General Physics (Phys1011)

Halid Abdu

Addis Ababa University

College of Natural and computational science
Department of physics

December 22, 2024

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Chapter I: Preliminaries

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Preliminaries
In the quest to understand nature, scientists used physical quantities to
describe the world around us.
Physical quantities and units of measurement
A quantity is a definite or indefinite amount or size of something.
The quantity used a standard of measurement is called unit
Quantities :
1 . Non-physical quantities
2 . Physical quantities
1. Non-physical quantities
Descriptive observations are usually imprecise
qualitative observation.
How do you measure artistic beauty?
2. Physical quantities
It is a quantity or any property that can be measured by defining its
unit of measurements or using a measuring instrument.
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Preliminaries

Physical quantity = (numerical value) unit

Physical quantity is a quantifiable or assignable property ascribed to a

particular phenomenon or body,
A physical quantity is always expressed in terms of a numerical value
(magnitude) and a unit.
Most observation in physics are quantitative.
What can be measured with instrument on something?
65: Does these number make sense?
Physics without units is meaningless.
Physical quantities are classified into two types. These are:
1. Fundamental (basic) quantities
2. Non-fundamental (derived) quantities

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Preliminaries

Fundamental (basic) quantities

Basic quantities are the quantities which cannot be expressed in terms
of any other physical quantity.
Basic quantities basic unit and symbol symbol for dimension
and symbols
Length (l) meter(m) [l] = L
Mass (m) kilogram (kg) [m] = M
Time (t) second (s) [t] =T
Electric current (I) ampere (A) [I ] =I
Temperature (T) kelvin (K) [T ] = Θ
Amount of sub- mole (mol) [n] = N
stance (n)
Luminous intensity candela (cd) [Iv ] =J
(Iv )

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Preliminaries

Derived Physical Quantities

Derived quantities are quantities that can be expressed in terms of
fundamental quantities.
Derived quantities basic unit and symbol symbol for dimension
and symbols
Area (A) square meter (m2 ) L2
Volume (V) cubic meter (m3 ) L−3
Density(ρ) kilogram per cubic ML−3
meter (kgm−3 )
Dimensional Analysis
Every equation that we use in physics must have the same type of
units on both sides of the equals sign.
When we do dimensional analysis we focus on the units of a physics
equation without worrying about the numerical values.

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Preliminaries

Dimension analysis is a method used to check the validity of an

equation and to derive correct expressions.
Our basic unit types (dimensions) are length (L), time (T) and mass
(M).
Only the same dimensions can be added or subtracted.
The dimension of a physical quantity x can be expressed as

[x] = [l]a [m]b [t]c [I ]d [T ]e [n]f [Iv ]g = La M b T c I d Θe N f J g

where a,b,c,d,e,f,g may be positive integer, and zero.

Example: the dimension of density

[ρ] = [m]/[v ] = ML−3

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Preliminaries

Unit and Measurement

A unit of measurement (defined and adopted by convention) is a
standard by means of which the amount of a physical quantity is
expressed.
The quantity used as the standard of measurement is called unit
Physics without units is meaningless.
It is the act of comparing a physical quantity with a certain standard
or
it is defined as the process of finding the size or amount of a physical
quantity using the standard unit for that quantity.

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SI Prefixes and scientific notation
SI prefixes are symbols used to represent powers of ten, making it easier to
write very large or very small numbers.
Scientific Notation
Scientific notation is a way of writing numbers that are too large or too
small to be conveniently written in decimal form. Numbers are represented
as:
a × 10n
where:
a is the coefficient (a number usually between 1 and 10),
n is an integer exponent indicating the power of 10.
For example:
1,500 = 1.5 × 103
0.00023 = 2.3 × 10−4
Using SI prefixes and scientific notation together can simplify the
representation and communication of large and small quantities.
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Uncertainty in Measurement
Measurements always have uncertainties.
Physics is a science in which mathematical laws are tested by
experiment.
No physical quantity can be determined with complete accuracy
Measurements are always uncertain, but we can improve the
uncertainty without limits, by designing a better and better
experiment.
No measurement of a physical quantity can be entirely accurate.
It is important to know how much the measured value is likely to
deviate from the unknown, true, value of the quantity.

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Preliminaries

Error : is defined as the difference between an observed value and a true

value.
Error = observed value - true value

To estimate the true value of a physical constant using experimental

methods.

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Uncertainty
Uncertainty is a quantification of the doubt about the measurement
result.
This quantification shows the range where the true value likely falls,
with a certain level of confidence.
Measurement = (best estimate ± uncertainty)unit of measurement

Uncertainty is determined by statistical analysis of many values of

measurement.

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Preliminaries
Sources and types of error in measurements
Measurement errors can arise from
the measuring device,
the measurement procedure, and
the measured quantity itself
Errors can be divided into two types: systematic and random errors
Random error
are uncontrollable differences between measurements
arises due to
equipment,
environment or other sources
are unbiased and small variations that have both positive and
negative values.
making multiple measurements and averaging can reduce the effect of
random errors.
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Preliminaries

Systematic error
from procedures, instruments, bias or ignorance
Arise due to the equipment/measuring device being out of calibration
Can not be reduced by averaging, but they can be eliminated if the
sources of the errors are known.
Accuracy and precision
Accuracy- closeness of a measured value to the true.
Accuracy of measurement depends on:
The sensitivity of the apparatus
The skill of the person carrying out the measurement
The number of times the measurement is repeated
Precision- closeness of a measured value to each other.

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Preliminaries
Errors can also be classified as absolute and relative.
Absolute error=|measured value-accepted value|
Relative error=Absolute error/accepted value
Percentage error=Relative error×100%
Quantifying Uncertainties
Basic statistics to quantify random errors are:
The mean:- A sample of the measured values is (x1 , x2 , x3 , ..., xN ) . We
can approximate the sample mean (average) of the particular set of N
data points are
PN
xi
x̄ = i=1 .
N
The standard deviation: determined the precision of the value of x
s
PN 2
i=1 (xi − x̄)
sx =
N −1
sx
The standard error (uncertainty) σx = √
N
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Preliminaries

Error Propagation
Measurement uncertainties propagate through calculations that
depend on several uncertain quantities.
Suppose that you have two quantities x and y , each with an
uncertainty σx and σy , respectively.
What is the uncertainty of the quantity x ± y or xy (or x/y )?
The rules for uncertainty propagation assume that the errors σx and
σy are uncorrelated, i.e., they are completely random.
Multiplication by an exact number: If z = cx, then σz = cσx
Addition or subtraction by an exact number: If z = c + x, then
σz = σx p
Addition or subtraction:If z = x + y , then σz = (σx)2 + (σy )2
Multiplication
q or division: If z = xy or z = x/y then
σx 2

2
σz
+ σy


z = x y
Power: If z = x c then σzz =c x
σx

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Preliminaries

Significant Figures
Significant figures (sig. figs) express the precision of a measuring tool.
Rules for identifying significant figures in a measurement:
1 All non-zero figures are significant:
23.9, 469 has 3 significant figures
2 All zeros between non-zeros are significant:
80.009 has 5 significant figures
3 Zeros to the right of a non-zero figure but to the left of the decimal
point are not significant (unless specified with a bar):
1090000 has 3 significant figures
4 Zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a non-zero
figure are not significant: 0.058, has two significant.
5 Zeros to the right of the decimal point and following a non-zero figure
are significant: 304.50 have five significant figures.

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Preliminaries
Rules of significant digits
1 Addition and subtraction: the smallest number of decimal place
9.65cm+8.4cm-2.89cm = 15.16cm not the correct result
However, the least precision measurement is 8.4cm.
Therefore, the appropriate answer is 15.2cm
2 Multiplication and division: the least accurate of factor
x= 45N/(3.22)(2.005m)=6.970152259 N/m2 not correct result
Therefore, the appropriate answer is 7.0N/m2
A= 8.71cm × 3.2cm=27.872cm2 not correct result
Therefore, the appropriate answer is 28cm2
Order of magnitude
It is the value of the number rounded to the nearest power of ten.
Eg. C = 3.0 × 108 m/s, its order of magnitude is 108 .
It is used to give only an indication of how large or small a number is,
and it also indicates that the accuracy of the measurement is limited.
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Preliminaries
Vectors: Addition Components, Magnitude and Direction
Scalar quantities: - have magnitude only (together with a unit).
Eg: - distance, volume, mass, time, temperature, work, power etc
They are added or subtracted by using simple arithmetic, i.e. obey the
rule of ordinary algebra.
Vector quantities: have both magnitude (with unit) and direction.
Examples:-Displacement, velocity, Acceleration, etc.
Vector notation/representation
There are two ways of vector representation. These are
1. Algebraic method
2. Geometric method
1. Algebraic method
Vectors are represented by a letter (symbol) with an arrow over its
⃗ or a boldface latter (A), overbar (AB)
head (A), ¯ and harpoon above
⇀
it head A.
The magnitude of a vector is a positive scalar and is written as either
by |A| or A.
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Preliminaries
2. Geometrical method
Vectors are represented by arrows in two or three dimensions because
arrows have both characteristics of vector.

⇒ The length represents a magnitude of a

vector and head/arrowhead represents the
direction of a vector.

Equality of Two Vectors

Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.
Two vectors need not be located at the same point in space to be
equal.

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Preliminaries

A vector changes if its magnitude or direction or both magnitude and

direction changes.
A vector A multiplied by a scalar b, then it will be changes
its magnitude only, C = bA, when b > 0 and b ̸= 1.
its magnitude and direction, C = bA, when b < 0 and |b| =
̸ 1.
its direction only C = −bA, when |b| = 1.
its physical quantity, C = bA, −→ S = tV
A single vector that is obtained by adding two or more vector is called
resultant vector.
How can obtained it?
Adding and Subtracting Vectors geometrically
Two vectors can be added geometrically using the
a). Tail-to-head method (triangle rule)
b). Parallelogram Rule

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Preliminaries
a). Tail-to-head method (triangle rule)
For any two vectors

⃗ is the resultant vector and it is obtained by joining the tail of the

C
first vector to the head of the second vector.
Tail-to-head method can be applied two three or more vectors.

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Preliminaries
b). Parallelogram Rule
Taking the two vectors as the two adjacent sides

Subtraction of vectors is the same as adding the negative of the

second vector to the first vector.

⃗ −B
A ⃗ =A
⃗ + (−B)
⃗

⃗ +B
If the sum of two vector is zero, i.e., A ⃗ = 0 → one is the negative
of the other.
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Preliminaries

Components of a vector
Rectangular coordinate system/Cartesian

⃗ can
The vector A
be expressed as:
⃗ =A
A ⃗x + A
⃗y

Subtraction of vectors is the same as adding the negative of the

second vector to the first vector.

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Preliminaries

Adding and Subtracting Vectors Algebraically

The analytically the sum The Component of the resultant

of three vectors can be vector are
expressed as: ⃗x = A
⃗x ± B
⃗x
R
⃗ =A
R ⃗ ±B
⃗
⃗y = A
R ⃗y ± B
⃗y
⃗ =R
R ⃗x + R
⃗y + R
⃗z ⃗z = A
⃗z ± B
⃗z
R

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Preliminaries
Unit Vectors
A unit vector is a vector that has magnitude of one and it is
dimensionless.
⃗ is given by
A unit vector in the direction of any vector A
⃗
A
û = .
⃗
|A|
its sole purpose is to point a given vector in a specific direction and it
usually denotes with a heat.
Unit vectors in the direction of the positive x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis
are represented by î, ĵ, and k̂ respectively.
In general, consider the vector ⃗r = x î + y ĵ + z k̂, the unit vector r̂ in
the same direction ⃗r is
⃗r x î + y ĵ + z k̂
r̂ = =p .
|⃗r | x2 + y2 + z2
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Preliminaries

The Scalar Product (or the Dot Product)

⃗ and B
The scalar product of the two vectors A ⃗ is defined by

0
 AB if θ = 0

⃗ ·B
A ⃗ = AB cos θ = 0 if θ = 900

−AB if θ = 1800


Basic properties of the scalar product

⃗ B
If A, ⃗ and C
⃗ are vectors and α are scalar then
⃗ ·B
1 A ⃗ =B⃗ ·A
⃗ Commutative law
⃗ · (B
2 A ⃗ +C⃗) = A
⃗ ·B
⃗ +A
⃗ ·C
⃗ Associative law
The dot product to the unit vectors are
î · î = ĵ · ĵ = k̂ · k̂ = 1
î · ĵ = î · k̂ = ĵ · k̂ = 0

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Preliminaries

The Vector Product (or the Cross Product)

Basic properties of the cross product

⃗ B
If A, ⃗ and C
⃗ are vectors and α and β are
scalar then
1 ⃗ B
Ax ⃗ = −Bx⃗ A⃗
2 ⃗ B
Ax( ⃗ +C⃗ ) = Ax
⃗ B ⃗ + Ax
⃗ C⃗
3 ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Ax(Bx C ) = B(A · C ) − C (A ⃗ · B)
⃗
4 ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Ax B = 0 if and only if A||B⃗
5 ⃗ B
(αA)x ⃗ = α(Ax⃗ B)⃗ = Ax(α
⃗ ⃗
B)

The vector product to the unit vectors are

îx î = ĵx ĵ = k̂x k̂ = 0
îx ĵ = k̂, ĵx k̂ = î, k̂x î = ĵ
îx k̂ = −ĵ, k̂x ĵ = −î, ĵx î = −k̂

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Question

⃗ is the vector sum of A

1. If R ⃗ and B,
⃗ R⃗ =A⃗ + B,
⃗ what must be true
⃗ ⃗ if R = A + B?
about the directions and magnitudes of A and B
2. What must be true about the directions and magnitudes of A an B if
R = 0?

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Kinematics and Dynamics of Particle
Mechanics is the study of physics of motion and how it relates to the
physical factors that affect them. It can categorized in to two parts.
1. Kinematics:- the motion of object without considering the causes of
motion
2. Dynamics :- the motion of object considering the causes of motion
What is motion?
A continuous change in position of an object relative to a reference
point.
In physics motion can be categorized into :-
1. Translational motion
2. Rotational motion
3. Vibrational motion
How to represent or describe motion?
Motion in one dimension =⇒ motion in a straight line.
Motion in two dimensions =⇒ motion in a plane.
Motion in three dimension =⇒ motion in a space.
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Kinematics in one dimensions
Kinematics : describes the motion of an object without considering its
causes of motion. It describe using kinematical quantities, like
velocity, acceleration, displacement, time and trajectory.
Motion along a straight line: one dimensional motion.
line may be vertical, horizontal or slanted.
The moving object: speed up, slow down, stop, reverse direction.

Position : the location of an object with respect to a choose of

reference point.
Distance: the length of the path a particle takes from its initial
position to its final position. It is a scalar quantity and is always
indicated by a positive number.
Displacement:the shortest distance between its initial and final
positions. ∆⃗x = ⃗xf − ⃗xi
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Kinematics in one dimensions

Speed and velocity

Speed and average speed
Speed is the ratio of the distance travelled by any object to the time
it takes to travel that distance.
How fast an object is moving?
Average speed of a particle is the total distance travelled by the
particle divided by the total time.

total distance ∆x
Average speed = total time = ∆t

Since the total distance and the total time are both always positive,
the average speed is always positive.

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Kinematics in one dimensions

Velocity and average velocity

Velocity : describes both how fast and in what direction an object
moves.
Average velocity (vav ) of particle is defined as the ratio of the
displacement ∆x to the time interval ∆t

∆x xf −xi
vav = ∆t = tf −ti

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Kinematics in one dimensions
Instantaneous Velocity
Instantaneous Velocity (vinst ) is the average velocity approach the
slop of tangent at successive shortly time interval.

∆x
vinst = lim
∆t→0 ∆t

vinst is a vector, but |vinst | is the instantaneous speed.

vinst = vav in the case of uniform motion.
Example: The position of a particle is given by x = ct 2 , where c is a
constant. Find the dimension of c and the vinst .

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Kinematics in one dimensions
Acceleration
Acceleration : the object velocity changing with time interval during
the change occurs
∆vx vfx − vix
aav = = .
∆t tf − ti
∆⃗v
Similarly ainst is the limit of the ratio ∆t as ∆t approaches zero.

∆v v (t + ∆t) − v (t)
ainst = lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t

The position of a particle is given by x = at 3 + bt 2 , where a and b

are constant. Find the dimension of a and b. In addition, find both
the velocity and acceleration as a function of time. Find the
instantaneous velocity and acceleration at t = 1, 3, and5 seconds.
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Kinematics in one dimensions

Motion with constant acceleration

Uniformly accelerated motion is motion with constant acceleration.
For motion with constant acceleration, the velocity changes at the
same rate throughout the motion.
Average accelerations over anytime interval is equal to the
instantaneous acceleration any instant of time.

∆v vf −vi
a= ∆t = t , ti = 0 & tf = t

vf = vi + at, vi = v0

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Kinematics in one dimensions
vf +vi ∆x
For constant a, vav = 2 , vav = ∆t

(vf + vi )∆t = 2∆x

If we eliminate ⃗vf

2∆x = (⃗vf + vi )∆t, vf = vi + at

2∆x = (vi + at + vi )∆t, tf = t, and ti = 0
∆x = vi t + 12 at 2
vf +vi vf −vi
Now ∆x = vav t but vav = 2 , and t = a

  
vf +vi vf −vi
∆x = 2 a =⇒ vf2 = vi2 + 2a∆x

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Kinematics in one dimensions
Free fall motion
In free fall motion an object moving with a constant acceleration due
to gravity and we take air resistance is negligible.
In free fall motion

vy = v0y + gt final velocity at any time t

y = v0y + 12 gt 2 vertical position at any time t
vy2 = v0y
2 + 2gy

For free falling object v0 = 0.

When an object reaches a maximum hight v = 0
The acceleration due to gravity varies with latitude, longitude and
altitude on Earths surface.
And it is greater at the poles than at the equator and greater at sea
level than at a top mountain.
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Kinematics in two dimensions
Two Dimensional Motion
The position vector
⃗r = x î + y ĵ
The displacement
∆⃗r = ⃗rf − ⃗ri = ∆x î + ∆y ĵ
For two dimensional motion, the basic equations of motion can be
described
(
1 2 xf − xi = vxi + 21 ax t 2
rf = ri + vi t + at =⇒
2 yf − yi = vyi + 21 ay t 2
(
vxf = vxi + ax t
vf = vi + at =⇒
vyf = vyi + ay t

⃗a = ax î + ay ĵ
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Kinematics in two dimensions
Projectile motion
The object moving in the air without an external fore .
Why projectile motion is two dimensional motion?
Assumptions:-
The effect of air resistance is negligible
g is constant over the range of motion.
The direction of g is directed downward.
In projectile, think of the two motions separately
x-direction motion:- constant velocity (ax = 0 )
y-direction motion:- free-fall motion (ay = −g )
The horizontal and vertical components of a projectile’s motion are
completely independent of each other and can be handled separately.
Time is the common variable.
The path of a projectile = trajectory =⇒ always parabola
The motion does not depend on the mass of the object.
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Kinematics in two dimensions

The object will cover the same amount of vertical distance in the
same amount of time and thus hits the ground at the same time.

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Kinematics in two dimensions
Horizontal direction Vertical direction

⃗v0x = ⃗v0 cos θ0 , t=0 ⃗v0y = ⃗v0 sin θ0 , t=0

vfx = v0x + ax t vfy = v0y + ay t

∆x = v0x t + 12 ax t 2 ∆y = v0y t + 21 ay t 2

vfx2 = v0x
2 + 2a ∆x
x vfy2 = v0y
2 + 2a ∆y
y

vx = v0x = v0 cos θ0 = constant, ax = 0 air resistance is neglected.

∆x = v0x t = v0 cos θ0 t - horizontal displacement.

q
v
v= vx2 + vy2 and θ0 = tan−1 ( vyx )

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Kinematics in two dimensions
In a vertical direction ay = −g and v0y = v0 sin θ0 then

v0 sin θ0
vy = vfy = v0 sin θ0 − gt =⇒ t = g

∆y = v0 sin θ0 t − 12 gt 2

vy2 = (v0 sin θ0 )2 − 2g ∆y

∆x
From ∆x = v0x t = v0 cos θ0 t =⇒ t = v0 cos θ0

g ∆x 2
∆y = ∆x tan θ0 t − 2v02 cos2 θ0

we can get the trajectory or the path of the motion.

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Kinematics in two dimensions

When an object is launched with a positive velocity Component, the

vertical velocity becomes zero at the point where the maximum hight
is reached.
vy = 0: the maximum vertical displacement of a projectile

v02 sin2 θ0
h= 2g

Range of a projectile travels before returning to its launch height.

v02 sin 2θ0

R= g ,=⇒ final hight =launch hight

At what angle the range is maximum?

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Kinematics in two dimensions

The range of two complementary values of θ are the same, such as

150 and 750 , 600 and 300 and so on.

As a projectile moves in its path, the velocity and acceleration vectors

are perpendicular to each other at its highest point.
The velocity and acceleration will never be parallel unless the objects
path is going straight up or straight down.
A projectile is fired in such a way that its horizontal range is equal to two
times its maximum height. What is the angle of projection?

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Kinematics in two dimensions

A police officer chases a master jewel thief across city rooftops. They
are both running when they come to a gap between buildings that is
4.00 m wide and has a drop of 3.00 m.

The thief, having studied a little physics, leaps at 5.00 m/s , at an

angle of 450 above the horizontal, and clears the gap easily. The
police officer did not study physics and thinks he should maximize his
horizontal velocity, so he leaps horizontally at 5.00 m/s.
a. Does he clear the gap?
b. By how much does the thief clear the gap?

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Kinematics in two dimensions
Solution: assuming they both clear the gap, the total time in the air
depends only on the vertical aspects of the motion. Choose the origin
at the launch point, with upward positive.
a. To find the time for the police officer reaches the final vertical
distance.
1 1
∆y = v0 sinθt − gt 2 =⇒ −3m = (9.8m/s 2 )t 2 then t = 0.782s
2 2
Find the horizontal distance traveled during this time:
∆x = x0 + vx0 t = (5m/s)0.782s = 3.91m
Because 3.91 m is less than 4.00 m, it appears the police officer fails to
make it across the gap between buildings.
b. To find the time for the thief reaches the final vertical distance.
1 2 0 1 2 2
∆y = v0 sinθt − gt =⇒ −3m = v0 sin 45 t − (9.8m/s )t then t = −0.5s or 1.22s
2 2

Find the horizontal distance :

0
∆x = x0 + vx0 t = (5m/s) cos 45 1.22s = 4.31m

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Kinematics in two dimensions
Kinematics of circular motion
Circular motion
The motion of an object following in a circle path.

Use angular co-ordinates to describe it.

Example:
The motion of the earth around the sun
The analysis of MRI signals from the body
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 48 / 122
Kinematics in two dimensions
Uniform Circular Motion
A Motion of a particle that moves around in a circle with a constant speed.

The objects moving in a circular path with constant speed can have
acceleration.
There are two ways in which the acceleration can occurs due to:
change in magnitude of the velocity
change in direction of the velocity
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 49 / 122
Kinematics in two dimensions
For objects moving in a circular path with a constant speed,
acceleration arises because of the change in direction of velocity.
In case of Uniform Circular motion
velocity is always tangent to the circular path and perpendicular to the
radius of the circular path
acceleration is always perpendicular to the circular path and points
towards the center of the circle. Such acceleration is called
centripetal acceleration.
The magnitude of the centripetal acceleration

v2
ac = r
Both velocity and acceleration have constant value but their direction
change continuously
Period (T): the time required for one complete revolution.

2πr 2πr
v= T =⇒ T = v
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 50 / 122
Kinematics in two dimensions

average angular velocity ωf = ω0 + αt

θf −θi
ωav = ∆θ
∆t = tf −ti ∆θ = ω0 + 12 αt 2
the angular acceleration ωf2 = ω02 + 2α∆θ
ωf −ωi
α = ∆ω
∆t = tf −ti
Constant-acceleration kinematics equations do not apply to circular
motion.
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 51 / 122
Kinematics in two dimensions
Note that in angular problems counterclockwise is positive.
The length of the arc around the circle is related to its angle through

s = r ∆θ

The relationship between angular velocity and linear velocity :

∆s
⃗v = ∆t = r ∆θ
∆t = r ω

Similarly, the linear and angular accelerations are related by

⃗a = r α

Circular motion does not produce an outward force and it does not
persist without a force.
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Kinematics in two dimensions
Tangential and Radial Acceleration
Motion of a particle along a smooth curve with velocity changes in
both direction and magnitude.

The ⃗v is always tangent to the path and usually the ⃗a makes an angle
with the ⃗v .
The total ⃗a can be resolved into two component vectors: a tangential
component vector, and a radial component vector.

⃗a = ⃗at + ⃗ar
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Kinematics in two dimensions
The tangential acceleration component causes the change in the
speed of the particle. This component is parallel to the tangential
velocity and is given by:
⃗at = ∆v
∆t
t

The radial acceleration component arises from the change in

direction of the velocity vector and is given by
2
⃗ar = −⃗ac = − vr
The magnitude of ⃗a and its direction θ relative to the radius of
curvature is given by

p
a= at2 + ar2 and θ = tan−1 at
ar
In the case of uniform circular motion, where v is constant, we have
at = 0 and acceleration is always radial, i.e. ⃗a = ar . Furthermore, if
the direction of the velocity ⃗v does not change, then ar = 0 and the
motion will be in one dimension,i.e. a = at .
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 54 / 122
Kinematics in two dimensions
A satellite is circulating the Earth at an altitude h = 150 km above its
surface, where the free fall acceleration g is 9.4m/s2 . The Earth’s radius
is 6.4 × 106 m.

What is the orbital speed and period of the satellite?

Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 55 / 122
Dynamics
Dynamics is the study of motion of objects with the cause of motion.
Force is the cause the object to accelerate or move.
Net force acting on the object is defined as the vector sum of all the
forces acting on the object.
The object accelerates only if the net force acting on it is not equal to
zero.
If Fnet = 0; a = 0 and the velocity of the object remains constant,
then that is said to be in equilibrium.
The Concept of Force as a Measure of Interaction
A force is imagined as a push or a pull on some object and it exist
only as a result of an interaction.
The effect of forces are
to accelerate or stop an object
to change the direction of a moving object, and
to change the shape of an object
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 56 / 122
Dynamics
Types of Interactions/forces
1.Contact forces
Contact forces are forces that involve physical contact between two
objects. A contact force must touch or be in contact with an object
to cause a change.

When a coiled spring is pulled =⇒ the spring stretches.

When a stationary cart is pulled =⇒ the cart moves.
When a ball is kicked =⇒ both deformed and set in motion
Friction force, normal force, air resisting force, applied force, spring
force and muscular force.
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 57 / 122
Dynamics

2. Non-contact forces/ Field forces

Field forces are forces that do not involve physical contact between
two objects. A field force is sometimes referred to as action at a
distance force.
They act through space.

The force of gravitational attraction between two objects.

The electric force that one electric charge exerts on another =⇒ the
charges of an electron and proton that form a hydrogen atom.
The force a bar magnet exerts on a piece of iron.

Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 58 / 122

Dynamics
Fundamental Forces - Forces of Nature:
There are four fundamental forces in nature and all are field forces.
1 The gravitational force is the force between any two objects in the
universe.
⃗ g ) is an attractive.
Gravitational force (F
⃗ m1 m2
Fg ∝ r 2 ⇒ the weakest force among the fundamental forces of
12
nature but has the greatest large-scale impact on the universe.
Gravity works universally on all matter and energy.
2 The electromagnetic force is the force between charged particles
and it may be attractive or repulsive.
the combination of electrostatic and magnetic force.
⃗g .
obeys inverse square law and it is very strong compared to the F
3 The strong nuclear force is the strongest of all the basic forces of
nature.
the shortest range in the order of 10−15 m .
holds the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus of an atom.
4 The weak nuclear force:arises in most radioactive decay processes.
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 59 / 122
Dynamics
Newton’s Laws of Motion
Isaac Newton proposed the laws of motion to offer a systematic
method of calculating an object’s motion due to forces exerted on it,
which are the foundation of dynamics.
It stated the law of motion apply to all interactions between objects.
Newton’s First Law of Motion
States that:

An object moves with a velocity that is constant in magnitude

and direction unless a nonzero net force acts on it
An object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion continuous
in motion with a constant speed in straight line if the external force
acting on it is zero.
The net force is the vector sum of all external forces acts on the
object. P
⃗ net = N F
F ⃗i = F
⃗1 + F
⃗2 + F
⃗ 3 + ... + F
⃗N
i=1
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Dynamics
In Cartesian Components of the net forces are

⃗ net,x = PN F
F ⃗ ⃗ net,y = PN F⃗ ⃗ net,z = PN F⃗
i=1 ix , F i=1 iy , F i=1 iz

It comes from the objects environment.

An object moves with a constant velocity in magnitude and direction:
⃗ net and ⃗a = 0.
F
internal forces originate within the object itself and can’t change the
object velocity =⇒ not included newtons first law.
It describes what happens to an object when no net forces act on it
=⇒ the law of inertia.
Inertial reference frames is either at rest or moves with a constant
velocity.
Inertia: - the tendency of the object to continue in its original (resist
changes in its) state of motion in the absence of a force.
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 61 / 122
Dynamics

Mass is a measure of the objects resistance to changes in its motion

due to a force.
=⇒ Inertia mass since it’s associated with inertia.
Applications of the first law
1. Seat Belts : to prevent serious injury in the event of an accident.
2. Rockets
A spaceship is launched into space.
The force of the exploding gases pushes the rocket through the air into
space.
Once it is in space, the engines are switched off and it will keep
on moving at a constant velocity.
If the astronauts want to change the direction of the spaceship they
need to fire an engine.
This will then apply a force on the rocket and it will change its
direction.

Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 62 / 122

Dynamics
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
It deals with an object has non-zero force acting on it.
Newton’s second law answers the question of what happens to an
object that does have a net force acting on it.
States that:

The acceleration ⃗a of an object is directly proportional to the

net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass
and the acceleration is always in the direction of the net force.

⃗ = m⃗ax

P⃗  Fx
F X
⃗

⃗ y = m⃗ay
⃗a = =⇒ F = m⃗a =⇒ F
m
⃗ z = m⃗az

F


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Dynamics
⃗ net = 0,⃗a = 0 =⇒ ⃗v is constant =⇒ translational equilibrium or
F
first condition to equilibrium.
Newton’s third Law of Motion
States that:

For every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.

Two objects interaction

exist always in pair.
a single isolated force can not exist.

Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 64 / 122

Dynamics

Generally, Newtons law apply

1. the objects are either in equilibrium ⃗a = 0 or accelerating

a straight line under the action of constant external force.
2. focused only in the external forces that are act on the object.
3. assume that the object modeled as a particle (don’t worry
about rotational motion.
3. neglect the mass of any rope, string, or cables.

Procedure dealing with newtons law

Draw a sketch of the situation
Consider only one object at a time
Apply second law

Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 65 / 122

Dynamics
E.g A block of weight W hangs from a cord, which is knotted at point O
to two other cords, one locked to the ceiling, the other to the wall, as
shown. We wish to find the tension in these three cords, assuming the
weights of the cords to be negligible.

0
P
P Fx = T3 cos 530 − T2 = 0
Fy = T3 sin 53 − T1 = 0
T1 = W
T3 = sinW530 and T2 = cot 530 W

Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 66 / 122

Dynamics
E.g A block of mass m slides down an inclined plane as shown in the
figure below and assume that the inclined plane is frictionless. Find
the expression for the acceleration of the block.

If the inclined plane is frictionless, the only forces acting on the block
are the gravitational force downward and the normal force (N).
Resolving mg into parallel and perpendicular to the direction of
motion of motion.
P
Fx = mg sin θ = ma =⇒ a = g sin θ

Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 67 / 122

Dynamics
E.g Two objects of unequal mass are hung vertically over a frictionless
pulley of negligible mass, as in Figure below. Determine the
magnitude of the acceleration of the two objects and the tension in
the lightweight cord

m2 − m1 2m1 m2 g
a=( )g and T = m1 (a + g ) =
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 68 / 122
Dynamics
Friction
Friction arises where two surfaces are in contact and moving relative
to each other.
Frictional force is the force that opposes the motion of an object in
contact with a surface and it acts parallel to the surface the object is
in contact with.

|f | ∝ |N|
|f | depends on
the type of the surface (its roughness) and
the magnitude of the normal force
Frictional force is independent of the size of the contact area between
object and surface and
Frictional force is independent of the velocity of the object

Mathematically ⃗f = µN,
⃗ µ is the coefficient of friction.
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 69 / 122
Dynamics
The coefficient of friction have different magnitude
µs :- coefficient of static friction
µk :- coefficient of kinetic friction
static friction
The force is not always large enough to make an object move

fs max = µs N

This force equal to the applied force but it acting opposite direction.
Therefore, fs ≤ µs N and µk < µs
kinetic friction
The applied force is greater than the fs max , the object moves.

fk = µk N, µk < 1

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Kinematics in two dimensions
A block of mass m1 on a rough,
horizontal surface is connected to a
ball of mass m2 by a lightweight cord
over a lightweight, frictionless pulley,
as shown in figure. Force of
magnitude F at an angle θ with the
horizontal is applied to the block as
shown.
The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and surface is µk .
Determine the magnitude of the acceleration of the two objects.
Solution:-For m2 :the free body diagram

P
Fy = T − m 2 g = m 2 a

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Kinematics in two dimensions
For m1 :the free body diagram
P
Fx = F cos θ − T − fk = m1 a
P butfk = µk N
P F x = F cos θ − T − µk N = m1 a
Fy = N + F sin θ − m1 g = 0
=⇒ N = m1 g − F sin θ

µk N = µk (m1 g − F sin θ)
fk = P
=⇒ Fx = F cos θ − T − µk N = m1 a
F cos θ − T − µk N = m1 a
F cos θ − m2 (a + g ) − µk (m1 g − F sin θ) = m1 a

F (cos θ+µk sin θ)−g (m2 +µk m1 )

a= m2 +m2

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Dynamics
E.g A block of mass m slides down an inclined plane as shown in the figure
below and assume that the inclined plane has coefficient of kinetic
friction µk . Find the expression for the acceleration of the block.

If the inclined plane has coefficient of kinetic friction µk , the forces

acting on the block are shown in free body diagram.

P
P Fx = mg sin θ − fk = ma =⇒ mg sin θ − µk N = ma
Fy = N − mg cos θ = 0 =⇒ N = mg cos θ
=⇒ a = g (sin θ − µk cos θ)
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 73 / 122
Work and Energy

The Concepts of Work and Energy

Work: a transfer of energy due to an applied force.
Energy: the capacity of a physical system to perform work.
Forms of energy
Kinetic energy: associated with the motion of an object.
Potential energy : associated with the configuration of a system.
Thermal energy : associated with the random motion of the molecules
within a system and is closely connected with the temperature of the
system.
In physics, work is done when a force acts on an object that
undergoes a displacement from one position to another.
force can vary as a function of position, displacement can be along
various path between two points.
If no displacement takes place, no work is said to be done.

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Work and Energy
Work to be done on an object, three essential condition should be
satisfied.
1. force must be exerted on the object
2. the force must cause a motion/displacement
3. the force should have a component along the line of
motion/displacement.
Work done by a constant force

The net work on the object by exerting a constant force (both

magnitude and direction) is defined as the product of the magnitude
of the displacement times the component of force parallel to the
displacement.
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 75 / 122
Work and Energy



 +W , 00 ≤ θ < 900 F component ∥ to ∆x
W = ∆xF cos θ = 0, θ = 900 F component ⊥ to ∆x

−W , 900 < θ ≤ 1800 F component ∦ to ∆x


⃗ relative to ∆⃗x .
The sign of w depends on the direction of F
Work is said to be done on an object by a force if
1. the force is not perpendicular to the displacement θ ̸= 900
2. the force displaces the object
Kinetic energy and work-energy theorem
Kinetic energy is the capacity of an object to do work by virtue of its
motion.
For an object of mass m and moving with speed v , the KE is given by

KE = 12 mv 2 .

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Work and Energy
Consider a particle with mass m moving along the x-axis under the
action of a constant net force with magnitude F directed along the
positive x-axis

Suppose the speed changes from vi to vf while the particle undergoes

a displacement ∆x from point xi to xf .
Newton’s second law : Fnet = ma
The force is constant, acceleration remain constant.

vf2 −vi2 m(vf2 −vi2 )

a= 2∆x , F = ma = 2∆x

mvf2 mvi2
=⇒ F ∆x = 2 − 2
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 77 / 122
Work and Energy

mv 2 mvi2
The work done by the net force F ∆x = ∆KE = 2 f − 2
is called KE of a mass moving with speed vf and vi

The net work done on an object is equal to the change in the object’s
kinetic energy:

Wnet = KEf − KEi = ∆KE work-energy theorem

where the change in the kinetic energy is due entirely to the object’s
change in speed.
The work–kinetic energy theorem indicates that the speed of an
object increases if the net work done on it is positive because the final
kinetic energy is greater than the initial kinetic energy.
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 78 / 122
Work and Energy

The speed decreases if the net work is negative because the final
kinetic energy is less than the initial kinetic energy.
No work is done by the net force in moving an object with a constant
speed.
Potential energy
Potential energy is the energy that is stored in an object due to its
position relative to its some zero position.
Potential energy can be expressed as
Elastic potential energy
Gravitational potential energy
=⇒ Work done by a variable force.
Elastic potential energy
Energy that is stored in an elastic object when you stretch, compress,
twist, or otherwise deform it is called elastic potential energy.

Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 79 / 122

Elastic potential energy
Mass-spring system
When the spring is stretched or compressed from its equilibrium
position. It has the ability to do work as if returns to the equilibrium
position.
From mass-spring system, attached a mass m to a spring of spring
constant k.

Fs = −kx

where k is a positive constant

called the force constant or
spring constant of the spring.

Fs is restoring /spring force = conservative

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Elastic potential energy
The work done by the force is the average force multiplied by the
displacement.

Wsp = − 12 k(xf + xi )(xf − xi ) = −k 12 (xf2 − xi2 )

k 12 xf2 and k 21 xi2 are the the final and initial elastic potential energy of
a mass spring system, respectively, when the spring is
stretched/compressed by x

Wsp = Uelai − Uelaf = −∆Uela

The work done by spring force when the spring is streached from xi to
xf is equal to the negative of the change in Elastic potential energy.
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 81 / 122
Potential energy
Gravitational potential energy
Gravitational potential energy of a mass m at hight h from the
surface of earth

Ug = mgh.
The work done by gravitational force as the book is raised from the
initial height yi to a final height yf from the ground is given by

Wg = |F ⃗ g ||∆⃗r | cos θ
⃗ g = −mg ĵ -on the object
F
∆⃗r = [yf − yi ]ĵ -displacement
θ = 1800 -the angle between F ⃗ g &⃗y
Wg = −[mgyf − mgyi ]
Wg = −∆Ug the negative of the
change in gravitational energy.

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Potential energy

When object moves down, y decreases, the gravitational force does

positive work, and the potential energy decreases.
When object moves up, the work done by the gravitational force is
negative, and the potential energy increases.
⃗ = (4î + 3ĵ)N acts on an object of mass m = 2kg , moving
1 A force F
the object by dragging it from origin to x = 5.0m.
a. Find the work done on the object and the angle θ between the force
and the displacement.
b. What is the value of the total work done, which the contact surface on
which the object is dragged is rough with coefficient of friction
µk = 0.2

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Conservation of Energy
Energy is neither created nor destroyed.
The law of conservation of mechanical energy states that in the
absence of dissipative force such as friction, mechanical energy of a
system remains constant or conserved.

∆ME = 0 or MEf = MEi

KEf + Uf = KEi + Ui ,
where U may include both gravitational and elastic potential
In the presence of friction, the change in mechanical energy of a
system is equal to the work done by friction force.

∆ME = Wf . when friction force exist

Wf = ff s = −(µk FN )s

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Conservation of Energy

Eg. A pendulum consists of a sphere of mass m attached to a light cord of

length L, as shown in figure below. The sphere is released from rest at
point A when the cord makes an angle θA with the vertical, and the pivot
at P is frictionless. Find the speed of the sphere when it is at the lowest
point B.

Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 85 / 122

Conservation of Energy
Eg. A pendulum consists of a sphere of mass m attached to a light cord of
length L, as shown in figure below. The sphere is released from rest at
point A when the cord makes an angle θA with the vertical, and the pivot
at P is frictionless. Find the speed of the sphere when it is at the lowest
point B.

Conservation of mechanical energy

KEA + UA = KEB + UB
KEA = 0 because vA = 0
UA = mghA but hA = L − L cos θA
mv 2
KEB = 2 B
UB = mghB = 0 because hB = 0
mvB2
=⇒ mg (L − L cos θA ) = 2
p
∴ vB = 2gL(1 − cos θA )

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Power
Power is the rate of doing work/energy transfer.
If an external force is applied to an object, and if the work done by
this force in the time interval ∆t is W , then the average power
during this interval is defined as

W
Pav = ∆t work perunit time 1W = 1J/s

1kWh = (103 J/s)3600s = 3.6MJ, is the total work done in

1hour(3600s) when the power is 1kilowatt(103 J/s).
1kilowatt-hour is a unit of work or energy, not power.
In the limit of ∆t → 0 Pav becomes instantaneous power

W F ∆x
Pav = ∆t = ∆t = Fvave

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Power
The instantaneous power is the limit of Pav as the time interval ∆t
approaches zero.

P(t) = Fv (t) v (t) the instantaneous speed

An older model car accelerates from rest to speed v in 10 seconds. A

newer, more powerful car accelerates from rest to 2v in the same time
period. What is the ratio of the power of the newer car to that of the
older car?
W
Solution : Pav = ∆t
mvf2 −mvi2 2
For old car Wold = ∆KE = 2 = mv2
mv 2 −mv 2
For new car Wnew = ∆KE = f 2 i = 2mv 2
2mv 2
Pnew
∴ Pold = ∆t
mv 2
=4
2∆t

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Linear Momentum
The Concept of Momentum and Impulse
What happens when two automobiles collide?
Momentum: the quality of a moving object to exert a force on
anything that tries to stop it.
The linear momentum (simply momentum) P of a particle of mass m
moving with a velocity v is defined to be the product of its m and v:

P = mv.
⃗ is a vector quantity in the direction of the ⃗v with SI unit kg.m/s.
P
Doubling either the mass or the velocity of an object doubles its
momentum; doubling both quantities quadruples its momentum.
The components of momentum in Cartesian coordinates:

Px = mvx , Py = mvy , Pz = mvz

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Linear Momentum
In Cartesian coordinates, the total linear momentum is

P = Px + Py + Pz = m(vx + vy + vz ).

The magnitude of the momentum

q
P= Px2 + Py2 + Pz2

An object of mass can be related to its kinetic energy

P2
KE = 2m .

This valid for objects travelling at speeds much less than the speed of
light.
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Linear Momentum
Changing the momentum of an object requires the application of a
force. Using Newton’s second law of motion

Fnet = ma = m ∆v
∆t =
∆mv
∆t = ∆P
∆t .

This equation shows that the time rate of change of the linear
momentum of a particle is equal to the net force acting on the
particle.
If the net force on an object is zero, the object’s momentum doesn’t
change.
The linear momentum of an object is conserves when Fnet = 0.
When two objects of masses m1 and m2 interact, the force that
object 2 applies to object 1 is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to the force that object 1 applies on object 2.
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Linear Momentum

Newton’s third law: the force onm1 on m2 = −the force on m2 on m1

F12 + F21 = m1 ∆v ∆v2

∆t + m2 ∆t = m1 ∆v1 + m2 ∆v2 = 0
1

=⇒ m1 (v1f − v1i ) + m2 (v2f − v2i ) = 0

=⇒ m1 v1f + m2 v2f = m1 v1i + m2 v2i = P1f + P2f = P1i + P2i

=⇒ Pi = Pf the law of conservation of linear momentum

=⇒ Ptot = P1 + P2 = constant ⇒ This is true for isolated system

States that whenever two or more particles in an isolated system

interact, the total momentum of the system remains constant.
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Linear Momentum

The change in linear momentum of an object is equal to the impulse

of the net force acting on the object. Therefore,

∆P = Pf − Pi = F∆t = I (Impulse)

This equation is known as impulse-momentum theorem.

It is state that the impulse of the net force F acting on the particle is
equal to the change in momentum of the particle.
This is true even if the force is not constant, as long as the time
interval ∆t is taken to be arbitrarily small
Collisions in one dimension and in two dimensions
Collision represents an event during which two particles come close to
each other and interact by means of forces.

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Linear Momentum
The interaction forces are assumed to be much greater than any
external forces present, so we can use the impulse approximation.
Collision may be involve physical contact between two macroscopic
objects.
A Collision between two objects
result from direct contact.
Consider collision on an atomic scale (the nucleus of helium atom )

Particles are both positive charge

repeal each other due to electrostatic
force between them.
⇒ never come into physical contact.

Forces between two objects arise from the electrostatic interaction of

the electrons in the surface atoms of the objects.
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Linear Momentum

Electric charges are either positive or negative. Charges with the

same sign repel each other, while charges with opposite sign attract
each other.
For any type of collision, the total momentum of the system just
before the collision equals the total momentum just after the collision
as long as the system may be considered isolated.
=⇒ The two particles from an isolated system and the total
momentum of the system must be conserved in any collision.
=⇒ In contrast, the total KE of the system of particles may or may
not be conserved, depending on the type of collision.
Collisions is an isolated event in which two or more moving bodies
(colliding bodies) exert forces on each other for a relatively short time.
The time interval during which the velocities of the particles change
from initial to final values is assumed to be short.

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Linear Momentum
There are two types of collision between two bodies, based on
whether kinetic energy is conserved or not.
Elastic collision
Inelastic collision
Elastic collision
Both total kinetic energy and momentum of the system is conserved.
Consider two particles of masses m1 and m2 moving with initial
velocities v1i and v2i along the same straight line.

Before an elastic collision the After collision the object velocities

two objects move change, but both KE and P of the
independantly. system are conserved.
The two particles collide head-on and then leave the collision site with
different velocities, v1f and v2f .
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 96 / 122
Linear Momentum
In this collision, both the momentum and kinetic energy of the system
are conserved.

Pi = Pf =⇒ m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f

KEi = KEf =⇒ 12 m1 v21i + 12 m2 v22i = 21 m1 v21f + 12 m2 v22f

where v is positive if an object moves to the right and negative if it

moves to the left.
From the kinetic energy conservation expression, we see that,

m1 (v21i − v21f ) = m2 (v22f − v22i )

m1 (v1i + v1f )(v1i − v1f ) = m2 (v2f + v2i )(v2f − v2i )

Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 97 / 122

Linear Momentum
From the momentum conservation expression, let us separate the
term m1 and m2 ,

m1 (v1i − v1f ) = m2 (v2f − v2i )

Dividing the kinetic energy conservation expression by the momentum

conservation expression, we get

v1i + v1f = v2f + v2i shows the sum of initial and final velocities

v1i − v2i = −(v1f − v2f )

This shows that the relative speed of the two objects before collision
equals the negative of their relative speed after the collision.
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 98 / 122
Linear Momentum
Suppose the masses and initial velocities of both particles are known,
then we can solved the expression of for the final velocities in terms of
the initial velocities.

m1 −m2 2m2
v1f = m1 +m2 v1i + m1 +m2 v2i

m2 −m1 2m1
v2f = m1 +m2 v2i + m1 +m2 v1i

Let us consider some special cases:

1. If m1 = m2 : v1f = v2i and v2f = v1i =⇒ particles exchange velocities
2. If object two is initially at rest (v2i = 0), then

m1 − m2 2m1
v1f = v1i and v2f = v1i
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 99 / 122

Linear Momentum
3. If m1 ≫ m2 and object two is initial at rest (v2i = 0)

v1f = v1i and v2f = 2v1i

A very heavy particle collides head-on with a very light one that is
initially at rest.
The heavy particle continues its motion unaltered after the collision
and the light particle rebounds with a speed equal to about twice the
initial speed of the heavy particle.
4. If m2 ≫ m1 and object two is initial at rest (v2i = 0)

v1f ≈ −v1i and v2f ≈ 0

A very light particle collides head-on with a very heavy particle that is
initially at rest, the light particle has its velocity reversed and the heavy
one remains approximately at rest.
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 100 / 122
Linear Momentum
Inelastic Collision: Momentum is conserved but KE is not conserved.

m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f

1 2
2 m1 v1i + 12 m2 v22i ̸= 12 m1 v21f + 21 m2 v22f

Because some of KE is converted to internal energy, sound energy

and work needed to permananetly deform the objects involved.
Perfectly Inelastic Collisions
Consider two objects having masses m1 and m2 moving with initial
velocities v1i and v2i along the same straight line.

Before collision After collision

Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 101 / 122
Linear Momentum
Before a perfectly inelastic collision the objects moving independantly.
After collision, the objects remain in contact and moving together
with common velocity vf .
If the two objects collide a head on, stick together and move with a
common velocity vf after collision.

∆P = 0 =⇒ Pi = Pf

=⇒ m1 v1i + m2 v2i = (m1 + m2 )vf

m1 v1i +m2 v2i

vf = m1 +m2

In a perfectly inelastic collision, momentum is conserved, KE is not

conserved, and the two object stick together after the collision, so
their final velocities are the same.
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 102 / 122
Linear Momentum

Two dimensional (Glancing) Collisions

Consider a two-dimensional problem in which an object of mass m1
collides with an object of mass m2 that is initially at rest.

Before the collision After the collision

After the collision, object 1 moves at an angle θ with respect to the
horizontal and pobject 2 moves at an angle ϕ with respect to the
horizontal. This is called a glancing collision.

Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 103 / 122

Linear Momentum
Applying the law of conservation of momentum in component form
and noting that the initial y component of the momentum of the
two-particle system is zero, we obtain

x component: m1 v1i + 0 = m1 v1f cos θ + m2 v2f cos ϕ

y component: 0 + 0 = m1 v1f sin θ − m2 v2f sin ϕ

If the collision is elastic, the conservation of kinetic energy with

v2i = 0 to give

1 2
2 m1 v1i = 21 m1 v1f
2 + 1m v2
2 2 2f

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Linear Momentum
The Concept of Center of Mass
The center of mass of the pair of particles shown in Figure is located
on the x axis and lies somewhere between the particles.

Its x coordinate is given by

m1 x1 +m2 x2
xCM = m1 +m2

if x1 = 0, x2 = d, and m2 = 2m1 , we find that xCM = 2/3d. That is,

the center of mass lies closer to the more massive particle. If
m1 = m2 , the center of mass lies midway between the particles.
The x coordinate of the center of mass of n particles is defined to be

Pn Pn
m1 x1 +m2 x2 +m3 x3 +...+mn xn xi mi i=1 xi mi
xCM = m1 +m2 +m3 +...+mn = Pi=1
n = M ,
i=1 mi

Pn
where the total mass M = i=1 mi .
Halid Abdu General Physics December 22, 2024 105 / 122
Linear Momentum
We can extend this concept to a system of many particles with
masses mi in three dimensions. Therefore, the center of mass of the y
and z coordinates of the system defined by the equations

Pn Pn
m1 y1 +m2 y2 +m3 y3 +...+mn yn yi mi i=1 yi mi
yCM = m1 +m2 +m3 +...+mn = Pi=1
n = M .
i=1 mi

Pn Pn
m1 z1 +m2 z2 +m3 z3 +...+mn zn zi mi i=1 zi mi
zCM = m1 +m2 +m3 +...+mn = Pi=1
n = M .
i=1 mi

The center of mass can also be located by its position vector rCM .

Pn Pn Pn
mi xi î+ mi yi ĵ+ mi zi k̂
rCM = xCM î + yCM ĵ + zCM k̂ = i=1 i=1
M
i=1
.
Pn
mi ri
rCM = i=1
M , where ri = xi î + yi ĵ + zi k̂

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