson study, enable teachers to regulate and craft their teaching strategies through an
experimental study. We conclude that teachers can apply lesson and learning studies
to craft metacognitive pedagogies for effective CBC implementation.
v
vi Preface

This book creates new research dimensions by linking metacognitive teaching

with lesson study and variation theory. The book itself adopts a metacognitive
teaching design to provide scaffolding instruction for readers to experience metacog-
nitive learning. It can serve as a roadmap to teachers and a resource with teaching
tips and ideas to augment their teaching. The book contains a professional tool kit
for student teachers and in-service teachers who are its target audience.

Hong Kong Eric C. K. Cheng

Joanna K. M. Chan

Acknowledgements We express gratitude to Miss Wong Fung-chi and Mr. Lee Kwok-man of the
ELCHK Lutheran Secondary School for providing their lessons to us for analysis.
Contents

1 Curriculum for Nurturing Self-regulating Competencies . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Impacts of Industry 4.0 on Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Competency-Based Curriculum for Developing 21st Century
Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Implementation of a Competency-Based Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Self-regulation as an Intended Learning Outcome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Metacognition and Metacognitive Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 What is Metacognition? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Cognitive and Metacognitive Learning Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Theoretical Models of Metacognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1 Flavell’s Model (1979) of Cognitive Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.2 Brown’s Model (1987) of Metacognitive Knowledge
and Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.3 Schraw’s Model (1994) of Metacognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 Why is Metacognitive Learning Important? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4.1 Metacognition Enhances 21st Century Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4.2 Metacognition Improves Academic Achievements . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 Measuring Metacognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5.1 Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5.2 A Study of Metacognition and Academic Results . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 Metacognitive Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Crafting Metacognitive Teaching Strategies Through Lesson
Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1 Knowledgeable Platform for Metacognitive Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.1 Lesson Study as a Platform for Knowledgeable Others . . . . . 26
3.1.2 Lesson Study for Crafting Self-regulated Learning
Pedagogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
vii
viii Contents

3.1.3 Lesson Study as a Knowledge Creation Platform . . . . . . . . . . 27

3.2 A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2.1 SRL as a Major Concern in Schools (Vision
and Leadership) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.2 Using Lesson Study to Develop SRL (Knowledge
Acquisition) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.3 Socialisation of Metacognitive Pedagogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.4 Lesson Study Case for Liberal Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.5 Combination of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.6 Internalisation of the Metacognitive Pedagogies . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4 Crafting of Metacognitive Teaching Strategies Through Learning
Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.1 Learning Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.2 Variation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.3 Learning Study Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.3.1 Select Enzymes as the Topic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.3.2 Setting Object of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.3.3 Diagnosing Students’ Learning Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3.4 Confirming the Object of Learning and Critical Feature . . . . . 49
4.3.5 Ideas in the Lesson Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3.6 Lesson Implementation of Cycle 1 and Cycle 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.3.7 Evaluating the Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4.1 Metacognitive Questions Broaden the Shared Space
of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4.2 Constructive Approach Facilitates the Changing
of “Seeing” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.4.3 Visualising a Pattern of Variation Facilitates
the Discernment of Sameness and Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.4.4 Suggestions for Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5 Internalisation of Metacognitive Teaching Through Lesson Study . . . . 61
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.1.1 Explicit Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.1.2 Promoting Metacognitive Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.1.3 Modeling and Thinking-Aloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.1.4 Questioning, Prompts and Probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.1.5 Graphic Organisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.1.6 K-W-L Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.1.7 Guiding Questions for Co-Operative Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.1.8 Reciprocal Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.1.9 Reflective Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Contents ix

5.2 Instructional Design for Metacognitive Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

5.2.1 The Five Principles for Scaffolding Metacognitive
Lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.2.2 Pre-service Teachers’ Perceptions of Their Changes . . . . . . . . 73
5.3 How Do Lesson and Learning Studies Benefit
from Knowledgeable Others? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.3.1 Lesson Study as Collaborative Action Research . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.3.2 Lesson Study as Communities of Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3.3 Organisational Learning Culture for Lesson Study . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Chapter 1
Curriculum for Nurturing
Self-regulating Competencies

Abstract This chapter portrays the development of the competency-based

curriculum and its intended learning outcome on students’ ability to self-regulate. The
rise of Industry 4.0 has impacted on, and created enormous challenges for, school
education to develop a competent workforce that will sustain economic growth.
A competency-based curriculum has been formulated to address human capital
development for the 21st century. It necessarily incorporates contemporary skills,
Learning to Learn and student self-regulation. The curriculum is characterised by
nurturing students’ ability to regulate cognitive strategies for effective learning as
the intended learning outcome. This chapter articulates the need for regulation of
cognitive learning strategies for effective learning as the intended outcome of the
curriculum.

1.1 Impacts of Industry 4.0 on Education

The rise of Industry 4.0 creates many impacts and challenges to the development
of human capital for the economy. The key characteristic of Industry 4.0 is the
interoperability where machines, devices, sensors and people are connected and
communicating with each other. Industry 4.0 relies on technologies such as machine
learning, deep learning, advanced robotics and the industrial Internet of Things to
further accelerate efficiency. Due to the automation process, a large sector of human
employment will be reduced. The availability and accessibility of a large amount
of data and information leads to changes in education. Zovko (2014) examined and
predicted the effect technological advancement would have on the labour market and
education, and concluded that technologies will eliminate some jobs, replace some
others and create new employment in the information and communication sectors.
There will be growth in the number of highest paid and lowest paid jobs and a
decline in the number of mid-level jobs. It will lead to labour polarisation where the
gap between the highest and lowest paid jobs will be further widened. Employees
will need a higher qualification and learning capacity to solve problems than before
to secure their jobs: the entire workforce will become increasingly specialised.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1
E. C. K. Cheng and J. K. M. Chan, Developing Metacognitive Teaching Strategies Through
Lesson Study, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5569-2_1
2 1 Curriculum for Nurturing Self-regulating Competencies

Standard schooling or mass education concepts will no longer be effective in

nurturing human capital for Industry 4.0. and greater flexibility will be required.
Society will incorporate bespoke or specialised education to meet individual needs
and in which lifelong learning and self-regulation are proposed. A shift from
knowledge-based to a competency-based curriculum that emphasises the develop-
ment of critical thinking, intelligence, management, and judgment for modern tech-
nology are proposed. The implication of Industry 4.0 on education is that schools
are facing a challenge to equip graduates with the competencies to live and work in a
society with increasing technology. Educators should facilitate and engage students
in a learning process that equips them with the knowledge and skills necessary to be
creative learners, citizens and employees.
Education for Industry 4.0 is an initiative in response to the fourth industrial revo-
lution, which places the emphasis on nurturing producers and users of Industry 4.0
with knowledge acquisition and innovation skills (Fisk, 2017). It promotes learners
to learn not only the skills and knowledge needed but also to identify the source
for learning these skills and knowledge. Education for Industry 4.0 should emphasie
learning anywhere and anytime and includes lifelong learning, e-learning, and online
learning. In terms of the curriculum, learners have a choice in determining how
they want to learn; their opinions will be considered in designing and updating the
curriculum. Learners will be exposed to more project-based learning and data inter-
pretation. They should be more independent in their own learning, welcome chal-
lenges, and enjoy group discussions in a highly interactive learning environment.
They will learn from multiple sources of information and by sharing the under-
standing of the information with their peers (Asis Hussin, 2018). The pedagogies for
effectively implementing the curriculum for this change should place the learners at
the centre of their learning processes, responsible for connecting and creating their
learning paths and experiences by providing access to learning content, instructors
and experts, as well as their peers.
In the book Fourth Industrial Revolution, Schwab (2017) suggests developing the
competencies of learners to know why and how to apply knowledge with contex-
tual understanding. Recently, Cropley (2020) proposed a competency framework of
creativity-focused technology education to meet the demands of human capital for
Industry 4.0, which involves managing complexity, thinking critically, envisaging
possibilities, tolerating uncertainty, displaying self-efficacy, and communicating
skillfully. The curriculum for Industry 4.0 should be competency-based and include
the development of creative and Learning to Learn skills as well as self-regulated
skills in cognitive and affective domains.
1.2 Competency-Based Curriculum for Developing 21st Century Skills 3

1.2 Competency-Based Curriculum for Developing 21st

Century Skills

The need for human capital for Industry 4.0 has influenced the development of
a competency-based curriculum (CBC) that emphasizes 21st century skills and
Learning to Learn (Acedo & Hughes, 2014). The key concept underpinning the
Learning to Learn Curriculum is that teachers should develop students’ generic
skills, including decision-making, planning, and problem solving. These can all be
conceptualized as metacognitive skills. The curriculum incorporates a wide range
of elements, including science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM)
education, information literacy, language across the curriculum, values education,
and e-learning (Curriculum Development Council, 2015, p. 6). It is suggested that
schools should implement this framework to enhance the metacognitive capabilities
of students for achieving self-regulation and life-long learning. The recently imple-
mented CBC in Hong Kong has brought challenges to, and impacted on, curriculum
implementation and instructional design in Hong Kong schools (Curriculum Devel-
opment Council, 2015, 2017). Developing and maintaining the professional compe-
tency of teachers is a critical factor for successful curriculum reform (Cheng, 2017;
Connolly & Chris, 1998). However, pedagogies for effective implementation of a
competency-based curriculum were not effectively crafted because too few studies
have attempted to develop a collaborative lesson-planning platform for teachers to
craft these pedagogies.
Learning, innovation, digital literacy life and career knowledge are the three
important constituents of the competence framework for 21st century skills (Chu
et al., 2016). They include individual, interpersonal, life, applied, labour and non-
cognitive skills (McComas, 2014, p. 1). The curriculum for developing such exper-
tise places the emphasis on innovative, learning, social and affective skills. The
intended learning outcomes of such a curriculum are collaborative learning, high-
order thinking, critical thinking and creativity characteristics that are similar to those
of educational content aimed at encouraging innovation. Learning promoted by CBC
is conceptualized as behaviours of cognition and reflections that involve a develop-
mental progression with social learning activities. Learners can plan, regulate and
apply rules and make important decisions, and they should be given adequate quality
time to reflect meaningfully. Their cognitive regulation mechanism enables them to
learn variegated types of 21st century skills through trial and error.
Research about the pedagogies for CBC and deliberative processes implemented
to equip students with 21st century skills are ongoing. Stonkuvienė (2018) actu-
alises Learning to Learn in the CBC as an important component of human activity
in the lifelong learning process. The development of Learning to Learn is already
emphasized in the documents regulating the stage of preschool education. In the
curriculum documents the importance of Learning to Learn competencies for further
successful process of a child’s learning and its continuity have been substantiated, a
problem-based perception of the concept of Learning to Learn and the components
explaining Learning to Learn have been revealed. It has been emphasized that for the
4 1 Curriculum for Nurturing Self-regulating Competencies

development of Learning to Learn competencies the focus on this field is important

as well as the designing of education in the curriculum of preschool educational
institutions.
Erstad and Voogt (2018) gave the details of major a framework for 21st century
skills and knowledge, and discussed the challenges of implementing them as well
as the role of new technologies in the CBC. They summarised the efforts of the
KeyCoNet project and the overall status of implementing the eight European key
competencies studied in this project and also the current work by OCED on the OCED
2030 Future of Education and Skills study. The framework provides the orientations
for supporting students in developing the competence, skills, knowledge, attitude
and values that will enable them to face the challenges and uncertainties posed by
the rapid social changes and advancement of AI and technology. This competence-
oriented framework emphasises the importance of student agency, mobilisation of
knowledge and skills, and development of transformative competencies. By engaging
in the after-action review cycle, students improve their thinking and act intentionally
and responsibly towards collective wellbeing. Since lifelong learning competencies
have become a mandate for students to stay competitive in future, metacognitive
skills, such as awareness, self-regulation and reflective learning, that strengthen one’s
capability of Learning to Learn are becoming important. Metacognitive skills form
not only a building block in this framework but also set the developing process in
motion. Through the metacognitive learning process of planning, monitoring, evalu-
ation and reflection, learners are constantly reviewing, updating and improving their
knowledge and skills by applying them in different situations across the board. This
process enhances learners’ ability to adapt, reflect and act. Intertwining with cogni-
tive skills, attitudes and values, metacognitive learning engineers student agency
towards wellbeing.

1.3 Implementation of a Competency-Based Curriculum

Education policy around the world is constantly being updated to maintain schools’
sustainable development and to foster students’ learning capabilities. In China,
education has been shifting from knowledge-based to competency-based. The former
was criticised for being teacher-centric whereby teachers spoon-fed knowledge to
students who simply repeated and memorised by rote learning. In 2016, a government
document Core Competencies for Students’ Development in Mainland China was
issued, unveiling a new educational reform. The framework outlined that students
should “learn how to learn and develop their practical and innovative skills. Schools
needed to respond to the demand of the new reform by nurturing student Learning to
Learn and self-regulated learning competencies” (Shi & Cheng, 2020). In Hong
Kong, the high-performing school system also focuses on teaching metacogni-
tive skills, and school leaders encourage teachers to teach students higher order
thinking skills, using creative strategies typically in classroom activities (Yeung,
2014). The Education Commission identified seven learning goals and essential skills
1.3 Implementation of a Competency-Based Curriculum 5

that students should be able to develop and strengthen during their education. They
include moral and civic education, reading to learn, project learning, and information
technology for interactive learning.
In Singapore, Tan et al. (2017) discusses future competence and implementation
and gave an overview of international frameworks, challenges and policy initiatives.
They articulated how the 21st century curriculum had been translated in practice
across specific subjects, schools, programmes, and systems. Choo (2018) examined
two case schools in Singapore and the US that adopted a whole-school approach
to 21st century curriculum education for the purpose of introducing alternative
approaches to sustainable educational development. They compared the competence
frameworks of the two schools and highlighted how they provide clear measures and
goals for both teachers and students to follow. These frameworks have been adopted
as a planning tool for lessons and a development tool in teacher training.
In Europe, the European Union is concerned about the economic prospects of
its member states since they have to compete against newly emerging economies
with lower wages and high ambitions (Leat et al., 2012). Part of the strategy to deal
with this “economic shadow” is to create a knowledge economy, and that would
require a shift to a CBC model. Since the Lisbon strategy in 2000, policy docu-
ments have provided guidelines and tools for member states but progress has been
limited and in several states curriculum reforms that favoured competences have
been reversed. Leat et al. (2012) conducted a study of enquiry and learning compe-
tence using analysis that drew on the theories of Bernstein to illustrate their accounts
of the difference between traditional and competence-based models. They found
a tension caused by pupils’ perceptions of the demands of summative assessment
systems, which reflected a very different epistemology from experiential or compe-
tence models. They proposed a greater pedagogical literacy, attention to professional
development, assessment reform, and engaging students as partners in curriculum
reform. In Turkey, a curriculum reform to support student-centred pedagogy has
been implemented and the schools are supporting student lifelong learning and
developing more structured pedagogical approaches that better suits Turkish culture
(Altinyelken, 2011). In Finland, a LTL framework is being used to develop students’
Learning to Learn skills across the curriculum (Vainikainen et al., 2015). Through
this framework, Finnish schools explore the structure of thinking skills, improve the
teaching process, and teach students explicitly to preparing them for 21st century
working life.
In England, Mannion and Mercer (2016) reported a comprehensive secondary
school which implemented a whole-school approach to Learning to Learn. Drawing
on a range of evidence-based practices, a team of teachers worked collaboratively
to design and deliver a taught CBC to all students throughout Key Stage 3. The
impact of the CBC on student attainment at the school was evaluated over three
years and a significantly higher proportion of the students were either hitting or
exceeding their target grades. There was also a significant closing of the attainment
gap between students eligible for the pupil premium and their peers. Key features of
6 1 Curriculum for Nurturing Self-regulating Competencies

this Learning to Learn approach at the school were considered in terms of similarities
and differences with other Learning to Learn approaches. Conclusions were drawn
that the success of this approach lies in the combination of multiple effective practices.
Braun et al. (2010) elaborated a school-based policy “Personal learning and thinking
skills” (PLTS) which served as a key part of their curriculum reforms in England. The
schools took on the PLTS framework and embedded metacognitive abilities such as
self-management and reflective learning into their curriculum. They recommended
school leaders make decisions about action points, allocate teaching time, re-organise
lessons, and reinforce metacognitive competencies in different subjects.

1.4 Self-regulation as an Intended Learning Outcome

A CBC provides an alternative approach to teaching and learning by providing an

integrated humanities approach in which the focus is on how students learn rather than
on what teachers teach (Downey et al., 2013). The student-centred approach should
be embedded in the CBC, as it will equip students with skills or competencies for
life, providing them with greater opportunities to achieve their potential. Equally, if
the implementation of a CBC has such a powerful influence on teachers’ teaching,
then it seems reasonable to conclude that it will also aid in metacognitive teaching
strategies in schools. As far as schools are concerned, the CBC should provide oppor-
tunities for learners, especially in the primary stages, with a repertoire of techniques
and strategies for self-regulation so they accept responsibility for their learning in
the education system. If this goal is included by the educationists and curriculum
developers, a great deal of energy and money would be saved and the educational
goals and objectives would be set and achieved in a process of negotiation with the
learners. Such an educational system, with its emphasis on the individual learner and
by considering student voices and interests, moves towards humanising the school
curriculum and advocating learner autonomy.
There is a need to integrate interesting and motivating self-regulated strategies
into the educational system with the prospect of encouraging students to take more
responsibility of their life-long learning. In fact, self-regulated learning has gained
momentum in recent years as constructs characterising successful and proficient
learners (Rajabi, 2012). Self-regulation refers to the process through which learners
systematically direct their thoughts, feelings, and actions towards the attainment of
their goals. Self-regulated learning is best defined as individuals consciously taking
control over their learning by setting goals, making choices about how to reach these
goals, and if necessary, adjusting motivational states, cognition, or metacognition in
the process of learning (Winne & Hadwin, 2008). Chapter 2 will articulate the concept
of metacognition and metacognitive teaching, a critical pedagogy for developing
students with these self-regulated learning abilities.
Professional development of teachers is always critical to the effective implemen-
tation of any curriculum and CBC is no exception. Enhancing the continuous profes-
sional development of teachers can only deepen and sustain pedagogies and other
1.4 Self-regulation as an Intended Learning Outcome 7

classroom practices supporting CBC (Marope et al., 2018). The study by Byrne et al.
(2013) also mentions providing sufficient resources and time to develop teachers’
professional skills to implement the curriculum. School should provide professional
support for teachers to increase their understanding of the curriculum, and enhance
their subject knowledge and practical skills (Schweisfurth, 2011). The implemen-
tation of a CBC could change the pedagogy and shape a self-regulated learning
environment that is enjoyable for students. Nyoni (2018) reported the challenges of
the paradigm shift needed for teachers in Tanzania to implement a competence-based
curriculum in ordinary level secondary schools in the Iringa municipality. A team
was established to enable teachers to work together to alter teaching strategies for
the effective implementation of a CBC. It appears that a collaborative platform needs
to be provided for teachers to craft the pedagogies required.
Lesson Study is a collaborative platforms involving a PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-
Act) cycle for enhancing teachers professional competencies. It has proved successful
in improving teaching skills and attaining educational goals (Cheng, 2018). Lesson
Study for knowledgeable other teachers in crafting metacognitive pedagogies will be
reported in Chap. 3. Learning Study, a Hong Kong model of Lesson Study adopting
variation theory as a guiding framework for instructional design with metacogni-
tive teaching strategies, will be articulated in Chap. 4 (Cheng, 2014). A case study
was adopted as the research method to collect evidence to verify the use of Lesson
and Learning Study for developing metacognitive pedagogies. By drawing on the
evidence discussed in Chaps. 3 and 4, 5 will conclude the main claim that Lesson
and Learning Studies can help the knowledgeable others in crafting metacognitive
pedagogies. Effective metacognitive strategies will be provided for implementing
the CBC.

1.5 Summary

Since the introduction of the competency-based curriculum around the world to

address the requirements of Industry 4.0, CBC curricula have been designed and
implemented in many countries to nurture human capital to include self-regulation
and Learning to Learn abilities. In order to implement the CBC effectively, artic-
ulation of the intended learning outcomes is critical. That is why the spotlight is
on metacognitive teaching as an innovative research agenda in teacher education. In
Chap. 2, models of metacognition and students metacognitive learning behaviour are
discussed.

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Chapter 2
Metacognition and Metacognitive
Learning

Abstract This chapter critically reviews the literature of metacognition and

metacognitive teaching to shed light on the need for the effective implementation
of a competency-based curriculum. Studies conducted on memory, problem solving,
reading and comprehension, and the findings on the developing metacognitive ability
will be critically discussed. The effects of metacognitive teaching on improving
students’ academic achievements, enhancing their abilities in problem solving and
mathematical skills, fostering reading and comprehension skills, advancing critical
thinking skills, self-regulated learning, independent learning, and promoting self-
management communication and collaboration skills will be articulated. An empir-
ical model for analysing the effects of student metacognition on their academic
learning outcomes is discussed.

2.1 What is Metacognition?

Metacognition is a process of higher order thinking (Livingston, 2003) which

involves “critical analysis of thought” (Serra & Metcalfe, 2009), and “knowledge
and cognition about a cognitive phenomenon” (Flavell, 1979) through monitoring,
regulating and orchestrating of cognitive processes and products (Flavell, 1976,
1979). Metacognition is the ability of individuals to understand and manipulate
their own cognitive processes (Reeve & Brown, 1984), to acquire information about
their cognitive structure and being able to organise it (Akturk et al., 2011). Flavell
(1979) conceptualises metacognitive activities as an interactive process of four crit-
ical elements to operate the metacognitive process for learning: metacognitive knowl-
edge, metacognitive experiences, goals and cognitive strategies. The interactions of
these four elements govern the monitoring, regulating and orchestrating of cognitive
processes for effective learning. Brown (1987) posits that knowledge about cognition,
regulation of cognition and motivation explains the metacognitive learning process.
Brown’s concept of knowledge about cognition is similar to Flavell’s concept of
metacognitive knowledge. Both concepts refer to what learners know about their own
cognition or about cognition in general. Brown’s concept of regulation of cognition
refers to a set of monitoring, regulating and orchestrating cognitive activities that help

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 11
E. C. K. Cheng and J. K. M. Chan, Developing Metacognitive Teaching Strategies Through
Lesson Study, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5569-2_2
12 2 Metacognition and Metacognitive Learning

Flavell (1976)
Metacogntiion refers to
the monitoring,
regulation and
Serra & Metcalfe (2009): orchestration of Reeve & Brown (1984)
Metacognition can be cognitive processes and Metacognition is an
described as "a critical prodcuts. individual ability to
analysis of thought,
understand and
knowledge and cognition
manipulate their own
about acognitive
cognitive processes
phenomena.

Ahmet Oguz Akturk et al

(2011) Metacognition is
Livingston (2003) about indivinduals'
Metacognition is a higher Metacognition having information about
order thinking in learning their cognitive structure
and being able to
organize it.

Fig. 2.1 Essential models for conceptualising metacognition

students control their learning, similar in effect to the interaction of the four elements
of Flavell’s model. Metacognition is a mechanism for monitoring cognition. Cogni-
tion deals with mental processes like memory, learning, problem solving, attention
and decision-making. Such processes help learners generate new knowledge and
use knowledge they have already internalised. Metacognition gives learners active
control over their cognition and is itself a process of cognition: it is thinking about
thinking. Effective control of metacognition can enhance learners’ academic achieve-
ment and adaptability. Metacognition is the ability of learners to monitor and control
their cognitive process (Young & Fry, 2008) for improving academic achievements
(Tanner, 2012; van der Stel & Veenman, 2014), fostering reading and comprehension
skills (Reeve & Brown, 1984), advancing critical thinking skills (Ku & Ho, 2010) and
enhancing problem solving and mathematical skills (Kramarski et al., 2002; Schraw,
1998). Metacognition outweighs intelligence as a predictor of learning performance
in mathematics (Schneider & Artelt, 2010) and is positively related to self-regulated
learning, independent learning, and self-management (Backer et al., 2015).
Metacognition refers to “thinking about thinking” or “cognition about cogni-
tion.” The definition of the term as “the knowledge and regulation of one’s cogni-
tive activities” was coined in the 1970s by John Flavell, a developmental cogni-
tive psychologist. Subsequently, studies have been conducted on memory, problem
solving, reading and comprehension, and their findings suggest that the development
of metacognitive ability can enhance learning. Literature and research on this subject
have flourished. Metacognition has been explored from other perspectives, such as
cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, and educational psychology. Still
2.1 What is Metacognition? 13

though, Flavell’s definition of metacognition has not been superseded. Figure 2.1
illustrates various definitions of metacognition?
In the study of Theory of Mind and children’s understanding of the mind,
researchers have identified some “early forms of metacognition” in children. At the
age of three, they show signs of awareness of themselves and others as knowers. They
have the ability to distinguish between thinking and perceiving; they are able to use the
verbs know and think. As they grow older, they become aware of the concepts of false
belief and their sources of knowledge (Kuhn, 2000). Children acquire metacognitive
knowledge and skills through experiences (Pintrich, 2002; Veenman et al., 2006).
They learn or spontaneously pick up metacognitive knowledge and strategies from
people around them, such as their parents, peers and teachers. However, very often,
they do not acquire the same level of knowledge and skills due to differences in
background and encounters (Veenman et al., 2006). Sometimes, they are unaware of
the metacognitive knowledge and skills they have or how to apply them.

2.2 Cognitive and Metacognitive Learning Strategies

The concepts of cognition and metacognition are different but related. Cognition
is thinking. Cognitive activities include reasoning, information processing, problem
solving, decision-making, learning and many others. Metacognitive activities control
and regulate these cognitive activities before, during and/or after a task. However,
it can sometimes be hard to distinguish the two terms, as Brown (1987) indicated,
because of the interchangeability of the two functions. For example, asking yourself
questions about this chapter may function either as a means of improving your knowl-
edge (cognitive function) or a way to monitor it (a metacognitive function). Flavell
(1979) distinguishes the differences between cognitive strategies and metacognitive
strategies: cognitive strategies are invoked to make cognitive progress, metacognitive
strategies to monitor it. He also acknowledges that the same strategy can invoke both
functions.
Livingston (2003) recognised that the distinction between the cognitive and the
metacognitive lies in how the information is used. When strategies and knowledge are
applied to ensure that a goal is met, they are considered metacognitive. In Gourgey’s
(1998) interpretation of Flavell’s view, cognitive strategies are required for making
progress and building knowledge, while metacognitive strategies are used to monitor
and improve this progress, and to enable knowledge/skills transfer. Thus, metacog-
nition is vital to cognitive effectiveness. Georghiades (2004) suggested that the
element of judgment in metacognition distinguishes between cognition and metacog-
nition. For example, metacognitive reflections involve critically revisiting learning
processes, while metacognitive monitoring involves judgments during the process of
comparing, assessing and evaluating. Cognitive activities can be done without any
14 2 Metacognition and Metacognitive Learning

Table 2.1 Examples of cognitive and metacognitive activities

Cognitive activities Metacognitive activities
Reading to learn the content Re-reading a text to clarify some points
Reading slowly for enjoyment Skimming through text to know how much work
lies ahead
Adding up numbers Adding up numbers the second time to make sure
the summation is correct
Asking oneself questions to enhance Asking oneself questions to check if one
understanding of a text remembers the text for a quiz
Summarising a chapter Rehearsing the chapter before the exam

judgment or critical thinking on the thinking self. More examples of cognitive and
metacognitive activities can be found in Table 2.1.

2.3 Theoretical Models of Metacognition

Researchers have proposed models of metacognition to define metacognitive compo-

nents and illustrate how these components are connected. The models composed by
Flavell, Brown and Schraw are used extensively. They represent the development of
metacognition in education.

2.3.1 Flavell’s Model (1979) of Cognitive Monitoring

Flavell’s model consists of (a)metacognitive knowledge which includes person, tasks

and strategies, (b) metacognitive experiences, (c) cognitive goals, and (d) cogni-
tive strategies. Metacognitive activities take place at the time these parts interact.
Metacognitive knowledge is the knowledge repertoire of an individual. It is subdi-
vided into person, task and strategy. Knowledge of person variables refers to the
knowledge, beliefs and concerns of oneself as well as others as cognitive beings.
Knowledge of task variables refers to knowing the information relating to a proposed
task. The information affects how the individual approaches, manages and deals
with the task. Knowledge of strategy variables refers to the selection of strategies
and procedures in approaching a task. Individuals encounter a metacognitive expe-
rience when, for example, they are having a “momentary sense of puzzlement.”
Metacognitive experiences may come before, during or after a task. Individuals can
make changes in response to their metacognitive experiences; reviewing, adding or
subtracting items in their metacognitive knowledge repertoire (Fig. 2.2).
2.3 Theoretical Models of Metacognition 15

Cognitive Strategies Metacognitive experience

Metacognitive knowledge Cognitive goals

Person Strategy Task

Fig. 2.2. Flavell’s model of cognitive monitoring (1979)

2.3.2 Brown’s Model (1987) of Metacognitive Knowledge

and Regulation

Brown’s model contains two components: knowledge about cognition and regula-
tion of cognition. These two categories are closely related, and described by Brown
as “each feeding on other recursively.” Knowledge about cognition is one’s knowl-
edge of one’s own cognitive processes, for example how one learns, and how one
approaches tasks. It is assumed that one takes a step back and observes one’s own
processes. This knowledge of cognition, in Brown’s view, is “stable, statable, some-
times fallible and often late developing” (p.67). Regulation of cognition consists of
activities used to regulate and oversee cognitive activities. These processes include
planning (predicting, scheduling); monitoring (testing, revising, rescheduling); and
evaluating (checking outcomes on strategic use and effectiveness) (Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.3. Brown’s

framework of metacognitive
knowledge and regulation
(1987)
16 2 Metacognition and Metacognitive Learning

2.3.3 Schraw’s Model (1994) of Metacognition

Schraw and Dennison (1994), in their design of a measuring tool for assessing
metacognitive awareness, adopted a model of metacognition inspired by Brown
(1987) and Jacobs and Paris (1987). Jacobs and Paris subdivided knowledge of cogni-
tion into three categories: the declarative, the procedural and the conditional. Declar-
ative knowledge is the knowledge of oneself as a learner and the factors that affect
one’s performances; procedural knowledge is one’s knowledge of strategies; condi-
tional knowledge is the knowledge of when, how, and why to apply certain strategies.
Regulation of cognition means the manner in which one regulates or controls one’s
cognitive activities. Strategies commonly employed for regulating cognition include
planning, monitoring and evaluation. Planning involves prediction, application of
strategies, and allocation of time and resources; monitoring refers to awareness of
the status of one’s comprehension and performance during a task; evaluation means
appraising the products and regulatory skills adopted for the task (Fig. 2.4).
In general, a metacognitive learner possesses self-awareness and accurate self-
knowledge regarding their learning style, strength and weaknesses, beliefs and moti-
vation, strong knowledge of different strategies and the ability to apply and transfer
these strategies and skills. Very often, they are highly self-regulated in planning,
monitoring, and evaluating learning processes and outcomes and is reflective in
learning. They are also an active participant in learning (Kohen & Kramarski, 2018).
Learners with metacognitive skills are expected to be self-aware and to know their
learning styles, to behave consciously to control themselves, to conduct planning, to
monitor, regulate, and assess learning. Expert problem solvers and effective thinkers
of all kinds are usually self-aware thinkers. They plan strategies to tackle problems.
When they hit a blind alley, they stop, analyse and reflect. Effective thinkers pose

Declarative

Knowledge of cognition Procedural

Conditional
Metacognition
Planning

Regulation of cognition Monitoring

Evaluating

Fig. 2.4 Schraw’s model of metacognition (1994)

2.3 Theoretical Models of Metacognition 17

alternative for themselves and choose among them. Their abilities to reflect on their
thinking “as thinking” and to analyse their own strategies are their metacognitive
skills.

2.4 Why is Metacognitive Learning Important?

Metacognition is of critical importance in Learning to Learn competencies. While the

term “meta” may sound somewhat theoretical, metacognition is a practical skill for
teaching and learning. Metacognitive skills are generic learning skills that benefit
learners and help them grow in a range of domains, including the cognitive and
affective domains. Students with metacognitive skills are better learners. Metacog-
nition comes into play when learners engage in independent learning, self-regulated
learning, reflective learning, comprehension and problem solving, communication,
and collaboration. These skills are emphasised in Hong Kong’s Learning to Learn
2.0+ curriculum framework, which aims at preparing the younger generation for 21st
century society.

2.4.1 Metacognition Enhances 21st Century Skills

Metacognition enhances students’ ability in problem solving and mathematical skills.

Metacognitive training, in the form of teaching general problem-solving principles,
has been particularly successful in facilitating the intellectual performance of chil-
dren with learning problems (Reeve & Brown, 1984, p. 3). Metacognitive knowl-
edge contributes to successful problem solving over and above the contribution of
IQ in task-relevant strategies (Schraw, 1998). Studies have shown that metacognitive
knowledge is not strongly correlated with ability, although there does appear to be
a modest, positive relation between the two. A study conducted by Veenman et al.
(2006) shows that both intelligence and metacognitive skills influenced mathematics
performance. Metacognition outweighed intelligence as a predictor of mathematics
learning performance (Schneider & Artelt, 2010). Metacognition fosters reading and
comprehension skills. Training metacognitive ability to either facilitate the acquisi-
tion of skills, or to remedy poor skills in text comprehension and reading has been
particularly successful (Reeve & Brown, 1984). Metacognition advances students’
critical thinking skills. Good critical thinkers engage in more metacognitive activi-
ties, especially high-level planning and high-level evaluating strategies (Ku & Ho,
2010). Metacognition is positively related to self-regulated learning, independent
learning, and self-management. Metacognitive regulation is central to self-regulated
learning and contributes to students’ performances to an important extent. It gener-
ally advances academic success, especially in higher education since both organ-
isational structures and academic assignments at this educational level emphasise
self-management and independent learning (Backer et al., 2015). Metacognitive
18 2 Metacognition and Metacognitive Learning

learning promotes communication and collaboration skills. It requires students to

verbalise their thinking, to discuss in pairs or in groups the training of metacogni-
tive skills. Students have to work in teams; and they have to be able to express or
present their thinking, opinions and arguments clearly. The training helps facilitate
both collaboration and communication skills.

2.4.2 Metacognition Improves Academic Achievements

Metacognition is a profound predictor of learning outcomes (Veenman et al., 2014);

improving metacognition can help foster the overall academic success of students,
while students with poorer metacognition skills tend to have less successful perfor-
mance in academics (Tanner, 2012). Metacognition is the golden key to successful
learning. In the four decades since Flavell’s research, subsequent studies show that
metacognition knowledge and skills enhance the effectiveness of learning, reading
and comprehension, and improve writing skills, problem solving skills (Ataman &
Ozsoy, 2009), and critical thinking (Ku & Ho, 2010). Metacognition is also closely
related to self-regulated learning and training for independence and lifelong learning.
Some of these skills are highlighted in the curriculum reform Learning to Learn 2.0.
As Colombo and Antonietta (2017) summarised:
Metacognition facilitates students to understand the demands of learning tasks,
identify potential learning difficulties and problems, select the appropriate cognitive
and physical strategies which work best for them, decide how to effectively structure
the learning, practice, and performance in relation to such factors, and monitor and
regulate the real effectiveness of the learning strategies they choose.

2.5 Measuring Metacognition

Teachers should have a good grasp of metacognitive knowledge and skills not only
to guide their students to adopt a metacognitive approach in learning but also for
teaching in general. Abdellah (2015) suggests that studies have found that metacog-
nition and teaching performances are positively correlated; while Çeliker (2015)
stated that teachers with this higher ability can better understand and control their
own cognitive process, and are more effective in teaching their students metacogni-
tive skills. Teachers’ reported experiences confirm the research findings that support
teaching metacognitive learning to students. A study conducted by Ben-David and
Orion (2013) on teachers’ views on integrating metacognition into science educa-
tion 2013 shows that their views changed once they had joined a programme to help
build their knowledge of the topic. Teachers changed their views from negative or
neutral to positive and indicated that they are now more willing to use metacogni-
tive teaching strategies in class. Metacognition cannot be entirely predicted since it
is independent of other cognitive constraints. However, findings show that learners
2.5 Measuring Metacognition 19

who are metacognitively aware can perform better and are more strategic (Schraw &
Dennison, 1994, p. 460). Being metacognitively aware also promotes independent
learning or autonomy. Some findings also show correlation between MAI and GPA
(Balcikanli, 2011, p. 1314, cited Young & Fry, 2008) and measures of metacog-
nition, SQM and Jr. MAI, are significant predictors of science GPA and overall
GPA (Sperling et al., 2012, p.5). Several methods have been developed to measure
metacognition: thinking-aloud protocols, coded observations, performance ratings,
and interviews (Harrison & Vallin, 2018, cited Dinsmore et al., 2008; Winne &
Perry, 2005). The most frequently used method, for its ease of use, is a self-reported
questionnaire.

2.5.1 Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI)

The Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) was developed by Schraw and

Dennison in 1994 with the aim to “identify the highly metacognitive learner” (Meijer
et al., 2013, p. 35). It provides a convenient way to measure metacognition. As
suggested by Balcikani (2011), it is the most frequently used assessment inventory
on metacognition. Other measuring methods include think-aloud protocols, coded
observations, performance ratings and interviews. The self-reported questionnaire
contains 52 items. It covers both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regu-
lation, and has eight subcomponents: declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge,
conditional knowledge under metacognitive knowledge; and planning, information
management, monitoring, debugging, and evaluation under metacognitive regula-
tion. The other inventory, the Junior Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (Jr. MAI)
is a self-report inventory developed to test the metacognitive awareness of children
between 8 and 14 years old. Our teaching readers can use the Jr. MAI as a pre-test to
check the metacognitive awareness of their students and customise learning strate-
gies and tasks. At the end of the semester, they can use the inventory as a post-test
to assess whether the students’ level of metacognitive awareness has been raised.

2.5.2 A Study of Metacognition and Academic Results

The study adopted a quantitative questionnaire to collect data from students from
three typical high schools in Shanghai to analyse their perceptions of their metacog-
nitive competencies and learning strategies (Shi & Cheng, in press). The study is
interested in evaluating the predictive relationship among student metacognitive
competencies, proficiency in learning strategies and academic performance. The
exogenous variables of this study are the students’ metacognitive competencies and
their proficiency in learning strategies. The MAI (Schraw & Dennison, 1994) is a
self-reported instrument for adolescents that included two dimensions: knowledge
of cognition and regulation of cognition. A stratified sampling was applied to select
20 2 Metacognition and Metacognitive Learning

780 students from target schools, which included three junior high schools incorpo-
rating one high-performing public school, one public general school, and one private
school, representing all types of junior high schools in Shanghai.
A Structure Equation Model (SEM) was used to examine the factor structures and
the paths among variables by using Amos (Ullman, 2006). The endogenous variable is
the academic performance measured by the rank of achievement of their final exami-
nation results in the semester of 2018/19. The structural and measurement coefficients
from the completely standardized solution using the maximum likelihood estimator
are presented in Fig. 2.5. There are significant relationships among metacognitive
competencies, learning strategies, and student learning outcomes. Learning strate-
gies have an indirect effect on the relationship between metacognitive competencies
and student learning outcomes in the context of high school education in Shanghai,
which can respond to the research question of this study. The results of the goodness
of fit test are shown in Table 2.2. Metacognitive competencies are constructed by the
factors of metacognitive knowledge (γ = 0.70), planning (γ = 0.72), monitoring (γ =
0.81), and evaluation (γ = 0.79). The SEM shows that the metacognitive competen-
cies are a predictive variable for learning strategies (γ = 0.73) and learning outcomes
(γ = 0.66); learning strategies is a predictive variable for learning outcomes (β =
0.30). All the paths in the model are significant at the 0.05 level according to the
statistics.

Fig. 2.5 A structural equation model of students’ metacognitive competencies

Table 2.2 Goodness of fit statistics of the structural equation model

x2 df P-value PGFI RMSEA SRMR CFI NNFI IFI
118.002 98 0.082 0.707 0.016 0.0241 0.995 0.994 0.995
2.5 Measuring Metacognition 21

The results of the Amos based on 780 participants show that the chi-square value
was not significant for the overall model, χ2 (N = 780) = 118.002, P = 0.082. As
an absolute fit index, the chi-square assesses the discrepancy between the sample
covariance matrix and the implied covariance matrix based on the hypothesised
model. A non-significant chi-square suggests that the model may be a reasonable
representation of the data. However, the assessment of fit using the chi-square test
is confounded by sample size. When the sample size is large, the small difference
between the sample covariance matrix and the reproduction covariance may be found
to be significant.
The Parsimony Goodness-of-Fit Index (PGFI) takes into account the complexity
of the hypothesised model in the assessment of overall model fit for addressing the
issue of parsimony in the SEM. The PGFI should be larger than 0.5, with higher
values indicating a more parsimonious fit (Byrne, 2013). Relative-fit indexes include
the comparative fit index (CFI), non-normed fit index (NNFI), and incremental fit
index (IFI). These indexes measure the relative improvement in the fit by comparing
a hypothesised model with a base-line model. These indexes range from zero to one,
with larger values indicating a better fit. They should be at least larger than 0.9 for
reasonable goodness-of-fit. In this study, the indexes are: PGFI = 0.707, CFI = 0.995,
NNFI = 0.994, and IFI = 0.995, suggesting a reasonable fit between the data and
the hypothesised model. In addition to relative-fit indexes, residual-based indexes
can also be used. The standardized root mean square (SRMS) measures the average
value across all standardized residuals between the elements of the observed and
implied covariance matrices. The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA)
assesses the absence of fit owing to model misspecification and provides a measure
of discrepancy per degree of freedom (Mulaik et al., 1989). The SRMS ranges from
zero to one, and there is no upper limit for the RMSEA, with smaller values indicating
a better model fit. A value of 0.08 or less for the SRMS and a value of 0.06 or less
for the RMSEA indicate an adequate fit. In this study, the SRMS = 0.024, whereas
the RMSEA = 0.016 (90% CI, 0.0; 0.026). Given that this is a very stringent model,
these fit indexes show that the model fits the data fairly well.

2.6 Metacognitive Teaching

Metacognitive knowledge and skills can be taught (Flavell, 1979; Reeve & Brown,
1984). The literature shows that metacognitive abilities can be developed through
learning experiences (Pintrich, 2002; Veenman et al., 2006) with interactions with
peers, teachers and parents. Metacognitive teaching strategies are pedagogies for
developing students’ metacognition. Teachers’ awareness and regulation of their
teaching strategies to address learners’ needs and responses are critical in metacog-
nitive teaching (Soodla et al., 2017; Wall & Hall, 2016). Extensive research studies
have been conducted on topics such as the incorporation of metacognitive strategies in
teaching and instructional approaches, and their effectiveness. Research findings have
provided some valuable insights into successful metacognitive teaching. However,
22 2 Metacognition and Metacognitive Learning

this reflection might be largely superficial and based on informal exchange, without
teachers necessarily analysing in depth and sustainably adjusting their educational
practices. Teachers need knowledgeable others to help them reflect on their adopted
theories and practices for teaching. The argument for adopting lesson study to nurture
the metacognitive teaching skills of pre-service teachers is that it provides a platform
that enables them to monitor the effectiveness of their teaching strategies through
collaborative lesson planning, and observing and reflecting on lessons, while paying
specific attention to a select group of pupils and their learning (Dudley, 2014, 2015).
Chapter 3 will discuss the Lesson Study process to help teachers develop a critical
perspective on teaching thinking skills that can regulate their strategies in an authentic
learning environment driven by them and characterised by the reciprocal sharing of
teaching ideas and strategies for instructional design.

2.7 Summary

Education for Industry 4.0 shifts knowledge-based curricula to competency-based

curricula aimed at nurturing the competence of students. To meet the challenge of
effective implementation of such initiatives ultimately lies with teacher competen-
cies. Teachers should adapt themselves to the changing and dynamic nature of knowl-
edge for implementing new curricula. They should take a role as facilitators who will
guide the students through their learning process. Their guidance skills gain impor-
tance when helping learners distinguish right and wrong information from unlimited
information sources. The learners need to depend even more on their ability to access,
use and produce knowledge and “learn to learn” throughout their lives.

References

Abdellah, R. (2015). Metacognitive awareness and its relation to academic achievement and teaching
performance of pre-service female teachers in Ajman University in UAE. Procedia—Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 174, 560–567.
Akturk, A. O., & Sahin, I. (2011). Literature review on metacognition and its measurement.
Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 3731–3736.
Ataman, A., & Özsoy, G. (2009). The effect of metacognitive strategy training on mathematical
problem solving achievement. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 1(2),
67–82.
Backer, L., Keer, H., & Valcke, M. (2015). Promoting university students’ metacognitive regulation
through peer learning: The potential of reciprocal peer tutoring. Higher Education, 70(3), 469–
486.
Balcikanli, C. (2011). Metacognitive awareness inventory for teachers (MAIT). Electronic Journal
of Research in Educational Psychology, 9(3), 1309–1332.
Ben-David, A., & Orion, N. (2013). Teachers’ voices on integrating metacognition into science
education. International Journal of Science Education, 35(18), 3161–3193.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 ♂ 29 50 ♐
♀ — 23 ♓
☿ 4 42 ♒
Horos. 8 19 ♈
Mid.
Heaven.
4 42 ♑
☋ or the head of the dragon.
24 33 ♏
The new moon preceding his birth.
8 51 ♒
But Proclus departed from this corporeal life, in the one hundred
and twenty-fourth year after the government of Julian, on the
seventeenth day of the Attic Munichion, or the April of the Romans.
Nicagoras, the junior, being at that time the Athenian archon. The
dead body was taken care of according to the Athenian rites, as he
himself while living had directed. And if that diligent attention which
is due to the deceased, was ever paid by any one, it was certainly
bestowed by this most blessed man. For he did not neglect any
particular of the accustomed ceremonies, but every year, on certain
days, visited the sepulchres of the Athenian heroes and
philosophers, and besides this sacrificed himself, and not through
the medium of another, to the manes of his friends and familiars.
And having thus exhibited to each a proper reverence and honour,
proceeding into the Academy, he there, in a certain place, pleased
one by one the manes of his ancestors and kindred; and shortly
after, in another part of the same Academy, he supplicated in
common the souls of all philosophers. And these ceremonies being
ended, this most excellent man, having chosen a third place,
performed sacred rites to all the souls of deceased mankind. The
dead body of Proclus, therefore, being disposed of according to his
appointment, as we have said, was carried by his friends and buried
in the eastern part of the suburbs[69], near to Lycabetus, where also
the body of his preceptor Syrianus reposes, who, when he was alive,
had requested this of our philosopher, and, in consequence of this,
had taken care to procure a twofold receptacle in his sepulchre. But
when this most holy man was consulted how he would wish his
funeral to be conducted, lest there should be any thing indecent, or
without a proper decorum, he desired flutes, with which he was
threatened in a dream, and nothing besides. An epigram, consisting
of four verses, is inscribed on his tomb, which he composed himself,
as follows:
I Proclus, here the debt of nature paid,
(My country Lycia) in the dust am laid;
Great Syrianus form’d my early youth,
And left me his successor in the truth.
One common tomb, our earthly part contains,
One place our kindred souls,—th’ ætherial plains.

Nor were prognostics wanting in the year prior to his decease,

such as an eclipse[70] of the sun, so great that night was produced
in the day-time: for the darkness was so profound, that the stars
became visible. And this happened when the sun was in Capricorn,
in the eastern centre. Besides, the writers of Ephemeride observe
that there will be another eclipse of the sun, at the conclusion of the
next year. But such like affections of the heavenly bodies are said to
portend events on the earth: to us indeed, the eclipse perspicuously
signified a privation and, as it were, defection of the illustrious
luminary of philosophy.
And thus much may suffice for the life of the philosopher. It now
remains for those who are willing to undertake the labour, to write
concerning his disciples and friends. For it appears that many
resorted to him from all parts; among which some were only his
auditors, but others firm adherents to his doctrine; and, on account
of philosophy, his familiars. I could likewise wish that some one, who
is more laborious than myself, would give a particular account of his
writings. For I have alone delivered these particulars of his life, that I
might satisfy my conscience, and might testify that I religiously
reverence the soul of Proclus, and his good dæmon. I shall,
therefore, add nothing concerning the philosopher’s writings, except
that I have always heard him prefer his commentaries on the
Timæus of Plato beyond all his works. He likewise vehemently
approved of his commentaries on the Theætetus. And he used
frequently to say, that if he was endued with despotic power, he
would alone preserve, of all the writings of the ancients, the Oracles
and the Timæus. For, said he, I would abolish all the rest, and
remove them from the present age, because it happens that many
are offended, who undertake to read them rashly, and without
proper institution.
 Concerning the Published Writings of PROCLUS.

M arinus having neglected to give us an account of the writings of

Proclus, I thought it would not be unacceptable to the reader, to
present him with a catalogue of his works which are still extant; and
the most perfect relation I am able of such as are unfortunately lost.
In the execution of this design, I shall follow, for the most part, the
accurate Fabricius in the order, and critical account of his works; but
shall not hesitate to dissent from him in deciding on their
philosophical merit: for it is very rare that philology and philosophy
are united in the same person, and coalesce in amicable
conjunction.

1. Four Hymns. In the preceding life we are informed, by

Marinus, that Proclus composed many hymns, in which the divinities,
both of Greeks and Barbarians, were celebrated; but unfortunately
there are only four preserved, the first of which is to the Sun, the
second and third to Venus (which may be found in the Florilegium of
Stobus, p. 249. edit. Grotii,) and the fourth to the Muses. They are
collected by Fabricius, in the eighth volume of his Bibliotheca Græca;
and are most happy specimens of philosophical poetry. Indeed, they
bear most evident marks of a mind full of divine light, and agitated
with the fury of the Muses; and possess all that elegance of
composition for which the writings of Proclus are so remarkable. So
that it is very strange Gyraldus should ascribe them to a Hierophant
of Laodicæa, of that name; since, as Fabricius observes, Suidas
mentions other writings of this priest, but does not speak of him as
the author of any hymns. And if he had, these hymns breathe too
much of the spirit and manner of Proclus, to be the production of
any other.
2. Two Books concerning the useful Parts of Learning, contained
in Grammar. Three books on this subject are mentioned by Suidas,
and four by Photius; but there are alone extant fragments of two, in
the Bibliotheca of Photius; which were published separate by Andrew
Schottus, at the end of the syntax of Apollonius Alexandrinus,
Francof. 1590. Hanov. 1615. quarto. It appears from these extracts,
that Proclus, in this work, not only treats of every kind of verse, but
also of the more celebrated poets. And hence Fabricius conjectures,
that the short life of Homer, which Leo Allatius published under the
name of Proclus, was taken from the first book of this
Chrestomathia.
3. Eighteen Arguments against the Christians. The learned Cave,
was egregiously mistaken, in supposing that this work, as well as the
answer to it by Philoponus, is lost; not considering, probably, that
these arguments in defence of the world’s eternity are (as Fabricius
well observes) directly against one of the Christian dogmata, the
creation of the world. These arguments (except the first, which is
lost,) are preserved in the answer of Philoponus; the Greek edition
of which was published at Venice, in 1535, folio; and in Latin from
the version of Joh. Mahatius, at Lyons, 1557. folio. Simplicius, in his
commentaries on the first book of Aristotle de Cœlo, and elsewhere,
opposes this work of Philoponus; at the same time, suppressing his
name. The arguments are, in my opinion, extremely subtle, and
unanswerable; and Philoponus, in his refutation, every where
discovers, that he has by no means fathomed the depth of our
philosopher.
4. A Commentary on the Timæus of Plato, in five Books. A most
admirable work, composed in the flower of his age, when he was
twenty-eight years old, according to Marinus. This invaluable
treasure, may be said to contain all the wisdom of the highest
antiquity: for Proclus every where cites the most celebrated
interpreters on the Timæus, such as Adrastus the Peripatetic;
Ælianus and Albinus, Platonists; Aristocles, Clearchus, Crantor,
Dercyllides; and especially Jamblichus; likewise Longinus, whom he
often refutes; Numenius the Pythagorean, and Origen, (different
from Adamantius,) together with Plotinus, Porphyry the Platonic,
Ptolemy, Severus, and Theodorus Asinæus; but he always prefers
the explications of his master Syrianus, before all the rest. Add too,
that he every where conciliates the Orphic writings and the Chaldean
oracles with the theology of Plato. And with respect to Orpheus in
particular, we are indebted to these sublime commentaries for the
greatest part of the fragments of that divine poet. He is perpetually
on the wing, and rises gradually in elevated conceptions, until his
mind, like Homer’s discord, reaches the heavens. His style is at the
same time nervous and diffuse, accurate and elegant. We are
astonished with the magnificence of his metaphors, delighted with
the copious variety of his matter, and filled with a divine light, by the
sacred truths he unfolds. This great work, however, unfortunately,
scarcely explains a third part of the Timæus; from whence it is
probable, as Fabricius well observes, that several books have been
lost through the injury of time. It was published in Greek, at Basil, in
the year 1556; and is full of mistakes, as is generally the case with
the Basil editions of books, so that a more correct edition is greatly
to be desired, though at present not much to be expected. On
concluding my account of this inestimable work, I find my
indignation roused by the following words of Dr. Cudworth, in his
Intellectual System, p. 306. “Proclus (says he) had some peculiar
fancies and whims of his own, and was indeed a confounder of the
Platonic theology, and a mingler of much unintelligible stuff with it.” I
must confess, (and I am neither afraid, nor ashamed of the
declaration,) that I never found any thing in Proclus, but what by
patient thought, accompanied with a sincere and vehement thirst
after truth, I have been able to fathom. Had Dr. Cudworth been
endued with these requisites, he would doubtless have had equal
success; but without them, the sublimest truths will certainly appear
to be unintelligible stuff. Besides this consideration is not to be
omitted, that a modern priest makes a bad philosopher.
5. On Plato’s Republic. These commentaries, or rather fragments
of commentaries, are extant in Greek, at the end of Proclus on the
Timæus. Suidas mentions four books of Proclus on Plato’s politics;
and some of Proclus’s dissertations on these books, were found
(according to Fabricius) in the library of Lucas Holstenius. The chief
design of this work seems to be the unveiling the theological
mysteries concealed under the fables of Homer, and other divine
poets; which Proclus has accomplished (in my opinion) in a most
wonderful manner. That Homer, indeed, every where abounds with
Egyptian learning, is obvious to every one; but few are acquainted
with the profound wisdom which his fables conceal. The latent
meaning of most of these is unfolded in the present invaluable,
though imperfect work; and he whose mind is sufficiently
enlightened by the ancient philosophy, to comprehend the beauty of
these illustrations, will receive an additional delight from the study of
Homer, which it is impossible to express. An epitome of this work
was published in Latin, by the learned Gesner, 1542. 8vo. under the
following title: Apologiæ quædam pro Homero, et Arte Poetica,
Fabularumque aliquot Enarrationes ex commentariis Procli Lycii
Diadochi philosophi Platonici in libros Platonis de Rep. in quibus
plurimæ de Diis Fabulæ non juxta grammaticorum vulgus historicè,
physicè aut ethicè tractantur, sed Theologicis, ut Gentiles loquntur,
ex prima Philosophia rationibus explanantur.
6. On the first Alcibiades of Plato. Ficinus translated parts of this
work into Latin, and published them under the title of Procli de
Anima ac dæmone, de Sacrificio et Magia, Venice 1497. and 1516.
fol. by Aldus; and in a more simple form at Lyons. Fabricius informs
us, that the manuscript commentary of Proclus in Greek, but
scarcely explaining the half part of the Alcibiades, is to be found in
various libraries of France, England, and Italy. Also at Lyons, among
the books of Isaac Vossius; and at Hamburgh in the Johannean
library. From the specimen given of this work by Ficinus, it appears,
like all Proclus’s philosophical writings, to be an invaluable treasury
of wisdom; and nothing certainly, reflects greater disgrace on a
nation than suffering such monuments of ancient learning and
wisdom to lie concealed in colleges, covered with dust, and never
consulted.
7. Six Books on Plato’s Theology. A most divine work, in which
the philosopher collects into a system the theology dispersed in the
writings of Plato, and establishes it by invincible demonstrations. He
deduces, in a beautiful and connected series, all the divine orders,
from the retreats of ineffable unity; every where connects them by
proper mediums, and, after leading us through the long gradation of
principles, brings us back again to the original from whence they
flowed, and to which they constantly tend. The whole is
uncommonly profound and abstruse; and it was not before the third
reading, that I could fathom the depth it contains. Fabricius
observes, “that it is a subtle and learned work, but from which, you
will sooner learn the opinion of Syrianus and Proclus, concerning the
deity and divine concerns, than that of Plato. He adds, that it is
usual with the Platonists, even from Plotinus, to unite to the doctrine
of Plato, a thousand dogmata, foreign from his philosophy, as if
Plato, though he did not perceive after this manner, ought certainly
so to perceive.” When men mistake their abilities, they always act
absurdly, and often dangerously. As a laborious and accurate critic
on philological matters, Fabricius merits the highest commendation
such attainments can deserve; but when he leaves the beaten road
in which nature designed him to walk, and attempts the tractless
paths of philosophy, he perpetually stumbles, and often falls on the
ground. The wings of philology, like those of the swallow, were
never destined for a lofty flight:—it must be the eagle wing of
genius, which can alone soar to the sun of philosophy. The Greek
and Latin edition of this valuable work, was published at Hamburgh,
by Æmilius Portus, 1618, folio.
8. Theological Institutions; or, as it may be called, the Elements
of Theology. This admirable work contains two hundred and ten
propositions, disposed in a scientific order, and supported by the
firmest demonstrations. They begin from super-essential unity, and
proceed gradually through all the beautiful and wonderful
progressions of divine causes, ending in the self-moving energies of
soul. They possess all the accuracy of Euclid, and all the subtilty and
sublimity necessary to a knowledge of the most profound theology;
and may be considered as bearing the same relation to the
Pythagoric and Platonic wisdom, as Euclid’s Elements, to the most
abstruse geometry. Patricius, the first Latin translator of this divine
work, seems to have been very sensible of the truth of this
observation: for he every where carefully distinguishes the
propositions from their demonstrations; and adds the word corollary
to such consequencies as merit that appellation. His edition was
published at Ferraria, 1583. quarto, under the title of Theological
Elements. The Greek and Latin edition, is subjoined to Proclus’s six
books on Plato’s Theology, Hamburgh 1618. folio.
9. Two Books concerning Motion. This useful work, collected, as
Fabricius observes, from the third and following books of Aristotle’s
physics, was published in Greek at Basil, 1531, and with the Latin
version of one Justus Velsius, a physician, Basil, 1545. octavo. It was
likewise translated by Patricius, and is annexed to his version of the
Theological Institutions.
10. An Hypotyposis, or Information concerning Astronomical
Hypotheses. This work, which Fabricius observes is a compendium of
Ptolemy’s Almagest, was published in Greek, at Basil, 1540. quarto;
and in Latin by George Valla, folio, 1541. A part of this work, which
treats of the use of the astrolabe, Fabricius informs us, is extant in
manuscript, in various libraries. The same accurate critic likewise
observes, that a small treatise, inscribed Uranodromus, is extant,
under the name of Proclus, in some libraries, as in that of
Vindobona, and of Oxford, among the Barrocian volumes. The
comprehensive variety of Proclus’s genius equally demands our
admiration and applause.
11. A small Treatise concerning the Sphere, or Celestial Circles.
This little work is an accurate and elegant introduction to astronomy;
and is almost wholly taken from the Isagoge of Geminus Rhodius, on
the phænomena. The best editions are the Greek and Latin one
published at Paris in 1553, quarto; and that of Bainbridge, professor
of astronomy at Oxford, London 1620. quarto.
12. A Paraphrase in four Books, on the Quadripartite of Ptolemy.
This elegant work must, I should imagine, be an invaluable treasure
to the lovers of astrology. It was first published in Greek by
Melancthon; and afterwards in Greek and Latin by Leo Allatius, at
Lyons Bat. 1654. octavo.
13. Four Books, on the first Book of Euclid’s Elements. For an
account of this work, see the introduction, and the following sheets,
in which it speaks for itself, in an English dress.
14. A Commentary on Hesiod’s Works and Days. This work
contains a valuable moral explanation of this great poet’s meaning;
and Fabricius justly observes, that he is often assaulted without
occasion, by the petulant jeers of that vain man Joh. Tzetzes. The
best edition of this work is that of Daniel Heinsius, Lugd. Bat. 1603.
quarto.
15. Fabricius informs us, that in some manuscripts, as in the
Vindobonensian and Barrocian, a small treatise is usually ascribed to
Proclus, entitled Epistolic Characters; and is prefixed to the Epistles
of Phalaris and Brutis, and published under the name of Libanius, in
Greek, with the version of Casp. Stibilinus, Commelin. 1597, octavo.
But it is doubtful whether Proclus is the genuine author of this work:
from the title, I should suppose the contrary. And thus much for an
account of those writings of Proclus which have escaped the ravages
of time, and have been fortunately exposed to public inspection: it
now remains that we relate such inestimable works of this
philosopher, as are yet preserved in shameful concealment; or are
utterly lost in the ruins of antiquity.

Concerning the Unpublished Writings of PROCLUS.

16. On the Alcibiades of Plato. See num. 6.

17. On Plato’s Politics. See num. 5.
18. On Plato’s Parmenides. A commentary, in seven books; the
last of which was not completed by Proclus, but by Damascius. From
occasional fragments, which have been published of this
commentary, it appears to be a most divine work; and indeed it
cannot be otherwise, if we consider it as the production of one of
the greatest philosophers, on the most sublime and profound of all
Plato’s Dialogues. It is dedicated to Asclepiodotus, a physician and
philosopher, and is not only extant in Greek MS. in the library of the
German emperor, according to Lambecius, lib. vii. p. 41. but also in
Latin, from the unpublished version of one Antonius Hermannus
Gogava, as the same Lambecius informs us, p. 41. Four books of this
work are extant in Greek, in the Bodleian library at Oxford; and it is
much to be lamented that Thomson did not publish these, instead of
his trifling edition of the Parmenides. Fabricius likewise informs us,
that Livius Galantes mentions his having found six of these books in
some of the Italian libraries. They are also extant in the Medicæan
library of the great Etruscan commander.
19. On the Cratylus of Plato. We have already observed, in the
dissertation on the Orphic theology, p. 105. what a great treasure of
ancient mythology, must be contained in this work; but there is little
hope of its ever emerging from the obscurity of public libraries. It is
extant in Greek, not only in the Italian libraries, but also among the
manuscript books of Isaac Vossius.
20. Uranodromus. See above, num. 10.
21. Ten Doubts concerning Providence, in one Book. Philoponus
mentions this work, in his second book against Proclus on the
eternity of the world; and a Latin version of it is extant by one
William de Morbeka, in the Johannean library of Hamburgh. Extracts
from this translation are preserved by Fabricius, in his Greek Library;
and they are in every respect worthy of the genius of Proclus.
22. Concerning Providence and Fate, and that which is in our
Power, one Book. This work is dedicated to one Theodorus, a
mechanist; and is extant in the Latin translation of the same
Morbeka, in the Greek Library of Fabricius. The translation is for the
most part barbarous, but is, however, sufficiently legible to discover
that it is a most valuable treatise, replete with the usual elegance,
subtilty, and sublimity of our philosopher.
23. Concerning the Hypostasis, or Subsistence of Evil. This book
is extant in Latin, in the Johannean library; and fragments of it are
preserved by Fabricius, in his Greek library. It is to be regretted, that
Fabricius did not preserve the whole in that excellent philological
work.

Concerning the Lost Writings of PROCLUS.

24. On the Speech of Diotima, in Plato’s Banquet, concerning the

Subsistence of the Beautiful. Fabricius informs us, that this work is
distributed into many books; and Holstenius observes, that it is
mentioned in a certain scholium of the Medicean copy of Proclus’s
commentaries on Plato’s politics; but it is unfortunately no where
extant.
25. On the Philebus of Plato; as may be inferred from the
narration of Damascius in Photius, p. 550; and Suidas in Marinus.
For Damascius relates, that Marinus having composed a commentary
on this dialogue, on shewing it to Isidorus for his approbation, that
philosopher observed, that those of his master were sufficient; which
words Fabricius, with great propriety, applies to the commentaries of
Proclus on the Philebus.
26. On the Theætetus of Plato. This work is praised by Marinus,
in the last chapter of the preceding life; and no doubt with great
propriety: for this abstruse and sublime dialogue would naturally call
forth all the divine fire and elegance of our philosopher.
27. Commentaries on the Enneads of Plotinus. This work is
mentioned by Gyraldus, in his second dialogue on ancient poets; by
Ficinus on Plotinus; by Philip Labbeus, in his account of MS. books,
p. 286; and in the notes of Bullialdus to Theo of Smyrna, p. 224. But
also in a certain note prefixed to an ancient manuscript of
Jamblichus, on the Egyptian mysteries, to this effect: “The
philosopher Proclus, commenting on the Enneads of the great
Plotinus, says, that it is the divine Jamblichus who answers the
epistle of Porphyry.” This note is in Greek, in the original, and is (in
my opinion) of itself sufficient to prove that such a work was once
extant, though now unfortunately lost. How much the want of these
commentaries is to be regretted, must be deeply felt by every lover
of the Platonic philosophy. For the unequalled profundity, and divine
mysteries, contained in the writings of Plotinus, could never be more
happily illustrated than by the irradiations of such a genius as
Proclus.
28. Lectures on Aristotle’s Book Περὶ Ερμηνείας, or concerning
Interpretation. This work, it seems, was never published; but
Ammonius Hermeas, the disciple of Proclus, has inserted in his
valuable commentary on this book all that he could retain in his
memory of Proclus’s lectures.
29. Hymns, not a few, see num. 1.
30. Chrestomathea. See num. 3.
31. On the Mother of the Gods, one book, mentioned by Marinus,
in the preceding Life.
32. On the Theology of Orpheus. This work is mentioned by
Marinus, in the preceding Life, and by Suidas; and its loss must be
particularly regretted by all the lovers of recondite theology.
33. Ten Books, on the Chaldean Oracles. This most valuable work
is mentioned by Marinus, in the preceding Life, and by Proclus
himself on Plato’s Politics, p. 359. It was doubtless not extant at the
time when Psellus and Pletho undertook the illustration of a few of
these oracles: at least the inconsiderable merit of their
commentaries, strongly favours this supposition.
34. A Commentary on the whole of Homer. Suidas. A specimen of
the great value of this work may be seen in our philosopher’s
commentaries on Plato’s republic. The works of Homer are not only
the great fountain of poetry, but likewise of philosophy; and are no
less admirable for inspiring the fury of the Muses than for containing
the mysteries of the most recondite theology.
35. Concerning the Gods, according to Homer. Had this work
been preserved, we should doubtless have been furnished with a
defence of the heathen religion, which would have silenced the
ignorant clamours of its opponents.
 36. The Symphony or Concord of Orpheus, Pythagoras, and
Plato. Suidas. Proclus, in his published writings, is every where
studious of reconciling the doctrines of these great men, and is
always successful in this undertaking. Indeed, the same divine
genius seems to have irradiated and inspired these wonderful
heroes, but in different ways: in Orpheus it was accompanied with
the fire of the Muses; in Pythagoras it shone through the mysterious
veil of numbers; and in Plato, combining the preceding modes, it
was seen enshrined in awful majesty of thought, clothed with the
graces of poetical diction, and resplendent with ineffable light.
37. Two Books on the Theurgic Discipline. Suidas. How much
Proclus excelled in this art, may be seen in the preceding Life.
38. Concerning the Oppositions of Aristotle to Plato’s Timæus.
This work is mentioned by Proclus in the 3d book of his commentary
on the Timæus, p. 226. and seems to have escaped the notice of
the accurate Fabricius. Aristotle may, no doubt, in many particulars
be reconciled with Plato; but it is also certain, that in some he is
perfectly dissonant. And thus much for the Life and Writings of
Proclus.
C O M M E N TA R I E S
OF

P R O C L U S .

BOOK I.
 C H A P. I.
On the Middle Nature of the Mathematical Essence.

I t is necessary that the mathematical essence should neither be

separated from the first nor last genera of things, nor from that
which obtains a simplicity of essence; but that it should obtain a
middle situation between substances destitute of parts, simple,
incomposite and indivisible, and such as are subject to partition, and
are terminated in manifold compositions and various divisions. For
since that which subsists in its inherent reasons remains perpetually
the same, is firm and durable, and cannot be confuted, it evidently
declares it is superior to the forms existing in matter. But that power
of progression which apprehends, and which besides uses the
dimensions of subjects, and prepares different conclusions from
different principles, gives it an order inferior to that nature which is
allotted an indivisible essence, perfectly constituted in itself. Hence
(as it appears to me)[71] Plato also divides the knowledge of things
which are, into first, middle, and last substances. And to indivisible
natures, indeed, he attributes an intelligence, which, in a collective
manner, and by a certain simple power, divides the objects of
intellectual perception; so that being divested of matter, and endued
with the greatest purity, it apprehends things themselves, by a
certain unifying perception, and excels the other kinds of knowledge.
But to divisible essences, and such as are allotted the lowest nature,
and to all sensible beings, he attributes opinion, which obtains an
obscure and imperfect truth. But to middle essences (and such are
mathematical forms), and to things inferior to an indivisible and
superior to a divisible nature, he attributes cogitation. For this,
indeed, is inferior to intellect, and the supreme science dialectic; but
is more perfect than opinion, and more certain and pure. For it
advances by a discursive procession, expands the indivisibility of
intellect, and unfolds that which was involved in the unity of
intellectual apprehension: but it collects things which are divided,
and brings them back to mind. Hence, as knowledges differ among
themselves, so the objects of knowledge are distinguished by
nature. So that intelligible essences having an uniform subsistence,
evidently excel all others. But sensibles are entirely excelled by
primary essences: and mathematical natures, and whatever falls
under cogitation, are allotted a middle order: for they are excelled
by the division of intelligibles; but because destitute of matter, they
are superior to sensible natures; and by a certain simple power, they
are excelled by the first; but by a certain reason are more exalted
than the last. Hence they possess notions of an intellectual essence,
which are more manifest than sensibles, but which are, at the same
time, only the images of an intellectual nature; and they imitate
divisibly the indivisible, and, in a multiform manner, the uniform
exemplars of things. And, that I may sum up the whole in a few
words, they are placed in the vestibules or entrances of primary
forms, and disclose their indivisible and prolific subsistence collected
into one, but they do not yet excel the division and composition of
reasons, and an essence accommodated to the obscurity of images;
nor are they capable of passing beyond the various notions of the
soul, endued with a discursive power, and of adhering to intellections
perfectly simple, and purified from all material imperfection. After
this manner then, is the middle nature of mathematical genera and
forms to be understood; as filling up the medium between essences
entirely indivisible, and such as are divisible about matter.
 C H A P. II.
Concerning the common Principles of Beings, and of the
Mathematical Essence,[72] bound and infinite.

B ut it is necessary that, considering the principles of the whole

mathematical essence, we should return to those general
principles, which pervade through and produce all things from
themselves, I mean bound and infinite. For from these two after that
cause of one, which can neither be explained, nor entirely
comprehended, every other thing, as well as the nature of the
mathematical disciplines, is constituted. In the former, indeed,
producing all things collectively and separately; but in these
proceeding in a convenient measure, and receiving a progression in
a becoming order; and in some, subsisting among primary, but in
others among middle, and in others again among posterior natures.
For intelligible genera, by their simplicity of power, are the first
participants of bound and infinite: because, on account of their
union and identity, and their firm and stable existence, they are
perfected by bound: but on account of their division into multitude,
their copious power of generation, and their divine diversity and
progression, they obtain the nature of infinite. But mathematical
genera originate, indeed, from bound and infinite, yet not from
primary, intelligible, and occult principles only; but also from those
principles which proceed from the first to a secondary order, and
which are sufficient to produce the middle ornaments of beings, and
the variety which is alternately found in their natures. Hence, in
these also, the reasons and proportions advance to infinity, but are
restrained and confined by that which is the cause of bound. For
number rising from the retreats of unity, receives an incessant
increase, but that which is received as it stops in its progression, is
always finite. Magnitude also suffers an infinite division, yet all the
parts which are divided are bounded, and the particles of the whole
exist finite in energy. So that without the being of infinity, all
magnitudes would be commensurable, and no one would be found
but what might either be explained by words, or comprehended by
reason (in which indeed geometrical subjects appear to differ from
such as are arithmetical;) and numbers would be very little able to
evince the prolific power of unity, and all the multiplex and super-
particular proportions which they contain. For every number changes
its proportion, looking back upon, and diligently enquiring after
unity, and a reason prior to itself. But bound being taken away, the
commensurability and communication of reasons, and one and the
same perpetual essence of forms, together with equality, and
whatever regards a better co-ordination, would never appear in
mathematical anticipations: nor would there be any science of these;
nor any firm and certain comprehensions. Hence then, as all other
genera of beings require these two principles, so likewise the
mathematical essences. But such things as are last in the order of
beings, which subsist in matter, and are formed by the plastic hand
of nature, are manifestly seen to enjoy these two principles
essentially. Infinite as the subject seat of their forms; but bound as
that which invests them with reasons, figures, and forms. And hence
it is manifest that mathematical essences have the same pre-existent
principles with all the other genera of beings.
 C H A P. III.
What the common Theorems are of the Mathematical Essences.

B ut as we have contemplated the common principles of things,

which are diffused through all the mathematical genera, after the
same manner we must consider those common and simple
theorems, originating from one science, which contains all
mathematical knowledge in one. And we must investigate how they
are capable of according with all numbers, magnitudes and motions.
But of this kind are all considerations respecting proportions,
compositions, divisions, conversions, and alternate changes: also the
speculation of every kind of reasons, multiplex, super-particular,
super-partient, and the opposite to these: together with the
common and universal considerations respecting equal and unequal,
not as conversant in figures, or numbers, or motions, but so far as
each of these possesses a common nature essentially, and affords a
more simple knowledge of itself. But beauty and order are also
common to all the mathematical disciplines, together with a passage
from things more known, to such as are sought for, and a transition
from these to those which are called resolutions and compositions.
Besides, a similitude and dissimilitude of reasons are by no means
absent from the mathematical genera: for we call some figures
similar, and others dissimilar; and the same with respect to numbers.
And again, all the considerations which regard powers, agree in like
manner to all the mathematical disciplines, as well the powers
themselves, as things subject to their dominion: which, indeed,
Socrates, in the Republic, dedicates to the Muses, speaking things
arduous and sublime, because he had embraced things common to
all mathematical reasons, in terminated limits, and had determined
them in given numbers, in which the measures both of abundance
and sterility appear.
 C H A P. IV.
How these Common Properties subsist, and by what Science they
are considered.

B ut it is requisite to believe, that these common properties do not

primarily subsist in many and divided forms, nor originate from
things many and the last: but we ought to place them as things
preceding in a certain simplicity and excellence. For the knowledge
of these antecedes many knowledges, and supplies them with
principles; and the multitude of sciences subsist about this, and are
referred to it as their source. Thus the geometrician affirms, that
when four magnitudes are proportional, they shall be alternately
proportional; and he demonstrates this from principles peculiar to his
science, and which the arithmetician never uses. In like manner, the
arithmetician affirms, that when four numbers are proportional, they
shall be so alternately: and this he evinces from the proper principles
of his science. For who is he that knows alternate ratio considered
by itself, whether it subsists in magnitudes or in numbers? And the
division of composite magnitudes or numbers, and in like manner,
the composition of such as are divided? For surely it cannot be said
that there are sciences and cognitions of things divisible: but that we
have no science of things destitute of matter, and which are
assigned a more intellectual contemplation; for the knowledge of
these is by a much greater priority science, and from these the
common reasons of many sciences are derived. And there is a
gradual ascent in cognitions from things more particular to more
universal, till we revert to the science of that which is, considered as
it is, abstracted from all secondary properties. For this sublime
science does not think it suitable to its dignity, to contemplate the
common properties which are essentially inherent in numbers, and
are common to all quantities; but it contemplates the one, and firm
essence of all the things which are. Hence, it is the most capacious
of all sciences, and from this all the rest assume their own peculiar
principles. For the superior sciences always afford the first
suppositions of demonstrations to such as are subordinate. But that
which is the most perfect of all the sciences, distributes from itself
principles to all the rest, to some indeed, such as are more universal,
but to others, such as are more particular. Hence, Socrates, in the
Theætetus, mingling the jocose with the serious, compares the
sciences which reside in us to doves: but he says they fly away,
some in flocks, but others separate from one another. For such,
indeed, as are more common and more capacious, comprehend in
themselves many such as are more particular: but such as being
distributed into forms, touch things subject to knowledge, are
distant from one another, and can by no means be copulated
together, since they are excited by different primary principles. One
science, therefore, precedes all sciences and disciplines, since it
knows the common properties which pervade through all the genera
of beings, and supplies principles to all the mathematical sciences.
And thus far our doctrine concerning dialectic[73] is terminated.
 C H A P. V.
What the Instrument is, which judges of the Mathematical Genera
and Species.

L et us now consider what that instrument is[74], adapted to the

judgment of mathematical concerns; and let us appoint Plato as
our guide in this affair, who, in his Republic, divides cognitions
separately from such things as are the objects of knowledge; and
distributes cognitions in conjunction with things subject to
knowledge. For of the things which are, some he ranks among
intelligibles, and others among sensibles. And of intelligibles, some
are again pure intelligibles, and others subject to cogitation. And of
sensibles, some are purely sensibles, but others conjectural. To
intelligibles, indeed, which are the first of the four genera, he
assigns an intelligible knowledge; but to those which are subject to
cogitation, he attributes thought: to sensibles, faith; but to
conjecturals, a conjectural or assimilatory power. And he shews, that
the assimilatory power has the same proportion to sense as thought
to intelligence. For the conjectural power knows the spectres of
sensible forms, while they are beheld in water and other bodies,
which perspicuously represent their image: since, by their situation
in water, they are after a manner, allotted the last seat in the
gradations of forms, and truly become the resemblances of
resemblances. In like manner, thought beholds the images of
intelligibles in a degraded state, fallen from primary simple and
indivisible forms, into multitude and division. Hence, a knowledge of
this kind, depends on other more ancient hypotheses; but
intelligence arrives at that principle which is no longer supposed. If
then, mathematical concerns are neither allotted an essence
separate from all division and variety, nor that nature which is
apprehended by sense, which is obnoxious to many mutations, and
is in every proportion divisible, it must be manifest to every one, that
they are essentially subject to cogitation: but cogitation presides
over these as an instrument adapted to judgment, in the same
manner as sense to sensibles, and the assimilatory power to
conjecturals. From whence, indeed, Socrates determines that the
knowledge of these is more obscure than the first science, but is
more evident than the impulsive apprehension of opinion. For in this
the mathematical sciences are inferior to intelligence, because they
contemplate that which is evolved, and is endued with a power of
progression; but they are superior to opinion, by that stability of
reasons which they contain, and which cannot be confuted. And they
originate from supposition, through a diminution of the first science;
but they contain forms independent of matter, from their possessing
a knowledge more perfect than that of sensibles. We have therefore
determined an instrument adapted to the judgment of all
mathematical concerns, i. e. cogitation, according to the mind of
Plato; which places itself indeed above opinion, but is excelled by
intelligence.
 C H A P. VI.
Concerning the Essence of Mathematical Genera and Species[75].

I t now remains, that we consider what subsistence or essence

ought to be assigned to mathematical genera and species?
Whether we must deduce their origin and subsistence from sensible
objects, or from abstraction, or from a collection of such things as
are dispersed by parts into one common definition; or must allow
them an existence prior to that of sensibles, as Plato affirms, and as
the progression of universal being demonstrates? First then, if we
affirm that mathematical species are composed from sensibles;
whilst the soul from material triangles or circles, forms in herself the
trigonic, or circular species, by a kind of secondary generation; I
would ask from whence is derived the great certainty and accuracy
of definitions? For it must either proceed from sensibles, or from the
soul herself. But from sensibles is impossible, for these, in a
continual flow of generation and decay, do not for a moment retain
an exact sameness of being; and consequently fall far short of the
exactness contained in the definitions themselves. It must therefore
proceed from the soul, which, by her immaterial nature, procures
perfection from the imperfect, accurate subtilty from that which is
neither accurate nor subtle, and rekindles the light of ideas from the
obscure and unreal objects of sense.
For where shall we find, amongst sensible objects, an indivisible
nature, such as that of a point, or a line without the dimension of
breadth, or a superficies without depth, or the ever constant
proportion of sides, and exact rectitude of angles? For my part, I
cannot see where, since all divisible natures are thus mixed and
confused together, nothing sincere, nothing free from its contrary,
but things every where yielding to separation, as well such as are
removed by distance of place, as those which are united together.
How then shall we obtain this durable essence for these immoveable
natures from the ever fluctuating forms of sense? For whatever
derives its existence from moveable beings, must of necessity be
mutable and frail. And how shall we gain this perfect accuracy for
the stable species, from the inaccurate and imperfect? For whatever
is the cause of a conception, always immutable, is itself much more
stable than its effect. We must therefore admit the soul to be the
generator of these mathematical species and reasons. But if she
contains them in herself, as first exemplars, she gives them an
essential being, so that the generations are nothing else than
propagations of species, which had a prior subsistence in herself:
and thus we shall speak agreeably to the sentiments of Plato, and
discover the true essence of mathematical entities. But if the soul,
though she neither possesses nor received the mathematical reasons
prior to the energies of sense, yet fabricates this admirable
immaterial building, and generates this fair series of speculations;
how can she discern whether her productions are stable and
constant, or things which the winds may dissipate, and phantoms
rather than realities? What standard can she apply as the measure
of their truth? Or how, since she is destitute of their essence, can
she generate such a variety of reasons? For from such an
hypothesis, we make their subsistence fortuitous, not tending to any
scientific bound. Mathematical species are therefore the genuine
offspring of the soul: nor does she derive from sensible objects the
definitions she frames, but rather the first are propagated from the
second; they are the energies of soul, which, as it were, pregnant
with forms, delivers her immaterial progeny into the dark and
fluctuating regions of matter, as evidences of the permanent
duration of her species.
Again, if we collect mathematical reasons from externals, why
are not demonstrations composed from sensibles, better than the
demonstrations of universal and simple species? For we say, in order
to the investigation of any thing sought, that the principles and
propositions, should be allied to the conclusions. If then, particulars
are the causes of universals, and sensibles the sources of reasoning,
why does the boundary of demonstration always refer to that which
is more universal, and not to that which is partial and particular?