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Chapter 19 Oxidative Phosphorylation
Living Graph:
Free-Energy Change for Transport of an Ion

Chapter 20 Photosynthesis and Carbohydrate Synthesis in Plants

UPDATED Molecular Structure Tutorial:
Bacteriorhodopsin
UPDATED Animated Mechanism Figure:
Rubisco Mechanism

Chapter 22 Biosynthesis of Amino Acids, Nucleotides, and Related

Molecules
UPDATED Animated Mechanism Figures:
Tryptophan Synthase Mechanism
Thymidylate Synthase Mechanism

Chapter 23 Hormonal Regulation and Integration of Mammalian

Metabolism
NEW Case Study:
A Runner’s Experiment—Integration of Metabolism (Chs 14–18)

Chapter 24 Genes and Chromosomes

Animation:
Three-Dimensional Packaging of Nuclear Chromosomes

Chapter 25 DNA Metabolism

UPDATED Molecular Structure Tutorial:
Restriction Endonucleases
NEW Simulations:
DNA Replication
DNA Polymerase
Mutation and Repair
NEW Nature Article with Assessment:
Looking at DNA Polymerase III Up Close
Animations:
 Nucleotide Polymerization by DNA Polymerase
DNA Synthesis

Chapter 26 RNA Metabolism

UPDATED Molecular Structure Tutorial:
Hammerhead Ribozyme
NEW Simulations:
Transcription
mRNA Processing
NEW Animated Mechanism Figure:
RNA Polymerase
NEW Nature Article with Assessment:
Alternative RNA Cleavage and Polyadenylation
Animations:
mRNA Splicing
Life Cycle of an mRNA

Chapter 27 Protein Metabolism

NEW Simulation:
Translation
NEW Nature Article with Assessment:
Expanding the Genetic Code in the Laboratory

Chapter 28 Regulation of Gene Expression

UPDATED Molecular Structure Tutorial:
Lac Repressor
Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry
Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry
SEVENTH EDITION

David L. Nelson
Professor Emeritus of Biochemistry
University of Wisconsin–Madison

Michael M. Cox
Professor of Biochemistry
University of Wisconsin–Madison
Vice President, STEM: Ben Roberts
Senior Acquisitions Editor: Lauren Schultz
Senior Developmental Editor: Susan Moran
Assistant Editor: Shannon Moloney
Marketing Manager: Maureen Rachford
Marketing Assistant: Cate McCaffery
Director of Media and Assessment: Amanda Nietzel
Media Editor: Lori Stover
Director of Content (Sapling Learning): Clairissa Simmons
Lead Content Developer, Biochemistry (Sapling Learning): Richard Widstrom
Content Development Manager for Chemistry (Sapling Learning): Stacy Benson
Visual Development Editor (Media): Emiko Paul
Director, Content Management Enhancement: Tracey Kuehn
Managing Editor: Lisa Kinne
Senior Project Editor: Liz Geller
Copyeditor: Linda Strange
Photo Editor: Christine Buese
Photo Researcher: Roger Feldman
Text and Cover Design: Blake Logan
Illustration Coordinator: Janice Donnola
Illustrations: H. Adam Steinberg
Molecular Graphics: H. Adam Steinberg
Production Manager: Susan Wein
Composition: Aptara, Inc.
Printing and Binding: RR Donnelley
Front Cover Image: H. Adam Steinberg and Quade Paul
Back Cover Photo: Yigong Shi

Front cover: An active spliceosome from the yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. The
structure, determined by cryo-electron microscopy, captures a molecular moment when the
splicing reaction is nearing completion. It includes the snRNAs U2, U5, and U6, a spliced
intron lariat, and many associated proteins. Structure determined by Yigong Shi and
colleagues, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China (PDB ID 3JB9, C. Yan et al., Science
349:1182, 2015). Back cover: Randomly deposited individual spliceosome particles,
viewed by electron microscopy. The structure on the front cover was obtained by
computationally finding the orientations that are superposable, to reduce the noise and
strengthen the signal—the structure of the spliceosome. Photo courtesy of Yigong Shi.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016943661

North American Edition
ISBN-13: 978-1-4641-2611-6
ISBN-10: 1-4641-2611-9

©2017, 2013, 2008, 2005 by W. H. Freeman and Company

All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America

First printing

W. H. Freeman and Company

One New York Plaza
Suite 4500
New York, NY 10004-1562
www.macmillanlearning.com

International Edition
Macmillan Higher Education
Houndmills, Basingstoke
RG21 6XS, England
www.macmillanhighered.com/international
To Our Teachers
Paul R. Burton
Albert Finholt
William P. Jencks
Eugene P. Kennedy
Homer Knoss
Arthur Kornberg
I. Robert Lehman
Earl K. Nelson
Wesley A. Pearson
David E. Sheppard
Harold B. White
 About the Authors

David L. Nelson, born in Fairmont, Minnesota, received his BS in

chemistry and biology from St. Olaf College in 1964 and earned his PhD in
biochemistry at Stanford Medical School, under Arthur Kornberg. He was a
postdoctoral fellow at the Harvard Medical School with Eugene P. Kennedy,
who was one of Albert Lehninger’s first graduate students. Nelson joined the
faculty of the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1971 and became a full
professor of biochemistry in 1982. He was for eight years Director of the
Center for Biology Education at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He
became Professor Emeritus in 2013.
Nelson’s research focused on the signal transductions that regulate ciliary
motion and exocytosis in the protozoan Paramecium. He has a distinguished
record as a lecturer and research supervisor. For 43 years he taught (with
Mike Cox) an intensive survey of biochemistry for advanced biochemistry
undergraduates in the life sciences. He has also taught a survey of
biochemistry for nursing students, as well as graduate courses on membrane
structure and function and on molecular neurobiology. He has received
awards for his outstanding teaching, including the Dreyfus Teacher–Scholar
Award, the Atwood Distinguished Professorship, and the Underkofler
Excellence in Teaching Award from the University of Wisconsin System. In
1991–1992 he was a visiting professor of chemistry and biology at Spelman
College. Nelson’s second love is history, and in his dotage he teaches the
history of biochemistry and collects antique scientific instruments for use in
the Madison Science Museum, of which he is the founding president.

Michael M. Cox was born in Wilmington, Delaware. In his first

biochemistry course, the first edition of Lehninger’s Biochemistry was a
major influence in refocusing his fascination with biology and inspiring him
to pursue a career in biochemistry. After graduating from the University of
Delaware in 1974, Cox went to Brandeis University to do his doctoral work
with William P. Jencks, and then to Stanford in 1979 for postdoctoral study
with I. Robert Lehman. He moved to the University of Wisconsin–Madison
in 1983 and became a full professor of biochemistry in 1992.
Cox’s doctoral research was on general acid and base catalysis as a model
for enzyme-catalyzed reactions. At Stanford, he began work on the enzymes
involved in genetic recombination. The work focused particularly on the
RecA protein, designing purification and assay methods that are still in use,
and illuminating the process of DNA branch migration. Exploration of the
enzymes of genetic recombination has remained a central theme of his
research.

David L. Nelson and Michael M. Cox.

[Source: Robin Davies, UW–Madison Biochemistry MediaLab.]

Mike Cox has coordinated a large and active research team at Wisconsin,
investigating the enzymology, topology, and energetics of the
recombinational DNA repair of double-strand breaks in DNA. The work has
focused on the bacterial RecA protein, a wide range of proteins that play
auxiliary roles in recombinational DNA repair, the molecular basis of
extreme resistance to ionizing radiation, directed evolution of new
phenotypes in bacteria, and the applications of all of this work to
biotechnology.
 For more than three decades he has taught a survey of biochemistry to
undergraduates and has lectured in graduate courses on DNA structure and
topology, protein-DNA interactions, and the biochemistry of recombination.
More recent projects are the organization of a new course on professional
responsibility for first-year graduate students and establishment of a
systematic program to draw talented biochemistry undergraduates into the
laboratory at an early stage of their college career. He has received awards for
both his teaching and his research, including the Dreyfus Teacher–Scholar
Award, the 1989 Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry, and the 2009
Regents Teaching Excellence Award from the University of Wisconsin. He is
also highly active in national efforts to provide new guidelines for
undergraduate biochemistry education. Cox’s hobbies include turning 18
acres of Wisconsin farmland into an arboretum, wine collecting, and assisting
in the design of laboratory buildings.
 A Note on the Nature of
Science

I
n this twenty-first century, a typical science education often leaves the
philosophical underpinnings of science unstated, or relies on
oversimplified definitions. As you contemplate a career in science, it may
be useful to consider once again the terms science, scientist, and scientific
method.
Science is both a way of thinking about the natural world and the sum of
the information and theory that result from such thinking. The power and
success of science flow directly from its reliance on ideas that can be tested:
information on natural phenomena that can be observed, measured, and
reproduced and theories that have predictive value. The progress of science
rests on a foundational assumption that is often unstated but crucial to the
enterprise: that the laws governing forces and phenomena existing in the
universe are not subject to change. The Nobel laureate Jacques Monod
referred to this underlying assumption as the “postulate of objectivity.” The
natural world can therefore be understood by applying a process of inquiry—
the scientific method. Science could not succeed in a universe that played
tricks on us. Other than the postulate of objectivity, science makes no
inviolate assumptions about the natural world. A useful scientific idea is one
that (1) has been or can be reproducibly substantiated, (2) can be used to
accurately predict new phenomena, and (3) focuses on the natural world or
universe.
Scientific ideas take many forms. The terms that scientists use to describe
these forms have meanings quite different from those applied by
nonscientists. A hypothesis is an idea or assumption that provides a
reasonable and testable explanation for one or more observations, but it may
lack extensive experimental substantiation. A scientific theory is much more
than a hunch. It is an idea that has been substantiated to some extent and
provides an explanation for a body of experimental observations. A theory
can be tested and built upon and is thus a basis for further advance and
innovation. When a scientific theory has been repeatedly tested and validated
on many fronts, it can be accepted as a fact.
In one important sense, what constitutes science or a scientific idea is
defined by whether or not it is published in the scientific literature after peer
review by other working scientists. As of late 2014, about 34,500 peer-
reviewed scientific journals worldwide were publishing some 2.5 million
articles each year, a continuing rich harvest of information that is the
birthright of every human being.
Scientists are individuals who rigorously apply the scientific method to
understand the natural world. Merely having an advanced degree in a
scientific discipline does not make one a scientist, nor does the lack of such a
degree prevent one from making important scientific contributions. A
scientist must be willing to challenge any idea when new findings demand it.
The ideas that a scientist accepts must be based on measurable, reproducible
observations, and the scientist must report these observations with complete
honesty.
The scientific method is a collection of paths, all of which may lead to
scientific discovery. In the hypothesis and experiment path, a scientist poses a
hypothesis, then subjects it to experimental test. Many of the processes that
biochemists work with every day were discovered in this manner. The DNA
structure elucidated by James Watson and Francis Crick led to the hypothesis
that base pairing is the basis for information transfer in polynucleotide
synthesis. This hypothesis helped inspire the discovery of DNA and RNA
polymerases.
Watson and Crick produced their DNA structure through a process of
model building and calculation. No actual experiments were involved,
although the model building and calculations used data collected by other
scientists. Many adventurous scientists have applied the process of
exploration and observation as a path to discovery. Historical voyages of
discovery (Charles Darwin’s 1831 voyage on H.M.S. Beagle among them)
helped to map the planet, catalog its living occupants, and change the way we
view the world. Modern scientists follow a similar path when they explore
the ocean depths or launch probes to other planets. An analog of hypothesis
and experiment is hypothesis and deduction. Crick reasoned that there must
be an adaptor molecule that facilitated translation of the information in
messenger RNA into protein. This adaptor hypothesis led to the discovery of
transfer RNA by Mahlon Hoagland and Paul Zamecnik.
Not all paths to discovery involve planning. Serendipity often plays a
role. The discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1928 and of RNA
catalysts by Thomas Cech in the early 1980s were both chance discoveries,
albeit by scientists well prepared to exploit them. Inspiration can also lead to
important advances. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR), now a central part
of biotechnology, was developed by Kary Mullis after a flash of inspiration
during a road trip in northern California in 1983.
These many paths to scientific discovery can seem quite different, but
they have some important things in common. They are focused on the natural
world. They rely on reproducible observation and/or experiment. All of the
ideas, insights, and experimental facts that arise from these endeavors can be
tested and reproduced by scientists anywhere in the world. All can be used by
other scientists to build new hypotheses and make new discoveries. All lead
to information that is properly included in the realm of science.
Understanding our universe requires hard work. At the same time, no human
endeavor is more exciting and potentially rewarding than trying, with
occasional success, to understand some part of the natural world.
 Preface

W
ith the advent of increasingly robust technologies that provide
cellular and organismal views of molecular processes, progress in
biochemistry continues apace, providing both new wonders and new
challenges. The image on our cover depicts an active spliceosome, one of the
largest molecular machines in a eukaryotic cell, and one that is only now
yielding to modern structural analysis. It is an example of our current
understanding of life at the level of molecular structure. The image is a
snapshot from a highly complex set of reactions, in better focus than ever
before. But in the cell, this is only one of many steps linked spatially and
temporally to many other complex processes that remain to be unraveled and
eventually described in future editions. Our goal in this seventh edition of
Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, as always, is to strike a balance: to
include new and exciting research findings without making the book
overwhelming for students. The primary criterion for inclusion of an advance
is that the new finding helps to illustrate an important principle of
biochemistry.
With every revision of this textbook, we have striven to maintain the
qualities that made the original Lehninger text a classic: clear writing, careful
explanations of difficult concepts, and insightful communication to students
of the ways in which biochemistry is understood and practiced today. We
have coauthored this text and taught introductory biochemistry together for
three decades. Our thousands of students at the University of Wisconsin–
Madison over those years have been an endless source of ideas on how to
present biochemistry more clearly; they have enlightened and inspired us. We
hope that this seventh edition of Lehninger will, in turn, enlighten current
students of biochemistry everywhere, and inspire all of them to love
biochemistry as we do.

NEW Leading-Edge Science

Among the new or substantially updated topics in this edition are:
■ Synthetic cells and disease genomics (Chapter 1)
■ Intrinsically disordered protein segments (Chapter 4) and their importance
in signaling (Chapter 12)
■ Pre–steady state enzyme kinetics (Chapter 6)
■ Gene annotation (Chapter 9)
■ Gene editing with CRISPR (Chapter 9)
■ Membrane trafficking and dynamics (Chapter 11)
 Photos: (a) Pr. G. Giménez-Martín/Science Source. (b) Karen Meaburn and
Tom Misteli/National Cancer Institute.
Chromosomal organization in the eukaryotic nucleus

■ Additional roles for NADH (Chapter 13)

■ Cellulose synthase complex (Chapter 20)
■ Specialized pro-resolving mediators (Chapter 21)
■ Peptide hormones: incretins and blood glucose; irisin and exercise (Chapter
23)
■ Chromosome territories (Chapter 24)
■ New details of eukaryotic DNA replication (Chapter 25)
■ Cap-snatching; spliceosome structure (Chapter 26)
■ Ribosome rescue; RNA editing update (Chapter 27)
■ New roles for noncoding RNAs (Chapters 26, 28)
■ RNA recognition motif (Chapter 28)

NEW Tools and Technology

The emerging tools of systems biology continue to transform our
understanding of biochemistry. These include both new laboratory methods
and large, public databases that have become indispensable to researchers.
New to this edition of Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry:
■ Next-generation DNA sequencing now includes ion semiconductor
sequencing (Ion Torrent) and single-molecule real-time (SMRT) sequencing
platforms, and the text discussion now follows the description of classical
Sanger sequencing (Chapter 8).
■ Gene editing by CRISPR is one of many updates to the discussion of
genomics (Chapter 9).
■ LIPID MAPS database and system of classifying lipids is included in the
discussion of lipidomics (Chapter 10).
■ Cryo-electron microscopy is described in a new box (Chapter 19).
■ Ribosome profiling to determine which genes are being translated at any
given moment, and many related technologies, are included to illustrate the
versatility and power of deep DNA sequencing (Chapter 27).
 Photo: © Alberto Bartesaghi, PhD.
Structure of the GroEL chaperone protein, as determined by cryo-EM

■ Online data resources such as NCBI, PDB, SCOP2, KEGG, and BLAST,
mentioned in the text, are listed in the back endpapers for easy reference.

NEW Consolidation of Plant Metabolism

All of plant metabolism is now consolidated into a single chapter, Chapter
20, separate from the discussion of oxidative phosphorylation in Chapter 19.
Chapter 20 includes light-driven ATP synthesis, carbon fixation,
photorespiration, the glyoxylate cycle, starch and cellulose synthesis, and
regulatory mechanisms that ensure integration of all of these activities
throughout the plant.

Photo: © Courtesy Dr. Candace H. Haigler, North Carolina State University

and Dr. Mark Grimson, Texas Tech University.
Model for the synthesis of cellulose

Medical Insights and Applications

This icon is used throughout the book to denote material of special
medical interest. As teachers, our goal is for students to learn
biochemistry and to understand its relevance to a healthier life and a healthier
planet. Many sections explore what we know about the molecular
mechanisms of disease. The new and updated medical topics in this edition
are:
■ UPDATED Lactase and lactose intolerance (Chapter 7)
■ NEW Guillain-Barré syndrome and gangliosides (Chapter 10)
■ NEW Golden Rice Project to prevent diseases of vitamin A deficiency
(Chapter 10)
■ UPDATED Multidrug resistance transporters and their importance in
clinical medicine (Chapter 11)
■ NEW Insight into cystic fibrosis and its treatment (Chapter 11)

Effects of gut microbe metabolism on health

■ UPDATED Colorectal cancer: multistep progression (Chapter 12)

■ NEW Newborn screening for acyl-carnitine to diagnose mitochondrial
disease (Chapter 17)
■ NEW Mitochondrial diseases, mitochondrial donation, and “three-parent
babies” (Chapter 19)
■ UPDATED Cholesterol metabolism, plaque formation, and atherosclerosis
(Chapter 21)
■ UPDATED Cytochrome P-450 enzymes and drug interactions (Chapter
21)
■ UPDATED Ammonia toxicity in the brain (Chapter 22)
■ NEW Xenobiotics as endocrine disruptors (Chapter 23)

Special Theme: Metabolic Integration, Obesity,

and Diabetes
Obesity and its medical consequences, including cardiovascular disease and
diabetes, are fast becoming epidemic in the industrialized world, and
throughout this edition we include new material on the biochemical
connections between obesity and health. Our focus on diabetes provides an
integrating theme throughout the chapters on metabolism and its control.
Some of the topics that highlight the interplay of metabolism, obesity, and
diabetes are:
■ Acidosis in untreated diabetes (Chapter 2)
■ Defective protein folding, amyloid deposition in the pancreas, and diabetes
(Chapter 4)
■ UPDATED Blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin in the diagnosis and
treatment of diabetes (Box 7-1)
■ Advanced glycation end products (AGEs): their role in the pathology of
advanced diabetes (Box 7-1)
■ Defective glucose and water transport in two forms of diabetes (Box 11-1)
■ NEW Na+-glucose transporter and the use of gliflozins in the treatment of
type 2 diabetes (Chapter 11)
■ Glucose uptake deficiency in type 1 diabetes (Chapter 14)
■ MODY: a rare form of diabetes (Box 15-3)
■ Ketone body overproduction in diabetes and starvation (Chapter 17)
■ NEW Breakdown of amino acids: methylglyoxal as a contributor to type 2
diabetes (Chapter 18)
■ A rare form of diabetes resulting from defects in mitochondria of
pancreatic ψ cells (Chapter 19)
■ Thiazolidinedione-stimulated glyceroneogenesis in type 2 diabetes
(Chapter 21)
■ Role of insulin in countering high blood glucose (Chapter 23)
■ Secretion of insulin by pancreatic φ cells in response to changes in blood
glucose (Chapter 23)
■ How insulin was discovered and purified (Box 23-1)
■ NEW AMP-activated protein kinase in the hypothalamus in integration of
hormonal inputs from gut, muscle, and adipose tissues (Chapter 23)
■ UPDATED Role of mTORC1 in regulating cell growth (Chapter 23)
■ NEW Brown and beige adipose as thermogenic tissues (Chapter 23)
■ NEW Exercise and the stimulation of irisin release and weight loss
(Chapter 23)
■ NEW Short-term eating behavior influenced by ghrelin, PYY3–36, and
cannabinoids (Chapter 23)
■ NEW Role of microbial symbionts in the gut in influencing energy
metabolism and adipogenesis (Chapter 23)
■ Tissue insensitivity to insulin in type 2 diabetes (Chapter 23)
■ UPDATED Management of type 2 diabetes with diet, exercise,
medication, and surgery (Chapter 23)

Special Theme: Evolution

Every time a biochemist studies a developmental pathway in nematodes,
identifies key parts of an enzyme active site by determining which parts are
conserved among species, or searches for the gene underlying a human
genetic disease, he or she is relying on evolutionary theory. Funding agencies
support work on nematodes with the expectation that the insights gained will
be relevant to humans. The conservation of functional residues in an enzyme
active site telegraphs the shared history of all organisms on the planet. More
often than not, the search for a disease gene is a sophisticated exercise in
phylogenetics. Evolution is thus a foundational concept for our discipline.
Some of the many areas that discuss biochemistry from an evolutionary
viewpoint:
■ Changes in hereditary instructions that allow evolution (Chapter 1)
■ Origins of biomolecules in chemical evolution (Chapter 1)
■ RNA or RNA precursors as the first genes and catalysts (Chapters 1, 26)
■ Timetable of biological evolution (Chapter 1)
■ Use of inorganic fuels by early cells (Chapter 1)
■ Evolution of eukaryotes from simpler cells (endosymbiont theory)
(Chapters 1, 19, 20)
■ Protein sequences and evolutionary trees (Chapter 3)
■ Role of evolutionary theory in protein structure comparisons (Chapter 4)
■ Evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria (Chapter 6)
■ Evolutionary explanation for adenine nucleotides being components of
many coenzymes (Chapter 8)
■ Comparative genomics and human evolution (Chapter 9)
■ Using genomics to understand Neanderthal ancestry (Box 9-3)
■ Evolutionary relationships between V-type and F-type ATPases (Chapter
11)
■ Universal features of GPCR systems (Chapter 12)
■ Evolutionary divergence of β-oxidation enzymes (Chapter 17)
■ Evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis (Chapter 20)
■ NEW Presence of organelles, including nuclei, in planctomycete bacteria
(Box 22-1)
■ Role of transposons in evolution of the immune system (Chapter 25)
■ Common evolutionary origin of transposons, retroviruses, and introns
(Chapter 26)
■ Consolidated discussion of the RNA world hypothesis (Chapter 26)
■ Natural variations in the genetic code—exceptions that prove the rule (Box
27-1)
■ Natural and experimental expansion of the genetic code (Box 27-2)
■ Regulatory genes in development and speciation (Box 28-1)
 Regulation of feeding behavior

Lehninger Teaching Hallmarks

Students encountering biochemistry for the first time often have difficulty
with two key aspects of the course: approaching quantitative problems and
drawing on what they have learned in organic chemistry to help them
understand biochemistry. These same students must also learn a complex
language, with conventions that are often unstated. To help students cope
with these challenges, we provide the following study aids:

Focus on Chemical Logic

■ Section 13.2, Chemical Logic and Common Biochemical Reactions,
discusses the common biochemical reaction types that underlie all metabolic
reactions, helping students to connect organic chemistry with biochemistry.
■ Chemical logic figures highlight the conservation of mechanism and
illustrate patterns that make learning pathways easier. Chemical logic figures
are provided for each of the central metabolic pathways, including glycolysis
(Fig. 14-3), the citric acid cycle (Fig. 16-7), and fatty acid oxidation (Fig. 17-
9).
■ Mechanism figures feature step-by-step descriptions to help students
understand the reaction process. These figures use a consistent set of
conventions introduced and explained in detail with the first enzyme
mechanism encountered (chymotrypsin, Fig. 6-23).
■ Further reading Students and instructors can find more about the topics in
the text in the Further Reading list for each chapter, which can be accessed at
www.macmillanlearning.com/LehningerBiochemistry7e as well as through
the Sapling Plus for Lehninger platform. Each list cites accessible reviews,
classic papers, and research articles that will help users dive deeper into both
the history and current state of biochemistry.

Alcohol dehydrogenase reaction mechanism

Clear Art
■ Smarter renditions of classic figures are easier to interpret and learn
from.
■ Molecular structures are created specifically for this book, using shapes
and color schemes that are internally consistent.
■ Figures with numbered, annotated steps help explain complex processes.
■ Summary figures help students keep the big picture in mind while
learning the specifics.

CRISPR/Cas9 structure

Problem-Solving Tools
■ In-text Worked Examples help students improve their quantitative
problem-solving skills, taking them through some of the most difficult
equations.
■ More than 600 end-of-chapter problems give students further
opportunity to practice what they have learned.
■ Data Analysis Problems (one at the end of each chapter), contributed by
Brian White of the University of Massachusetts Boston, encourage students
to synthesize what they have learned and apply their knowledge to
interpretation of data from the research literature.

Key Conventions
Many of the conventions that are so necessary for understanding each
biochemical topic and the biochemical literature are broken out of the text
and highlighted. These Key Conventions include clear statements of many
assumptions and conventions that students are often expected to assimilate
without being told (for example, peptide sequences are written from amino-
to carboxyl-terminal end, left to right; nucleotide sequences are written from
5′ to 3′ end, left to right).
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
“gives me the tongue of instruction, so as to know in season when it
is requisite to speak a word;”[1118] not in the way of testimony alone,
but also in the way of question and answer. “And the instruction of
the Lord opens my mouth.”[1119] It is the prerogative of the Gnostic,
then, to know how to make use of speech, and when, and how, and
to whom. And already the apostle, by saying, “After the rudiments of
the world, and not after Christ,”[1120] makes the asseveration that the
Hellenic teaching is elementary, and that of Christ perfect, as we
have already intimated before.
“Now the wild olive is inserted into the fatness of the olive,”[1121]
and is indeed of the same species as the cultivated olives. For the
graft uses as soil the tree in which it is engrafted. Now all the plants
sprouted forth simultaneously in consequence of the divine order.
Wherefore also, though the wild olive be wild, it crowns the Olympic
victors. And the elm teaches the vine to be fruitful, by leading it up to
a height. Now we see that wild trees attract more nutriment, because
they cannot ripen. The wild trees, therefore, have less power of
secretion than those that are cultivated. And the cause of their
wildness is the want of the power of secretion. The engrafted olive
accordingly receives more nutriment from its growing in the wild one;
and it gets accustomed, as it were, to secrete the nutriment,
becoming thus assimilated[1122] to the fatness of the cultivated tree.
So also the philosopher, resembling the wild olive, in having much
that is undigested, on account of his devotion to the search, his
propensity to follow, and his eagerness to seize the fatness of the
truth; if he get besides the divine power, through faith, by being
transplanted into the good and mild knowledge, like the wild olive,
engrafted in the truly fair and merciful Word, he both assimilates the
nutriment that is supplied, and becomes a fair and good olive tree.
For engrafting makes worthless shoots noble, and compels the
barren to be fruitful by the art of culture and by gnostic skill.

Different modes of engrafting illustrative of different kinds of

conversion.
 They say that engrafting is effected in four modes: one, that in
which the graft must be fitted in between the wood and the bark;
resembling the way in which we instruct plain people belonging to
the Gentiles, who receive the word superficially. Another is, when the
wood is cleft, and there is inserted in it the cultivated branch. And
this applies to the case of those who have studied philosophy; for on
cutting through their dogmas, the acknowledgment of the truth is
produced in them. So also in the case of the Jews, by opening up
the Old Testament, the new and noble plant of the olive is inserted.
The third mode of engrafting applies to rustics and heretics, who are
brought by force to the truth. For after smoothing off both suckers
with a sharp pruning-hook, till the pith is laid bare, but not wounded,
they are bound together. And the fourth is that form of engrafting
called budding. For a bud (eye) is cut out of a trunk of a good sort, a
circle being drawn round in the bark along with it, of the size of the
palm. Then the trunk is stripped, to suit the eye, over an equal
circumference. And so the graft is inserted, tied round, and daubed
with clay, the bud being kept uninjured and unstained. This is the
style of gnostic teaching, which is capable of looking into things
themselves. This mode is, in truth, of most service in the case of
cultivated trees. And “the engrafting into the good olive” mentioned
by the apostle, may be [engrafting into] Christ Himself; the
uncultivated and unbelieving nature being transplanted into Christ—
that is, in the case of those who believe in Christ. But it is better [to
understand it] of the engrafting[1123] of each one’s faith in the soul
itself. For also the Holy Spirit is thus somehow transplanted by
distribution, according to the circumscribed capacity of each one, but
without being circumscribed.

Knowledge and love.

Now, discoursing on knowledge, Solomon speaks thus: “For
wisdom is resplendent and fadeless, and is easily beheld by those
who love her. She is beforehand in making herself known to those
who desire her. He that rises early for her shall not toil wearily. For to
think about her is the perfection of good sense. And he that keeps
vigils for her shall quickly be relieved of anxiety. For she goes about,
herself seeking those worthy of her (for knowledge belongs not to
all); and in all ways she benignly shows herself to them.”[1124] Now
the paths are the conduct of life, and the variety that exists in the
covenants. Presently he adds: “And in every thought she meets
them,”[1125] being variously contemplated, that is, by all discipline.
Then he subjoins, adducing love, which perfects by syllogistic
reasoning and true propositions, drawing thus a most convincing and
true inference, “For the beginning of her is the truest desire of
instruction,” that is, of knowledge; “prudence is the love of
instruction, and love is the keeping of its laws; and attention to its
laws is the confirmation of immortality; and immortality causes
nearness to God. The desire of wisdom leads, then, to the
kingdom.”[1126]
For he teaches, as I think, that true instruction is desire for
knowledge; and the practical exercise of instruction produces love of
knowledge. And love is the keeping of the commandments which
lead to knowledge. And the keeping of them is the establishment of
the commandments, from which immortality results. “And immortality
brings us near to God.”

True knowledge found in the teaching of Christ alone.

If, then, the love of knowledge produces immortality, and leads the
kingly man near to God the King, knowledge ought to be sought till it
is found. Now seeking is an effort at grasping, and finds the subject
by means of certain signs. And discovery is the end and cessation of
inquiry, which has now its object in its grasp. And this is knowledge.
And this discovery, properly so called, is knowledge, which is the
apprehension of the object of search. And they say that a proof is
either the antecedent, or the coincident, or the consequent. The
discovery, then, of what is sought respecting God, is the teaching
through the Son; and the proof of our Saviour being the very Son of
God is the prophecies which preceded His coming, announcing Him;
and the testimonies regarding Him which attended His birth in the
world; in addition, His powers proclaimed and openly shown after His
ascension.
 The proof of the truth being with us, is the fact of the Son of God
Himself having taught us. For if in every inquiry these universals are
found, a person and a subject, that which is truly the truth is shown
to be in our hands alone. For the Son of God is the person of the
truth which is exhibited; and the subject is the power of faith, which
prevails over the opposition of every one whatever, and the assault
of the whole world.
But since this is confessedly established by eternal facts and
reasons, and each one who thinks that there is no Providence has
already been seen to deserve punishment and not contradiction, and
is truly an atheist, it is our aim to discover what doing, and in what
manner living, we shall reach the knowledge of the sovereign God,
and how, honouring the Divinity, we may become authors of our own
salvation. Knowing and learning, not from the Sophists, but from God
Himself, what is well-pleasing to Him, we endeavour to do what is
just and holy. Now it is well-pleasing to Him that we should be saved;
and salvation is effected through both well-doing and knowledge, of
both of which the Lord is the teacher.
If, then, according to Plato, it is only possible to learn the truth
either from God or from the progeny of God, with reason we,
selecting testimonies from the divine oracles, boast of learning the
truth by the Son of God, prophesied at first, and then explained.

Philosophy and heresies, aids in discovering the truth.

But the things which co-operate in the discovery of truth are not to
be rejected. Philosophy, accordingly, which proclaims a Providence,
and the recompense of a life of felicity, and the punishment, on the
other hand, of a life of misery, teaches theology comprehensively;
but it does not preserve accuracy and particular points; for neither
respecting the Son of God, nor respecting the economy of
Providence, does it treat similarly with us; for it did not know the
worship of God.
Wherefore also the heresies of the Barbarian philosophy, although
they speak of one God, though they sing the praises of Christ, speak
without accuracy, not in accordance with truth; for they discover
another God, and receive Christ not as the prophecies deliver. But
their false dogmas, while they oppose the conduct that is according
to the truth, are against us. For instance, Paul circumcised Timothy
because of the Jews who believed, in order that those who had
received their training from the law might not revolt from the faith
through his breaking such points of the law as were understood
more carnally, knowing right well that circumcision does not justify;
for he professed that “all things were for all” by conformity,
preserving those of the dogmas that were essential, “that he might
gain all.”[1127] And Daniel, under the king of the Persians, wore “the
chain,”[1128] though he despised not the affliction of the people.
The liars, then, in reality are not those who for the sake of the
scheme of salvation conform, nor those who err in minute points, but
those who are wrong in essentials, and reject the Lord, and as far as
in them lies deprive the Lord of the true teaching; who do not quote
or deliver the Scriptures in a manner worthy of God and of the Lord;
for the deposit rendered to God, according to the teaching of the
Lord by His apostles, is the understanding and the practice of the
godly tradition. “And what ye hear in the ear”—that is, in a hidden
manner, and in a mystery (for such things are figuratively said to be
spoken in the ear)—“proclaim,” He says, “on the house-tops,”
understanding them sublimely, and delivering them in a lofty strain,
and according to the canon of the truth explaining the Scriptures; for
neither prophecy nor the Saviour Himself announced the divine
mysteries simply so as to be easily apprehended by all and sundry,
but expressed them in parables. The apostles accordingly say of the
Lord, that “He spake all things in parables, and without a parable
spake He nothing unto them;”[1129] and if “all things were made by
Him, and without Him was not anything made that was made,”[1130]
consequently also prophecy and the law were by Him, and were
spoken by Him in parables. “But all things are right,” says the
Scripture,[1131] “before those who understand,” that is, those who
receive and observe, according to the ecclesiastical rule, the
exposition of the Scriptures explained by Him; and the ecclesiastical
rule is the concord and harmony of the law and the prophets in the
covenant delivered at the coming of the Lord. Knowledge is then
followed by practical wisdom, and practical wisdom by self-control:
for it may be said that practical wisdom is divine knowledge, and
exists in those who are deified; but that self-control is mortal, and
subsists in those who philosophize, and are not yet wise. But if virtue
is divine, so is also the knowledge of it; while self-control is a sort of
imperfect wisdom which aspires after wisdom, and exerts itself
laboriously, and is not contemplative. As certainly righteousness,
being human, is, as being a common thing, subordinate to holiness,
which subsists through the divine righteousness;[1132] for the
righteousness of the perfect man does not rest on civil contracts, or
on the prohibition of law, but flows from his own spontaneous action
and his love to God.

Reasons for the meaning of Scripture being veiled.

For many reasons, then, the Scriptures hide the sense. First, that
we may become inquisitive, and be ever on the watch for the
discovery of the words of salvation. Then it was not suitable for all to
understand, so that they might not receive harm in consequence of
taking in another sense the things declared for salvation by the Holy
Spirit. Wherefore the holy mysteries of the prophecies are veiled in
the parables—preserved for chosen men, selected to knowledge in
consequence of their faith; for the style of the Scriptures is parabolic.
Wherefore also the Lord, who was not of the world, came as one
who was of the world to men. For He was clothed with all virtue; and
it was His aim to lead man, the foster-child of the world, up to the
objects of intellect, and to the most essential truths by knowledge,
from one world to another.
Wherefore also He employed metaphorical description; for such is
the parable,—a narration based on some subject which is not the
principal subject, but similar to the principal subject, and leading him
who understands to what is the true and principal thing; or, as some
say, a mode of speech presenting with vigour, by means of other
circumstances, what is the principal subject.
And now also the whole economy which prophesied of the Lord
appears indeed a parable to those who know not the truth, when one
speaks and the rest hear that the Son of God—of Him who made the
universe—assumed flesh, and was conceived in the virgin’s womb
(as His material body was produced), and subsequently, as was the
case, suffered and rose again, being “to the Jews a stumbling-block,
and to the Greeks foolishness,” as the apostle says.
But on the Scriptures being opened up, and declaring the truth to
those who have ears, they proclaim the very suffering endured by
the flesh, which the Lord assumed, to be “the power and wisdom of
God.” And finally, the parabolic style of Scripture being of the
greatest antiquity, as we have shown, abounded most, as was to be
expected, in the prophets, in order that the Holy Spirit might show
that the philosophers among the Greeks, and the wise men among
the Barbarians besides, were ignorant of the future coming of the
Lord, and of the mystic teaching that was to be delivered by Him.
Rightly then, prophecy, in proclaiming the Lord, in order not to seem
to some to blaspheme while speaking what was beyond the ideas of
the multitude, embodied its declarations in expressions capable of
leading to other conceptions. Now all the prophets who foretold the
Lord’s coming, and the holy mysteries accompanying it, were
persecuted and killed. As also the Lord Himself, in explaining the
Scriptures to them, and His disciples who preached the word like
Him, and subsequently to His life used parables.[1133] Whence also
Peter, in his Preaching, speaking of the apostles, says: “But we,
unrolling the books of the prophets which we possess, who name
Jesus Christ, partly in parables, partly in enigmas, partly expressly
and in so many words, find His coming and death, and cross, and all
the rest of the tortures which the Jews inflicted on Him, and His
resurrection and assumption to heaven previous to the capture[1134]
of Jerusalem. As it is written, These things are all that He behoved to
suffer, and what should be after Him. Recognising them, therefore,
we have believed in God in consequence of what is written
respecting Him.”
And after a little again he draws the inference that the Scriptures
owed their origin to the divine providence, asserting as follows: “For
we know that God enjoined these things, and we say nothing apart
from the Scriptures.”
 Now the Hebrew dialect, like all the rest, has certain properties,
consisting in a mode of speech which exhibits the national character.
Dialect is accordingly defined as a style of speech produced by the
national character. But prophecy is not marked by those dialects. For
in the Hellenic writings, what are called changes of figures purposely
produce obscurations, deduced after the style of our prophecies. But
this is effected through the voluntary departure from direct speech
which takes place in metrical or offhand diction. A figure, then, is a
form of speech transferred from what is literal to what is not literal,
for the sake of the composition, and on account of a diction useful in
speech.
But prophecy does not employ figurative forms in the expressions
for the sake of beauty of diction. But from the fact that truth
appertains not to all, it is veiled in manifold ways, causing the light to
arise only on those who are initiated into knowledge, who seek the
truth through love. The proverb, according to the Barbarian
philosophy, is called a mode of prophecy, and the parable is so
called, and the enigma in addition. Further also, they are called
“wisdom;” and again, as something different from it, “instruction and
words of prudence,” and “turnings of words,” and “true
righteousness;” and again, “teaching to direct judgment,” and
“subtlety to the simple,” which is the result of training, “and
perception and thought,” with which the young catechumen is
imbued.[1135] “He who hears these prophets, being wise, will be
wiser. And the intelligent man will acquire rule, and will understand a
parable and a dark saying, the words and enigmas of the wise.”[1136]
And if it was the case that the Hellenic dialects received their
appellation from Hellen, the son of Zeus, surnamed Deucalion, from
the chronology which we have already exhibited, it is comparatively
easy to perceive by how many generations the dialects that obtained
among the Greeks are posterior to the language of the Hebrews.
But as the work advances, we shall in each section, noting the
figures of speech mentioned above by the prophet,[1137] exhibit the
gnostic mode of life, showing it systematically according to the rule
of the truth.
 Did not the Power also, that appeared to Hermas in the Vision, in
the form of the Church, give for transcription the book which she
wished to be made known to the elect? And this, he says, he
transcribed to the letter, without finding how to complete the
syllables. And this signified that the Scripture is clear to all, when
taken according to the bare reading; and that this is the faith which
occupies the place of the rudiments. Wherefore also the figurative
expression is employed, “reading according to the letter;” while we
understand that the gnostic unfolding of the Scriptures, when faith
has already reached an advanced state, is likened to reading
according to the syllables.
Further, Esaias the prophet is ordered to take “a new book, and
write in it”[1138] certain things: the Spirit prophesying that through the
exposition of the Scriptures there would come afterwards the sacred
knowledge, which at that period was still unwritten, because not yet
known. For it was spoken from the beginning to those only who
understand. Now that the Saviour has taught the apostles, the
unwritten rendering of the written [Scripture] has been handed down
also to us, inscribed by the power of God on hearts new, according
to the renovation of the book. Thus those of highest repute among
the Greeks, dedicate the fruit of the pomegranate to Hermes, who
they say is speech, on account of its interpretation. For speech
conceals much. Rightly, therefore, Jesus the son of Nave saw
Moses, when taken up [to heaven], double,—one Moses with the
angels, and one on the mountains, honoured with burial in their
ravines. And Jesus saw this spectacle below, being elevated by the
Spirit, along also with Caleb. But both do not see similarly. But the
one descended with greater speed, as if the weight he carried was
great; while the other, on descending after him, subsequently related
the glory which he beheld, being able to perceive more than the
other, as having grown purer; the narrative, in my opinion, showing
that knowledge is not the privilege of all. Since some look at the
body of the Scriptures, the expressions and the names as to the
body of Moses; while others see through to the thoughts and what is
signified by the names, seeking the Moses that is with the angels.
 Many also of those who called to the Lord said, “Son of David,
have mercy on me.”[1139] A few, too, knew Him as the Son of God;
as Peter, whom also He pronounced blessed, “for flesh and blood
revealed not the truth to him, but His Father in heaven,”[1140]—
showing that the Gnostic recognises the Son of the Omnipotent, not
by His flesh conceived in the womb, but by the Father’s own power.
That it is therefore not only to those who read simply that the
acquisition of the truth is so difficult, but that not even to those whose
prerogative the knowledge of the truth is, is the contemplation of it
vouchsafed all at once, the history of Moses teaches, until,
accustomed to gaze, as the Hebrews on the glory of Moses, and the
prophets of Israel on the visions of angels, so we also become able
to look the splendours of truth in the face.
 CHAPTER XVI.
GNOSTIC EXPOSITION OF THE DECALOGUE.

Let the Decalogue be set forth cursorily by us as a specimen for

gnostic exposition.

The number “Ten.”

That ten is a sacred number, it is superfluous to say now. And if
the tables that were written were the work of God, they will be found
to exhibit physical creation. For by the “finger of God” is understood
the power of God, by which the creation of heaven and earth is
accomplished; of both of which the tables will be understood to be
symbols. For the writing and handiwork of God put on the table is the
creation of the world.
And the Decalogue, viewed as an image of heaven, embraces
sun and moon, stars, clouds, light, wind, water, air, darkness, fire.
This is the physical Decalogue of the heaven.
And the representation of the earth contains men, cattle, reptiles,
wild beasts; and of the inhabitants of the water, fishes and whales;
and again, of the winged tribes, those that are carnivorous, and
those that use mild food; and of plants likewise, both fruit-bearing
and barren. This is the physical Decalogue of the earth.
And the ark which held them[1141] will then be the knowledge of
divine and human things and wisdom.[1142]
And perhaps the two tables themselves may be the prophecy of
the two covenants. They were accordingly mystically renewed, as
ignorance along with sin abounded. The commandments are written,
then, doubly, as appears, for twofold spirits, the ruling and the
subject. “For the flesh lusteth against the Spirit, and the Spirit against
the flesh.”[1143]
And there is a ten in man himself: the five senses, and the power
of speech, and that of reproduction; and the eighth is the spiritual
principle communicated at his creation; and the ninth the ruling
faculty of the soul; and tenth, there is the distinctive characteristic of
the Holy Spirit, which comes to him through faith.
Besides, in addition to these ten human parts, the law appears to
give its injunctions[1144] to sight, and hearing, and smell, and touch,
and taste, and to the organs subservient to these, which are double
—the hands and the feet. For such is the formation of man. And the
soul is introduced, and previous to it the ruling faculty, by which we
reason, not produced in procreation; so that without it there is made
up the number ten, of the faculties by which all the activity of man is
carried out. For in order, straightway on man’s entering existence,
his life begins with sensations. We accordingly assert that rational
and ruling power is the cause of the constitution of the living
creature; also that this, the irrational part, is animated, and is a part
of it. Now the vital force, in which is comprehended the power of
nutrition and growth, and generally of motion, is assigned to the
carnal spirit, which has great susceptibility of motion, and passes in
all directions through the senses and the rest of the body, and
through the body is the primary subject of sensations. But the power
of choice, in which investigation, and study, and knowledge, reside,
belongs to the ruling faculty. But all the faculties are placed in
relation to one—the ruling faculty: it is through that man lives, and
lives in a certain way.
Through the corporeal spirit, then, man perceives, desires,
rejoices, is angry, is nourished, grows. It is by it, too, that thoughts
and conceptions advance to actions. And when it masters the
desires, the ruling faculty reigns.
The commandment, then, “Thou shalt not lust,” says, thou shalt
not serve the carnal spirit, but shalt rule over it; “for the flesh lusteth
against the Spirit,”[1145] and excites to disorderly conduct against
nature; “and the Spirit against the flesh” exercises sway, in order that
the conduct of the man may be according to nature.
Is not man, then, rightly said “to have been made in the image of
God?”—not in the form of his [corporeal] structure; but inasmuch as
God creates all things by the Word (λόγῳ), and the man who has
become a Gnostic performs good actions by the faculty of reason
(τῷ λογικῷ), properly therefore the two tables are also said to mean
the commandments that were given to the twofold spirits,—those
communicated before the law to that which was created, and to the
ruling faculty; and the movements of the senses are both copied in
the mind, and manifested in the activity which proceeds from the
body. For apprehension results from both combined. Again, as
sensation is related to the world of sense, so is thought to that of
intellect. And actions are twofold—those of thought, those of act.

The First Commandment.

The first commandment of the Decalogue shows that there is one
only Sovereign God;[1146] who led the people from the land of Egypt
through the desert to their fatherland; that they might apprehend His
power, as they were able, by means of the divine works, and
withdraw from the idolatry of created things, putting all their hope in
the true God.

The Second Commandment.

The second word[1147] intimated that men ought not to take and
confer the august power of God (which is the name, for this alone
were many even yet capable of learning), and transfer His title to
things created and vain, which human artificers have made, among
which “He that is” is not ranked. For in His uncreated identity, “He
that is” is absolutely alone.

The Fourth Commandment.

And the fourth[1148] word is that which intimates that the world
was created by God, and that He gave us the seventh day as a rest,
on account of the trouble that there is in life. For God is incapable of
weariness, and suffering, and want. But we who bear flesh need
rest. The seventh day, therefore, is proclaimed a rest—abstraction
from ills—preparing for the Primal Day,[1149] our true rest; which, in
truth, is the first creation of light, in which all things are viewed and
possessed. From this day the first wisdom and knowledge illuminate
us. For the light of truth—a light true, casting no shadow, is the Spirit
of God indivisibly divided to all, who are sanctified by faith, holding
the place of a luminary, in order to the knowledge of real existences.
By following Him, therefore, through our whole life, we become
impassible; and this is to rest.
Wherefore Solomon also says, that before heaven, and earth, and
all existences, Wisdom had arisen in the Almighty; the participation
of which—that which is by power, I mean, not that by essence—
teaches a man to know by apprehension things divine and human.
Having reached this point, we must mention these things by the way;
since the discourse has turned on the seventh and the eighth. For
the eighth may possibly turn out to be properly the seventh, and the
seventh manifestly the sixth, and the latter properly the Sabbath, and
the seventh a day of work. For the creation of the world was
concluded in six days. For the motion of the sun from solstice to
solstice is completed in six months—in the course of which, at one
time the leaves fall, and at another plants bud and seeds come to
maturity. And they say that the embryo is perfected exactly in the
sixth month, that is, in one hundred and eighty days in addition to the
two and a half, as Polybus the physician relates in his book On the
Eighth Month, and Aristotle the philosopher in his book On Nature.
Hence the Pythagoreans, as I think, reckon six the perfect number,
from the creation of the world, according to the prophet, and call it
Meseuthys[1150] and Marriage, from its being the middle of the even
numbers, that is, of ten and two. For it is manifestly at an equal
distance from both.
And as marriage generates from male and female, so six is
generated from the odd number three, which is called the masculine
number, and the even number two, which is considered the feminine.
For twice three are six.
Such, again, is the number of the most general motions,
according to which all origination takes place—up, down, to the right,
to the left, forward, backward. Rightly, then, they reckon the number
seven motherless and childless, interpreting the Sabbath, and
figuratively expressing the nature of the rest, in which “they neither
marry nor are given in marriage any more.”[1151] For neither by
taking from one number and adding to another of those within ten is
seven produced; nor when added to any number within the ten does
it make up any of them.
And they call eight a cube, counting the fixed sphere along with
the seven revolving ones, by which is produced “the great year,” as a
kind of period of recompense of what has been promised.
Thus the Lord, who ascended the mountain, the fourth,[1152]
becomes the sixth, and is illuminated all round with spiritual light, by
laying bare the power proceeding from Him, as far as those selected
to see were able to behold it, by the Seventh, the Voice, proclaimed
to be the Son of God; in order that they, persuaded respecting Him,
might have rest; while He by His birth, which was indicated by the six
conspicuously marked, becoming the eighth, might appear to be God
in a body of flesh, by displaying His power, being numbered indeed
as a man, but being concealed as to who He was. For six is
reckoned in the order of numbers, but the succession of the letters
acknowledges the character which is not written. In this case, in the
numbers themselves, each unit is preserved in its order up to seven
and eight. But in the number of the characters, Zeta becomes six
and Eta seven.
And the character[1153] having somehow slipped into writing,
should we follow it out thus, the seven became six, and the eight
seven.
Wherefore also man is said to have been made on the sixth day,
who became faithful to Him who is the sign (τῷ ἐπισήμῳ[1154]), so as
straightway to receive the rest of the Lord’s inheritance. Some such
thing also is indicated by the sixth hour in the scheme of salvation, in
which man was perfected. Further, of the eight, the intermediates are
seven; and of the seven, the intervals are shown to be six. For that is
another ground, in which seven glorifies eight, and “the heavens
declare to the heavens the glory of God.”[1155]
The sensible types of these, then, are the sounds we pronounce.
Thus the Lord Himself is called “Alpha and Omega, the beginning
and the end,”[1156] “by whom all things were made, and without
whom not even one thing was made.”[1157] God’s resting is not, then,
as some conceive, that God ceased from doing. For, being good, if
He should ever cease from doing good, then would He cease from
being God, which it is sacrilege even to say. The resting is, therefore,
the ordering that the order of created things should be preserved
inviolate, and that each of the creatures should cease from the
ancient disorder. For the creations on the different days followed in a
most important succession; so that all things brought into existence
might have honour from priority, created together in thought, but not
being of equal worth. Nor was the creation of each signified by the
voice, inasmuch as the creative work is said to have made them at
once. For something must needs have been named first. Wherefore
those things were announced first, from which came those that were
second, all things being originated together from one essence by
one power. For the will of God was one, in one identity. And how
could creation take place in time, seeing time was born along with
the things which exist?
And now the whole world of creatures born alive, and things that
grow, revolves in sevens. The first-born princes of the angels, who
have the greatest power, are seven. The mathematicians also say
that the planets, which perform their course around the earth, are
seven; by which the Chaldeans think that all which concerns mortal
life is effected through sympathy, in consequence of which they also
undertake to tell things respecting the future.
And of the fixed stars, the Pleiades are seven. And the Bears, by
the help of which agriculture and navigation are carried through,
consist of seven stars. And in periods of seven days the moon
undergoes its changes. In the first week she becomes half moon; in
the second, full moon; and in the third, in her wane, again half moon;
and in the fourth she disappears. Further, as Seleucus the
mathematician lays down, she has seven phases. First, from being
invisible she becomes crescent-shaped, then half moon, then
gibbous and full; and in her wane again gibbous, and in like manner
half moon and crescent-shaped.
 “On a seven-stringed lyre we shall sing new hymns,”

writes a poet of note, teaching us that the ancient lyre was seven-
toned. The organs of the senses situated on our face are also seven
—two eyes, two passages of hearing, two nostrils, and the seventh
the mouth.
And that the changes in the periods of life take place by sevens,
the Elegies of Solon teach thus:
“The child, while still an infant, in seven years,
Produces and puts forth its fence of teeth;
And when God seven years more completes,
He shows of puberty’s approach the signs;
And in the third, the beard on growing cheek
With down o’erspreads the bloom of changing skin;
And in the fourth septenniad, at his best
In strength, of manliness he shows the signs;
And in the fifth, of marriage, now mature,
And of posterity, the man bethinks;
Nor does he yet desire vain works to see.
The seventh and eighth septenniads see him now
In mind and speech mature, till fifty years;
And in the ninth he still has vigour left,
But strength and body are for virtue great
Less than of yore; when, seven years more, God brings
To end, then not too soon may he submit to die.”

Again, in diseases the seventh day is that of the crisis; and the
fourteenth, in which nature struggles against the causes of the
diseases. And a myriad such instances are adduced by Hermippus
of Berytus, in his book On the Number Seven, regarding it as holy.
And the blessed David delivers clearly to those who know the mystic
account of seven and eight, praising thus: “Our years were exercised
like a spider. The days of our years in them are seventy years; but if
in strength, eighty years. And that will be to reign.”[1158] That, then,
we may be taught that the world was originated, and not suppose
that God made it in time, prophecy adds: “This is the book of the
generation: also of the things in them, when they were created in the
day that God made heaven and earth.”[1159] For the expression
“when they were created” intimates an indefinite and dateless
production. But the expression “in the day that God made,” that is, in
and by which God made “all things,” and “without which not even
one thing was made,” points out the activity exerted by the Son. As
David says, “This is the day which the Lord hath made; let us be glad
and rejoice in it;”[1160] that is, in consequence of the knowledge
imparted by Him, let us celebrate the divine festival; for the Word
that throws light on things hidden, and by whom each created thing
came into life and being, is called day.
And, in fine, the Decalogue, by the letter Iota,[1161] signifies the
blessed name, presenting Jesus, who is the Word.

The Fifth Commandment.

Now the fifth in order is the command on the honour of father and
mother. And it clearly announces God as Father and Lord.
Wherefore also it calls those who know Him sons and gods. The
Creator of the universe is their Lord and Father; and the mother is
not, as some say, the essence from which we sprang, nor, as others
teach, the church, but the divine knowledge and wisdom, as
Solomon says, when he terms wisdom “the mother of the just,” and
says that it is desirable for its own sake. And the knowledge of all,
again, that is lovely and venerable, proceeds from God through the
Son.

The Seventh Commandment.

This is followed by the command respecting adultery. Now it is
adultery, if one, abandoning the ecclesiastical and true knowledge,
and the persuasion respecting God, accedes to false and
incongruous opinion, either by deifying any created object, or by
making an idol of anything that exists not, so as to overstep, or
rather step from, knowledge. And to the Gnostic false opinion is
foreign, as the true belongs to him, and is allied with him. Wherefore
the noble apostle calls one of the kinds of fornication, idolatry,[1162] in
following the prophet, who says: “[My people] hath committed
fornication with stock and stone. They have said to the stock, Thou
art my father; and to the stone, Thou hast begotten me.”[1163]

The Sixth Commandment.

Then follows the command about murder. Now murder is a sure
destruction. He, then, that wishes to extirpate the true doctrine of
God and of immortality, in order to introduce falsehood, alleging
either that the universe is not under Providence, or that the world is
uncreated, or affirming anything against true doctrine, is most
pernicious.

The Eighth Commandment.

And after this is the command respecting theft. As, then, he that
steals what is another’s, doing great wrong, rightly incurs ills suitable
to his deserts; so also does he, who arrogates to himself divine
works by the art of the statuary or the painter, and pronounces
himself to be the maker of animals and plants. Likewise those, too,
who mimic the true philosophy are thieves. Whether one be a
husbandman or the father of a child, he is an agent in depositing
seeds. But it is God who, ministering the growth and perfection of all
things, brings the things produced to what is in accordance with their
nature. But the most, in common also with the philosophers, attribute
growth and changes to the stars as the primary cause, robbing the
Father of the universe, as far as in them lies, of His tireless might.
The elements, however, and the stars—that is, the administrative
powers—are ordained for the accomplishment of what is essential to
the administration, and are influenced and moved by what is
commanded to them, in the way in which the Word of the Lord leads,
since it is the nature of the divine power to work all things secretly.
He, accordingly, who alleges that he has conceived or made
anything which pertains to creation, will suffer the punishment of his
impious audacity.

The Tenth Commandment.

 And the tenth is the command respecting all lusts. As, then, he
who entertains unbecoming desires is called to account; in the same
way he is not allowed to desire things false, or to suppose that, of
created objects, those that are animate have power of themselves,
and that inanimate things can at all save or hurt. And should one say
that an antidote cannot heal or hemlock kill, he is unwittingly
deceived. For none of these operates except one makes use of the
plant and the drug; just as the axe does not without one to cut with it,
or a saw without one sawing with it. And as they do not work by
themselves, but have certain physical qualities which accomplish
their proper work by the exertion of the artisan; so also, by the
universal providence of God, through the medium of secondary
causes, the operative power is propagated in succession to
individual objects.
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