mathematics

Article
Operation Assessment of a Hybrid Distribution Transformer
Compensating for Voltage and Power Factor Using
Predictive Control
Esteban I. Marciel 1 , Carlos R. Baier 2, * , Roberto O. Ramírez 2 , Carlos A. Muñoz 2,3 , Marcelo A. Pérez 4
and Mauricio Arevalo 5

1 Engineering Systems Doctoral Program, Faculty of Engineering, University of Talca, Campus Curicó,
Curicó 3344158, Chile; [email protected]
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Talca, Campus Curicó,
Curicó 3344158, Chile; [email protected] (R.O.R.);
[email protected] or [email protected] (C.A.M.)
3 Estudiante de Doctorado, Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica, University of Jaén,
Campus Lagunillas s/n, Building A3, 23071 Jaén, Spain
4 Department of Electronics, Universidad Tecnica Federico Santa Maria, Valparaiso 2390123, Chile;
[email protected]
5 Electrical Engineering Sciences Doctoral Program, Faculty of Engineering, University of Talca,
Campus Curicó, Curicó 3344158, Chile; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Hybrid Distribution Transformers (HDTs) offer a compelling alternative to traditional low-
frequency transformers (LFTs), providing auxiliary services in addition to standard functionalities.
By integrating LFTs with power converters, HDTs enhance the operational capabilities of the
system. The specific configuration in which converters are connected to the transformer allows for the
provision of multiple services. This can not only prevent network failures but also extend the lifespan
of its components, an outcome that is highly desirable in a distribution grid. This article discusses an
Citation: Marciel, E.I.; Baier, C.R.; HDT developed to mitigate voltage fluctuations in the grid and to decrease the reactive power drawn
Ramirez, R.O.; Muñoz, C.A.; Perez, from the secondary side of traditional LFTs. A finite-control-set model predictive control (FCS-MPC),
M.A.; Arevalo, M. Operation in conjunction with linear controllers, is utilized for the effective management of the HDT converters.
Assessment of a Hybrid Distribution Two separate control loops are established to regulate voltage and reactive power on the secondary
Transformer Compensating for side of the transformer. Results from Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) testing affirm the proficiency of
Voltage and Power Factor Using HDT in reducing grid voltage variations by 15% and in cutting reactive power consumption by up
Predictive Control. Mathematics 2024,
to 94%. The adopted control strategy and topology are demonstrated to be effective in stabilizing
12, 774. https://doi.org/10.3390/
voltage and reactive power fluctuations while concurrently facilitating the charging of the converters’
math12050774
DC link directly from the grid.
Academic Editors: Eduard Petlenkov
and Larbi Chrifi-Alaoui Keywords: hybrid distribution transformer; smart transformer; smart grids; CHB-MLI
Received: 5 February 2024
MSC: 93-10
Revised: 29 February 2024
Accepted: 1 March 2024
Published: 5 March 2024

1. Introduction
In electrical power distribution systems, one of the primary goals is to maintain voltage
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. and current under control at various points within the grid. This ensures the grid’s capacity
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. to provide a supply of energy that meets the quality standards set by regulatory limits,
This article is an open access article thereby reducing the likelihood of failures in these systems. Operating outside the nominal
distributed under the terms and
values for voltage amplitude or frequency can compromise the proper functioning or
conditions of the Creative Commons
integrity of equipment connected to the grid [1]. These potential failures pose significant
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
challenges in distribution systems control due to the vast number and variety of connected
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
elements [2].
4.0/).

Mathematics 2024, 12, 774. https://doi.org/10.3390/math12050774 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/mathematics

Mathematics 2024, 12, 774 2 of 18

Distribution transformers, key components in electrical distribution systems, interface

between medium- and low-voltage grids, reducing voltage for consumer use. While known
for their robustness and cost-effectiveness [3], these static devices cannot reduce current
and voltage fluctuations.
Non-linear loads, renewable energy systems, and electric vehicles destabilize elec-
trical networks, affecting supply quality [4]. Fluctuations and harmonics can overheat
transformers, reducing lifespan and efficiency [5]. While load tap changers (LTCs) regulate
voltage, they falter with rapid changes due to mechanical limitations [6]. Active filters
based on power electronics offer a faster, broader operational solution compared to passive
or mechanical methods [7]. However, challenges like harmonics in load currents and
diverse reactive power demands still strain transformers, risking overheating and reduced
lifespan [8].
Solid-state transformers (SSTs) emerge as a future solution in electrical systems, re-
placing traditional transformers or LFTs. SSTs, incorporating power converters at both
the input and output, manage energy transfer through a medium-frequency transformer
(MFT), aligning the output with grid voltages and frequencies, thereby enabling the use of
higher power density transformers [9]. While offering complete control over voltage and
current [10], SSTs face limitations in efficiency due to the necessity of all power flowing
through at least two converters, resulting in lower efficiency and higher construction costs
compared to LFTs [11,12].
Addressing the limitations of solid-state transformers (SSTs) and seeking to maintain
controllability in voltage and current variables, Hybrid Distribution Transformers (HDTs)
have emerged as a viable alternative. Combining a conventional low-frequency transformer
with a power converter, HDTs enable the partial control of voltage and current, resulting in
lower power loss and reduced construction costs compared to SSTs [13,14]. Furthermore,
HDTs offer a fail-safe mechanism through a switch that isolates the converter in case of
failure, allowing operation solely via the LFT, thus ensuring compatibility with existing
protection systems [11].
In the literature, there are multiple HDT configurations proposed, leading to various
converter topologies being applied [14]. In general, there are two types of configurations,
those that operate on one side of the transformer and those that operate on both sides of
the LFT. One proposal involves the implementation of a series-connected back-to-back
converter on the medium-voltage (MV) side of the LFT, aiming to provide voltage compen-
sation for load variations in the grid [15]. A system with a multilevel back-to-back converter
implemented on the MV side of the transformer is presented in [16], indicating a broader
voltage control range, smaller filter sizes, and a simpler control sequence. An HDT with
a matrix converter connected on the low-voltage (LV) side of the LFT is presented in [17];
this system allows for balanced and unbalanced sag and swell compensation, reduction in
harmonic distortion, and power factor correction.
In [18], a back-to-back converter with a DC link powered by PV energy operates on
both sides of the transformer. In this case, a multi-layer fault-tolerant protection strategy
for HDT-PVs is analyzed. In [19], a quasi-proportional-resonant control is presented for
an HDT composed of a converter on the low-voltage side of the transformer connected
through auxiliary windings; this system enables voltage control in loads during variations
and compensates for current distortions. In [20], an improved HDT topology is presented,
consisting of a converter connected on both sides of the transformer. On the medium-
voltage side, a series-connected converter is connected to the grid, while on the low-voltage
side, another converter is connected to an auxiliary winding. Both converters share a DC
link, and this HDT features a compound controller, which enhances system robustness
while mitigating voltage and current variations, both in cases of symmetry and asymme-
try. Another HDT configuration is presented in [21], where a double connection to the
transformer is established. A series-connected converter is attached to the higher-voltage
side, while a parallel-connected converter is on the lower-voltage side; this configuration
aims to reduce current distortion reaching the transformer by compensating for the current
Mathematics 2024, 12, 774 3 of 18

delivered by the converter. This proposal utilizes a discrete-time LQR control, enabling the
HDT to contribute to voltage sag and swell control, power factor correction, and current
and voltage distortions.
Using a cascaded h-bridge multilevel converter (CHB-MLI) instead of a voltage source
converter can provide two main advantages to an HDT in the MV side. The first is the
ability to achieve a higher level of output voltage or to reach the same voltage levels while
subjecting the components to lower voltage levels. This is due to the use of two or more
modules connected in series instead of just one. The other advantage is the multilevel
voltage output of the converter, which can improve the quality of the compensation. An
additional advantage of this topology is the autonomy of each module. If one cell has a
problem, it can be isolated, and the rest of the modules can continue to operate as if it were
a CHB-MLI with a smaller number of modules [22].
This document presents the HIL implementation of an HDT with a voltage source
converter (VSI) and a CHB-MLI connected through a medium-frequency interface to
compensate for variations on the voltage grid and the reactive consumption on an LFT.
The converters are controlled by an FCS-MPC strategy, where the output models are used
and discretized using the forward Euler method. The compensation strategies are made
from lineal controllers, and the use of p-q calculation is needed. This technique permits to
control the voltage and reactive power at the same time in the same HDT.
This article is organized as follows. In Section 2, the fundamental aspects of hybrid
transformers are presented. Then, in Section 3, the proposed HDT topology is presented,
along with its corresponding control strategy. In Section 4, the results obtained that validate
the proposal are presented. Finally, Section 5 summarizes the main conclusions of this
work.

2. Hybrid Transformer
Hybrid transformers can be made up of one or more converters arranged to a low-
frequency transformer. This contributes to the control of variables such as voltage or
current. It helps to mitigate the effects of changes in voltage, harmonics, or reactive power,
especially in the face of small variations in the system [13,17].
Depending on the configuration used, the HDT can perform specific compensation
tasks, so the topology to be used is directly linked to the variables that need to be con-
trolled [14].
An example of an HDT topology is shown in Figure 1, in which a solid-state trans-
former made of voltage source converters is connected in parallel to a low-frequency
transformer. In this configuration, a converter is connected to the primary side of the
low-frequency transformer and can be used to obtain energy from the grid or to provide
voltage to the amplitude delivered by the grid, to regulate and ensure the desired voltage
on the secondary side of the transformer, even if the grid voltage varies [23]. The converter
at the other end is connected to the secondary side of the transformer and can compensate
for the load reactive power and can also control the active power to charge the converter
DC link or control the current harmonics. All this can be achieved by controlling the output
current [24].
Hybrid
Transformer
LFT
MV LV
grid grid

AC

AC

Figure 1. HDT configuration.

Mathematics 2024, 12, 774 4 of 18

These type of configuration can obtain their energy from the grid, charging their DC
link capacitors using a power control strategy on the converters that perform compensation
tasks, or they can be charged from an external energy source, like a removable energy
source or a DC microgrid [25], or even a dedicated converter to obtain the energy from the
same grid [26,27].

2.1. Proposed Hybrid Transformer

In the available works, there are different proposals for hybrid transformers, in which
the utilities vary according to the topology. For this work, it is proposed to implement a
single-phase topology similar to the one presented in Figure 1. However, a modification is
made: instead of presenting a standard VSI topology on the higher-voltage side, a cascaded
h-bridge multilevel inverter (CHB-MLI) topology is used.
This topology has the aim of compensating for the voltage in order to maintain a
load without variations in the feed and to compensate for the reactive power to reduce the
consumption of this type of power, reducing the current that flows through the LFT, and
this is done while the DC link is charged from the grid or from an external DC connection.
A hybrid control strategy is proposed for each compensator, where the converters
employ a predictive control loop to generate the modulation, along with linear control for
compensation control. These controls do not interfere with the control loops of the other
converter. This is done to ensure that each compensator performs its task independently.
The use of a CHB-MLI on the series compensator side is proposed in order to divide
the voltage present between the converters in series, allowing the use of semiconductors
that support lower voltage levels or to achieve a higher voltage compensation value. In
addition, the modularity of the converter improves reliability since it allows work with
an indefinite number of modules, so even if one module of the converter fails, the rest
can continue their function, at the cost of decreasing the maximum voltage compensation
value.
In Table 1, a comparison between the characteristics of a traditional LFT and the
proposed HDT is presented, highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of each option
for use in a distribution network.

Table 1. Comparison between an LFT and proposal.

System Advantajes Disadvantages

Higher efficiency, completely
LFT compatible with current Lacks compensation ability
protection systems
Voltage and reactive power Efficiency depends on the
compensation, simultaneous power converters losses, need
HDT proposed compensation, DC grid extra algorithms to be able to
connection possibility to feed respond to failures that shut
energy to the grid down the network

The significant contribution of this work lies in the development of a control strategy
applied to a Hybrid Distribution Transformer operating with multilevel converters. The
proposed strategy enables the simultaneous implementation of two compensation actions
without interference between them. From both control and topological perspectives, the
proposal offers several advantages, including enhanced output voltage quality compared
to topologies with fewer levels, and the ability to harness the benefits of modularity in
cascaded converters.

2.2. Topology
As mentioned, the proposed hybrid transformer configuration consists of a double
compensator system in parallel with a low-frequency transformer (LFT), where the com-
pensators are a CHB-MLI connected in series to the grid on the higher-voltage side of the
Mathematics 2024, 12, 774 5 of 18

LFT, and a voltage source converter in parallel to the loads on the lower-voltage side as
shown in Figure 2.
In addition, each converter have their respective DC link composed of a capacitor, and
these DC links are connected to each other through a medium-frequency interface between
the converters to provide the necessary galvanic isolation [28], while the shunt converter
DC capacitor is used to charge the series converter DC capacitors to keep the multilevel
converter energized.

Hybrid
Transformer LFT

MV grid LV grid

Medium frequency
LC Filter Series converter Shunt converter L Filter
interface

AC DC AC DC

DC AC DC AC

AC DC Possible DC grid
conection or DC
DC AC storage

AC DC

DC AC

Figure 2. HDT proposed.

On the low-voltage side, a voltage source converter is connected in parallel to the grid
with the ability to control power flow, which aims to compensate for the reactive power
consumed by the loads, so the LFT receives only active power consumption. Additionally,
the converter is tasked with controlling the DC link voltage to maintain the load levels at
the configured values. This converter uses an L filter to connect it to the grid, which allows
for a sinusoidal current output.
Due to these characteristics, the proposed system has the advantages of improved
reliability in the event of failures in the series compensator modules, and also allows for the
possibility of reaching higher-voltage compensator levels than single-module topologies
with the same type of semiconductors. And the system presents the possibility of an
external connection for energy from other sources to carry out compensation operations to
reduce energy consumption from the main network.
It is necessary to emphasize that to ensure an improvement in the reliability of the
system, a separate study is necessary, which must be carried out considering a modeling
and evaluation of the proposal with strategies such as the Monte Carlo method [29], in
addition to taking into account the reliability of the same electrical network where the HDT
would operate [30].

2.3. Compensator Models

2.3.1. Shunt Compensator Model
The voltage source converter is composed of an H-bridge that is fed by a capacitor as
an energy storage element and is connected to the grid by a L filter in a shunt configuration
as shown in Figure 3. The output voltage in the converter depends on the discrete switching
function, which is the difference between the values of the switches s1 and s2 :

s c ( t ) = s1 ( t ) − s2 ( t ), (1)
Mathematics 2024, 12, 774 6 of 18

and the output voltage vo can be expressed as the product from the DC voltage and the
switching function:
vosh (t) = VDCsh (t)sc (t). (2)

LFT

MV grid LV grid

Shunt converter

+ DC

- AC

Figure 3. HDT shunt converter.

Therefore, Table 2 presents the valid switching states for this converter, avoiding
combinations that simultaneously activate both semiconductors of one leg of the converter.
Such simultaneous activation could lead to a short circuit in the power supply.

Table 2. Valid switching states of a VSC.

State s1 s2 Voltage Output sc

1 1 0 VDC 1
2 1 1 0 0
3 0 0 0 0
4 0 1 −VDC −1

By knowing the valid states of the converter, the voltage levels it can deliver can be
obtained in the same way, and with this information, a mathematical model can be obtained
that describes the converter’s output coupled to the filter, which can be represented by

dish 1
= (V (t)sc (t) − R f sh ish (t) − vsec (t)), (3)
dt L f sh DCsh

where ish is the output current, L f sh and R f sh are the filter inductance and resistance, and
vsec is the secondary-side voltage. This model can be used to implement a model-based
control strategy model, such as finite control set model predictive control (FCS-MPC).
Mathematics 2024, 12, 774 7 of 18

2.3.2. Series Compensator Model

On the medium-voltage side of the LFT, a cascaded multilevel converter is connected
in series to the grid and transformer through a LC filter as shown in Figure 4. The objective
is to compensate for the voltage provided by the grid to maintain the voltage on the low-
voltage side within the nominal values when variations in the voltage coming from the
grid occur.
LFT

MV grid LV grid

Series converter

AC +

DC -

AC +

DC -

AC +

DC -

Figure 4. HDT series cascaded converter.

The topology implemented consists of three voltage source converter modules con-
nected in series, which are connected to the grid in series through an LC filter. Each module
is fed by a DC link consisting of a capacitor, so each module behaves like a voltage source
converter and has the same valid states as presented in Table 2. However, with three
modules in series, the output of the converter is the sum of the output voltages of each
module. Then, the output current model is:

dise 1
= (v + vom2 + vom3 − R f se ∗ ise − vCse ), (4)
dt L f se om1

where ise is the converter output current, L f se and R f se are the filter inductance and resis-
tance, vCse is the series capacitor voltage, and vomx is each module output voltage, which
can be obtained using VDCmx as each module DC link and scx as their respective switching
function:
vomx = VDCmx scx (5)
While the proposed multilevel topology initially involves three modules, the number
of modules can be adjusted based on the desired output voltage or the available components.
In this system, three modules are used because it is a low number of modules, considering
a future physical implementation of the proposal. This also allows the output voltage to be
tripled compared to a VSI, and the multilevel output waveform can have up to seven levels
Mathematics 2024, 12, 774 8 of 18

if the DC voltage in the modules is the same. In this case, the output current model can be
simplified as:
dise 1
= (V scT − R f se ise − vCse ), (6)
dt L f se DCm
where now there is only one switching function scT , which is defined as:

scT = sc1 + sc2 + sc3 (7)

The activation of different modules can result in the same total switching function
and output voltage, but there are combinations that use three modules to generate the
same output which can be achieved with one module; these combinations are not desirable
because the efficiency is better when there is only one module active instead of three.In
Table 3, the different combinations that a balanced CHB-MLI can have and their respective
voltage output and total switching function are presented.

Table 3. CHB-MLI voltage output combinations.

Module 1 Module 2 Module 3 Voltage

State # scT
Output Output Output Output
1 VDC VDC VDC 3VDC 3
2 VDC VDC 0 2VDC 2
3 VDC 0 VDC 2VDC 2
4 0 VDC VDC 2VDC 2
5 VDC 0 0 VDC 1
6 0 VDC 0 VDC 1
7 0 0 VDC VDC 1
8 0 0 0 0 0
9 VDC 0 0 −VDC −1
10 0 VDC 0 −VDC −1
11 0 0 VDC −VDC −1
12 0 VDC VDC −2VDC −2
13 VDC 0 VDC −2VDC −2
14 VDC VDC 0 −2VDC −2
15 VDC VDC VDC −3VDC −3

3. Control
The control strategies to use in an HDT are divided in two: primary control and
secondary control. The first is used to maintain each converter output current following a
reference, and the second is used to generate the primary control references to generate
the voltage and reactive power compensation. A general control scheme is presented in
Figure 5.
On the primary control of each compensator converter, an FCS-MPC strategy is an
option that guarantees robust operation and improves the dynamic characteristics for the
converters [31].
Mathematics 2024, 12, 774 9 of 18

HDT

LFT

Medium frequency
Series converter Shunt converter
interface

s1 ... s12 s1 s2 s3 s4 s1 s2 s3 s4

FCS-MPC MFT modulation FCS-MPC

CHB-MLI VSI

Voltage control Reacive power and

PR ec. 18
DC link control

PLL sin X Power

calculation
PI PI

trasnform.

Figure 5. General control scheme.

3.1. Primary Control

FCS-MPC is a discrete time control that operates using a system mathematical model to
be controlled, where the system input has a finite number of states, which can be leveraged
by using the switched model of power converters [32]. For the VSI and CHB-MLI converter,
FCS-MPC allows the discrete operation of the semiconductors used in these systems to
be utilized since it allows evaluating how the variables to be controlled behave under
the different state combinations in each converter switch. This type of strategy allows
considering nonlinearities in the system, works over a wide range of operation, and can
include operational constraints.
To implement this control scheme, it is necessary to have the discrete models of the
output currents of the converters from Equations (3) and (6), but these have to be discretized
via the forward Euler method. Then, the series and shunt converter differential equations
can be discretized using the next approximation:

dish i (k + 1) − ish (k)

= sh (8)
dt Ts
Once the models are discrete, the function that defines the output current for each
converter is as follows:
Ts
ish (k + 1) = (V (k)scsh (k) − R f sh ish (k)
L f sh DCsh (9)
−vsec (k)) + ish (k)
Mathematics 2024, 12, 774 10 of 18

Ts
ise (k + 1) = (V (k)scseT (k) − R f se ∗ ise (k)
L f se DCm (10)
−vCse (k)) + ise (k)

With these functions, the FCS-MPC can select the state that delivers the optimal
system behavior in each control iteration to maintain the desired converters outputs. A
predictive horizon Np = 2 is used to take advantage of the tracking error reduction and
to improve the supply quality over a Np = 1 strategy [33]. One disadvantage is that the
number of evaluations performed by the algorithm depends on the number of states to
be evaluated and the prediction horizon by States Np , where a larger prediction horizon
leads to an exponential growth in the number of evaluations. Therefore, increasing the
prediction horizon results in a computational load that becomes too heavy for a controller
to implement in real-time; this is the reason that a longer prediction horizon is not chosen.
In the case of a series converter that use a balanced three-module cascaded multilevel
converter, there is redundancy in the switching states to obtain an output voltage level
equal to the DC voltage of one or two modules, or their negative cases as shown in Table 3.
These redundant states imply that to obtain a voltage different from 0V, 3VDC , or −3VDC
at the converter output, energy can be extracted in an unbalanced way if the predictive
control algorithm is left to select the switching state since it tends to use one state more than
the other redundant states, which is why an algorithm to balance the energy extraction in
these cases is used.
This algorithm operates by receiving a desired total switching function that can be
generated by different states in each case, and it applies those states sequentially, saving
the last state used for each output, then in the next cycle that requests the same output
voltage, the algorithm checks the memory to know the last stored state and applies the next
state in the possible sequence of states to obtain the requested output. Table 4 presents how
the next state to apply depends on the scT desired and the last state applied. Thanks to this,
all the modules can be activated the same amount of times in a period, and the energy can
be equally extracted.
Once the converters model and balancing algorithm are ready, the primary control
is ready to be implemented. The two algorithms will receive the output current reference
from a secondary control and will select the best switching combination to achieve the
references as shown in Figure 6.

Table 4. CHB-MLI switching sequence.

scT Desired Last State # Applied State # to Apply Voltage Output

2 3
2 3 4 2VDC
4 2
5 6
1 6 7 VDC
7 5
9 10
−1 10 11 −VDC
11 9
12 13
−2 13 14 −2VDC
14 12
Mathematics 2024, 12, 774 11 of 18

Start Start

Meassurement: Meassurement:

Optimal state out Optimal state out

No No
Delay compensation Delay compensation
Yes Yes

Define Define

Yes Yes
k+1 prediction k+1 prediction
eq. 9 eq. 10
No No

k+2 prediction k+2 prediction

Yes Yes
eq. 9 eq. 10

No No

Next optimal state Next optimal state

defined by defined by

a) b)

Figure 6. FSC-MPC diagrams of (a) shunt converter, (b) series converter.

3.2. Voltage Control

To perform voltage control, a proportional resonant (PR) controller is used, which
allows error-free steady-state tracking in AC variables and allows tuning around a defined
working frequency. The PR control transfer function can be written as follows:

2ωo s
HPR (s) = K p r + Kr (11)
s2 + 2ωo s + ωo2

where K p r is the proportional gain, Kr is the resonant gain, and ωo is the grid fundamental
frequency.
The voltage reference to be followed is generated from the product of a unitary sine
wave and the amplitude of the expected nominal voltage on the low-voltage side:
√
v∗sec = ∗
2vrms sin(2pi f grid θ PLL ) (12)

This sine wave signal obtains its generation angle through a EPLL that follows the
voltage of the primary winding; consequently, the reference signal becomes synchronized
with the voltage of the medium-voltage grid to which the series compensator is connected.
Once the reference is obtained, it is compared with the measured voltage on the secondary
winding to calculate the error, and then sent to the PR controller, where this control function
generates the converter’s reference output current, which is sent to the FCS-MPC:
∗
ise = PR(v∗sec − vsec ) (13)

3.3. Reactive Power and DC Link Control

To control both variables, a generalized p-q theory is used that allows controlling both
variables in a single-phase converter through the alpha–beta transforms of voltage and
current to control the reactive power and the load of a DC link [34]. This theory can be
used to control active and reactive power flows in the converter, but these power values
need to be generated first.
Mathematics 2024, 12, 774 12 of 18

The active power that the converter consumes depends on the DC capacitor charge,
then a proportional-integral (PI) control is used to generate the active power reference from
the DC capacitor voltage. The PI controller transfer function can be written as:

Ki
HPI (s) = K p + (14)
s
where K p is the proportional gain, and Ki is the integral gain. With the controller model,
the DC voltage control reference can be obtained from the error between the desired and
actual DC capacitor voltages:
∗
Vctrl = PI (VDCsh − VDCsh ) (15)

The reactive power consumed to the LFT is calculated via alpha–beta theory:

Qsec = vα.sec · i β.sec + v β.sec · iα.sec (16)

With the power consumption calculated, a pi controller can be used to generate the
reactive power flow needed from the converter to mitigate this power from the LFT:

Qctrl = PI ( Q∗sec , Qsec ) (17)

With the two types of power flows calculated, the shunt converter current reference
can be obtained from the p-q theory as:

∗ Qctrl v β.sec + Vctrl vα.sec

ish = (18)
vα.sec 2 + v β.sec 2

The DC link voltage control loop is a loop that could be eliminated in the case of
having an external power supply path, such as a DC microgrid or an additional converter
dedicated to the DC link load. This would prevent power recirculation through the LFT.
In the event that this occurs, the DC capacitor voltage control can be eliminated without
affecting reactive power compensation.
An additional active power control loop can be incorporated into the secondary control
strategies as long as there is an energy storage element with sufficient capabilities or an
external power supply in the DC link of the converters. This additional control loop would
allow the HDT to contribute with inertia in case the grid in which it works has a low
percentage of synchronous generators, thereby improving its capability to provide auxiliary
services.

3.4. MFT Control

The shunt VSI of the system is responsible for keeping its DC link charged through
its secondary control. However, the DC links of the CHB-MLI modules must also be
charged in the same way. Therefore, the intermediate converters take energy from the
shunt converter’s DC link and transfer it to the three DC links of the series converter
through the MFT.
To perform this energy transfer, a modulation is used at a frequency of 20 kHz, where
the converter on the side that delivers the energy acts as an inverter, supplying the three
MFTs, and the converters of each module receive energy from each transformer, acting as
rectifiers and charging the capacitors of the series compensator.

3.5. Start Sequence

The proposed system presents the control of three key variables: voltage compensation,
reactive power compensation and charging of the DC capacitors. If the system needs to
obtain the energy from the network, the first thing that must be performed is to charge the
capacitor of the series compensator, and then charge the capacitors of the series compensator
Mathematics 2024, 12, 774 13 of 18

through the MFT. This is necessary for the compensators to carry out their activities correctly.
To do this, the Vsec PR control and Qsec PI control are limited to zero, and the only active
control on the shunt converter is the VDCsh PI control; this works until the DC voltage reach
the reference. Once the DC links are loaded, the voltage and reactive power compensator
controls start to act to compensate for any undue variation in the system.

4. Results
The results were derived from a Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) setup, utilizing the
MicroLabBox Compact prototyping DS1202 unit from dSpace GmbH (dSPACE, Paderborn,
Germany) to implement digital control and the OP4510 real-time digital simulation platform
from Opal-RT (OPAL-RT Technologies Inc., Montreal, Quebec, Canada) to simulate the
HDT power system. The set-up can be seen in Figure 7.

Oscilloscope OPAL-RT dSPACE dSPACE

MSO1074 OP4510 DS1202 Computer

Figure 7. HIL test setup.

In this HIL setup, two tests were conducted to evaluate the responses of both LFT-only
and HDT systems: one test under variations of the grid voltage of 15% of its nominal value
and another test under impacts of the load consumption of 1 kW and 1 kVAR. These tests
demonstrate the performance of HDT in scenarios affecting the low-voltage grid’s voltage
and the reactive power delivered by the LFT. The system values for these tests are detailed
in Table 5.

Table 5. HDT, grid and load parameters.

Parameter Value Parameter Value

Vgrid 870Vrms fs 10 kHz
∗
Vsec 220Vrms Lse 10 mH
∗
VDCsh 400 V R Lse 0.2 Ω
Q∗sec 0 VAR Cse 45 µF
MTF ratio 1:4 CDCse 500 µF
LTF ratio 4:1 Lsh 15 mH
Rload1 38.71 Ω R Lsh 0.3 Ω
Lload1 61.59 mH CDCsh 500 µF
Pload1 1000 W L LFTpri 0.1 mH
Qload1 500 VAR L LFTsec 0.05 mH
Rload2 24.2 Ω R LFTpri 0.01 Ω
Lload2 77 mH R LFTsec 0.005 Ω
Pload2 1000 W R LFTmag 3000 Ω
Qload2 1000 VAR L LFTmag 1 MH
Mathematics 2024, 12, 774 14 of 18

4.1. Operation under Load Change

To perform the test, a step change was made from a load of 1 kW and 0.5 kVAR to one
of 2 kW and 1.5 kVAR, and the LFT results are shown in Figure 8a, where it can be observed
that when there is a change in reactive power consumption, it results in a 1000 VAR increase,
while the current amplitude increases from 7 [A] to 16 [A].
The HDT results are shown in Figure 8b; here, it can be seen that in the start, the reac-
tive power is around 0 VAR because the shunt converter is compensating for the reactive
power consumption, and when the change is made, the converter and secondary side LFT
current increase since the load consumes more energy and more reactive power compensa-
tion is needed. The DC voltage is maintained at 400 V and is widely affected by the charge.
The reactive power goes up to 200 VAR, but 400 ms after the connection is reduced by the
control to around 100 VAR, so the control generates a 1600 VAR compensation in contrast
to the LFT performance.

500 V

1000 VAR
25 A

1000 VAR

25 A

25 A

Figure 8. System response to a 1000 W and 1000 VAR impact in charge: (a) LFT-only response.
(b) HDT response.

4.2. Operation under Voltage Variations

In this case, results are presented under a 15% voltage sag while the low-voltage net-
work supplies load 1. Figure 9a shows the voltage behavior in the primary and secondary
sides of the LFT without converters. In this case, the voltage sag in the primary side is the
same in the secondary side of the LFT, where the voltage amplitude falls and an error of
45 V is generated. In Figure 9b, the results of the sag on the HDT are presented; in this
case, the secondary voltage can be observed to have a small disturbance at the sag time,
then the series compensator starts their function and adds to the grid the voltage dropped.
The error can be seen to have a peak of 70 V, but is mitigated under the time, making a
zero-around error after 80 ms.
The final test presents the transformer performance under a 15% voltage swell. In
Figure 10a, the LFT results show a similar behavior to the sag result; in this case, the 15%
swell is seen on the secondary side of the LFT, and an error of 45 V is present again, the
difference being that the error phase can be seen in a 180° phase, which means the voltage
is over the reference value.
On the other side, Figure 10b shows the HDT results. Here, the swell can be seen only
on the primary voltage. The secondary voltage has a small distortion, and after 80 ms,
the error is mitigated. The series compensator voltage can be seen in the 180° phase, or
negative amplitude, to the primary grid; in this form, the compensator can decrease the
voltage to maintain the 220 Vrms in the secondary side.
Mathematics 2024, 12, 774 15 of 18

In the last two tests, it can be observed how variations of 15% in the nominal voltage
are implemented, resulting in an amplitude change of 185 [V], and this change is effectively
compensated for by the CHB-MLI, while all their modules have a voltage of 100 [V]. In
this topology, each module individually possesses a lower capacity than required for the
converter’s compensation. However, when all modules work together, the output capacity
meets the voltage requirements.

2000 V 2000 V

500 V
50 V

500 V

200 V
50 V

Figure 9. System response to a 15% sag in the primary grid: (a) LFT-only response. (b) HDT response.

2000 V 2000 V

500 V
50 V

500 V

200 V
50 V

Figure 10. System response to a 15% swell in the primary grid: (a) LFT-only response. (b) HDT
response.

5. Conclusions
This paper evaluates the operation of an HDT designed to supply secondary loads and
compensate for voltage and reactive power fluctuations at the Point of Common Coupling
(PCC). The approach integrates predictive control strategies alongside linear PI and PR
control techniques to effectively manage the converters in the HDT. The proposed HDT
system features a CHB-MLI on the medium-voltage side, medium-frequency transformers,
and a conventional inverter on the low-voltage side.
This study assesses the voltage and reactive power compensation capabilities of the
proposed HDT using HIL simulation. The HDT power converters employ FCS-MPC
schemes with an extended horizon to regulate their outputs. For voltage compensation,
Mathematics 2024, 12, 774 16 of 18

a PR control strategy is implemented to maintain the secondary voltage within specified

limits. In addressing reactive power compensation, a p-q calculation is performed, enabling
a PI control to effectively achieve compensation. The parameters used in all tests are
consistent and detailed in Table 5.
The HIL results demonstrate that the implemented system effectively compensates for
voltage variations, primarily due to the use of a CHB-MLI topology, its predictive control
scheme, and the linear control approach. This combination of technologies eliminates
steady-state error, ensuring adherence to the specified voltage reference and maintaining a
constant voltage amplitude output from the transformer. The advantage of the topology
used is a greater output voltage range over a single module topology, where it can be seen
that with a DC voltage of 100 V per module, drops of an amplitude voltage of 185 V can
be compensated for, while for a single module topology, the DC voltage would need to be
increased.
Moreover, the VSI enables accurate compensation for the reactive power consumed by
loads. Tests indicate a significant reduction in consumption, from 1700 VAR to 100 VAR,
when measuring towards the LFT, resulting in an approximate 94% decrease.
The voltage compensation strategy also proves fully compatible with DC link voltage
control. During tests, the voltage consistently remained at the reference value of 400 V,
showing no variations even during contingencies, thus ensuring the effective operation of
the compensators.
The proposed topology and control enable independent behavior of both compen-
sators, where each compensation action does not have a negative impact on the performance
of the other converter. This allows collaborative efforts in which actions can be taken to
mitigate variations in both voltage and reactive power consumption simultaneously.
While the developed proposal successfully achieves the compensation actions it aims
for, further studies are needed to assess the practical effectiveness, reliability and grid
compatibility of the proposed HDT system, such as the experimental implementation of
a prototype. Furthermore, future studies will be crucial to transition this proposal into a
development that is commercially viable and can be operational within distribution grids.
These studies should cover areas such as environmental impact, regulatory compliance,
and economic considerations to fully assess the feasibility of implementing the proposal as
a market-ready product.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.I.M. and C.R.B.; methodology, E.I.M.; software, M.A.;
validation, R.O.R., C.A.M. and M.A.P.; formal analysis, E.I.M.; investigation, E.I.M.; resources, C.R.B.
and M.A.P.; data curation, E.I.M.; writing—original draft preparation, E.I.M.; writing—review and
editing, C.R.B.; visualization, R.O.R.; supervision, C.R.B.; project administration, C.R.B.; funding
acquisition, C.R.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was mainly supported by two funding sources: the Fondecyt Project 1201308,
and a grant from the Council of Andalucía (Junta de Andalucía, Consejería de Transformación
Económica, Industria, Conocimiento y Universidades, Secretaría General de Universidades, Inves-
tigación y Tecnología) under Project ProyExcel_00381. Additional support was provided by the
Thematic Network RIBIERSE-CYTED (723RT0150) and the Fondecyt Project 1211826.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Acknowledgments: The support of the Energy Conversion Technology Center of the University of
Talca, the Advanced Center for Electrical and Electronics Engineering AC3E (Conicyt/FB0008), and
the Chilean Solar Energy Research Center (Conicyt/FONDAP/15110019) is gratefully acknowledged.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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