SRIDEVI WOMEN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE

V.N.PALLY, HYDERABAD - 500075

APPLIED PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

FOR
I-B.TECH (ECE, CSM), SEM-I
&
I-B.TECH (CSE, IT & CSD), SEM-II

Student Name:
………………………………………
Roll No:
………………………………………................
Branch: ……………Section: …………………….
Year: ……..……….Semester: …………………….

PREPARED BY
FACULTY OF PHYSICS
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

Dr. N.Sabitha, Mr. V.Jithendra Murthy

Mr Satyanarayan Singh Thakur
Mr. D.Venkateswarlu, Ms. M.Sarika Goud, Mrs. A.Alekhya
Swec- Applied Physics Lab manual
 List of Experiments: (Any 8 experiments are to be performed)

S.No. NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT Pg. No.

1 Photoelectric Effect: 10-16

To determine work function of a given material

2 Hall Effect: 17-24

To determine Hall Co-efficient of a given semiconductor

3 LCR Circuit: 25-38

To determine the Quality factor of LCR Circuit..
4 V-I characteristics of PN junction diode and Zener diode 39-47
To study the V-I characteristics of PN junction diode and Zener
diode

5 LASER:
48-51
Characteristics of LASER diode
6 a) V-I and P-I characteristics of light emitting diode. 52-59
b) V-I Characteristics of solar cell

7 Energy gap of P-N junction diode:

To determine the energy gap of a semiconductor diode. 65-71

8
Determination Of Dielectric constant of a given material
72-75
9 R-C Circuit:
To determine the time constant of R-C circuit. 76-82
10
Torsional pendulum:
83-86
Understanding the method of least squares torsional pendulum as
example
11
Determination of Resistivity of semiconductor by Two Probe
method 89-93
12
Study B-H Curve of a magnetic material
94-99

Swec- Applied Physics Lab manual

 OBJECTIVES:

The objective of this lab is to teach students, the importance of physics through involvement
in experiments. Students will gain the practical knowledge in various areas of physics like Optics,
Lasers, Fiber optics, Electricity and magnetism and Electronics so as to have real time applications
in all engineering streams.

OUTCOMES:

The student will be able to understand the physical principle involved in the BTL 2
CO1 various instruments, also relate the principle to new application.
Understanding
The various experiments in the areas of optics, mechanics, thermal physics,
electrical and electronics will nurture the students in all branches of BTL 2
CO2
Engineering. Understanding

With the exposure to these experiments the student can compare the theory
BTL 2
CO3 and correlate with experiment and learn the concept of error and its analysis.
Understanding
Develop basic communication skills through working in groups in performing
BTL 3
CO4 the laboratory experiments and by interpreting the results.
Applying
The students will be able to think innovatively and also improve the creative BTL 2
CO5 skills that are essential for engineering.
Understanding

Swec- Applied Physics Lab manual

 PROGRAM OUTCOMES

PO1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.

PO2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

PO3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.

PO4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods, including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

PO5 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.

PO6 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.

PO7 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.

PO8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.

PO9 Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

PO10 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.

PO11 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

PO12 Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

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 PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

PSO1 Proficiency on the Contemporary Skills Towards development of Modern Electronics,

Signal and Image Processing using appropriate modern tools and techniques.

PSO2 Select and apply cutting-edge engineering hardware and software tools to solve complex
Electronics and Communication Engineering problems.

COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

PSO1 To possess competent skills and knowledge for innovations in computer science and
engineering.

PSO2 An ability to involve in multidisciplinary environments to deliver professionalism for better

societal service.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

PSO1 Analyze and develop software systems related to algorithms, software engineering, web
applications, mobile computing, data base management and networking to solve real world
problems.

PSO2 Detailed knowledge with the coexisting issues, strong skills in learning new programming
environment and thereby innovate new ideas and solutions to existing problems.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

PSO1 Able to design and analyze energy efficient and ecofriendly power and energy systems by
employing control strategies related to power electronics, power systems applications for
societal and industrial requirements.

PSO2 Able to apply cutting edge engineering hardware and software tools to solve complex
Electrical and Electronics Engineering problems.

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 COURSE OUTCOMES (COs) - PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs) MAPPING:

Program Outcomes
Course
Outcomes PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 3 2 1 2 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 1
CO2 3 2 1 2 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 1
CO3 2 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 1
CO4 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 1
CO5 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
Average

ATTAINMENT OF PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

COURSE PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOME (PSO)
OUTCOME
(CO) ECE CSE IT EEE

CO1

CO2

CO3

CO4

CO5

Swec- Applied Physics Lab manual

 APPLIED PHYSICS LAB INSTRUCTIONS
1) Students should come with formals and laboratory aprons must be worn during the laboratory.
2) Students should switch off their mobiles in the lab premises.
3) Students should maintain silence throughout the lab.
4) Every student should bring their calculators, pens, pencils, erasers, scales, graph books,
observation and record. They should not borrow from others.
5) Performance, calculations, correction of the experiment should be done in the same lab session.
6) Students should handle the instruments with care and maintain utmost discipline in the lab.
7) Students should switch off the equipment immediately after completing the experiment.
8) Students should take the responsibility of the received apparatus till the submission of the
apparatus to the lab assistant.
9) Breakage will be levied on those students who are responsible for any sort of damage to the
equipment.
10) The records must be maintained properly.
11) The date of conducting the experiment must coincide with the date of writing the record.
12) The circuit diagram, rough graph and outline of the table must be drawn with pencil only.
13) The columns in the table should be filled with pen only.
14) The values in the table and graph should match with that of observation book.
15) The circuit diagram, table, rough graph and main graph should be on the left hand side of the
record.
16) In record no matter should be written after the result of the experiment.
17) Students should get their records signed with their concerned faculty within one week of the
completion of the experiment.

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 DO’s & DON’Ts:

DO’s:
1. Students should come with formals and laboratory aprons must be worn during the
laboratory.
2. Students should switch off their mobiles in the lab premises.
3. Every student should bring their calculators, pens, pencils, erasers, scales, graph books,
observation and record. They should not borrow from others.
4. Performance, calculations, correction of the experiment should be done in the same lab
session.
5. Students should handle the instruments with care and maintain utmost discipline in the lab.
6. Any failure/breakdown of equipment must be reported to the faculty.
7. Students should switch off the equipment immediately after completing the experiment.
8. Students should take the responsibility of the received apparatus till the submission of the
apparatus to the lab assistant.
9. The records must be maintained properly.
10. Students should get their records signed with their concerned faculty within one week of the
completion of the experiment.

DON’Ts:
1. Do not talk aloud or crack jokes in lab.
2. Do not wander around the room, distract other students or interfere with the laboratory
Experiment of others.
3. Do not eat food, drink beverages or chew gum in the laboratory.
4. Don’t leave the Lab without the permission of the faculty In-Charge.
5. Do not tamper and touch the equipments without proper knowledge.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
1. Always disconnect a plug by pulling on the connector body not the cable.

2. Do not look directly into the laser beam.

3. Protect yourself from getting electric shock.

Swec- Applied Physics Lab manual

 Table of universal constants:

Quantity Symbol Value

Speed of light in vacuum c 2.99*108ms-1
Newtonian constant of G 6.674*10-11m3kg-1s-2
Gravitation
Planck constant h 6.626*10-34 J-s
Reduced Planck constant h = h/(2π) 1.054*10-34 J-s

List of Physical Constants:

Quantity Symbol Value

Avogadro’s number NA 6.025*1026 (kgmol) -1
Bohr magnetron μB 9.273*10-24 A-m2
Boltzmann constant K 1.38*10-23 JK-1
=8.616*10-19 eVK-1
Electron charge e 1.6*10-19 Coulomb
Electron mass m 9.1*10-31 Kg
Gas constant R 8.317*103 J(kgmol)-1K-1
Permeability of vacuum μo 4π*10-7 Henry/m
Permittivity of vacuum εo 8.854*10-12 Farad/m
Acceleration due to gravity g 9.8 m/s2

Conversion Factors:
-19
ev – Joule conversion 1eV = 1.602*10 joule
-4
Magnetic induction conversion 1 gauss = 10 weber/m2

Magnetic field conversion 1 oersted = 7.96 amps/m

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 EXPERIMENT: 1 DATE:

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
AIM: To determine the value of Planck’s constant (h) and work function (W) by using Photo
cell.

APPARATUS: Photo emissive cell mounted in a box provided with a wide slit. D.C.
Power supply, set of filters, light source and connecting wires etc.

FORMULAE: Planck’s constant is given by

Where,
e - charge of electron
V1 - stopping potential (filter 1) V2 - stopping potential (filter 2) c - velocity of light
Work function W=hϑo

Where,
h- Planck’s constant
ϑo- Threshold frequency

𝐸 = 𝑊 + 𝐾.𝐸
THEORY: The ejection of electrons from the surface of a metal under the action of light is calle

where,
E is total energy supplied to the photocell,
W is work function,

certain value 𝖯0. Photo current is zero when the frequency of light is below the value
The photoemission occurs only when the light has a frequency greater than a

𝖯0, this limiting frequency is called threshold frequency. The corresponding

wavelength is called threshold wavelength. The magnitude of negative anode
potential is increased the electrons are inhibited and the current in the circuit falls,
finally no electrons will reach anode and the current I will be zero. The potential
which is required to halt the most energetic electrons is called the stopping
potential or retarding potential (Vo).
Swec- Applied Physics Lab manual
 The maximum KE of photoelectrons is given by 1/2 mv2 = eV0

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Swec- Applied Physics Lab manual
 PROCEDURE:
1. Keep the left hand side switch on the panel towards sensitive side and right
hand side switch towards 1.2V side. Switch on the unit. Now set the μA reading to
zero with the help of potential marked with zero ADJ.
2. The circuit connections are made as shown in diagram (Fig-1). Be careful about
the polarity shown in diagram.
3. A light source is arranged. The light is allowed to fall on the tube. The distance
between tube and light source is adjusted. Now a suitable filter (say green) of
known wave length is placed in the path of light (in the slit provided) say it is with
wave length λ2.
4. A deflection is observed in the micro-ammeter. This deflection corresponding to
the zero anode potential.
5. A small –ve potential is applied on the anode. This voltage is recorded with
the help of Voltmeter provided (1.2 volts Range)
6. The negative anode potential is gradually increased in steps and each time
corresponding deflection is noted till the micro-Ammeter deflection reduces to
zero and this is stopping potentialV2 corresponding to filter with wave length λ2.
7. The experiment is repeated after replacing the green filter with yellow and red
filters. Say with wave length λ1 and λ3 respectively and stopping potential V1 and V3
are noted.
8. Taking negative anode potential on x-axis and corresponding deflection in
micro-ammeter on y- axis, graphs are plotted for different filters.
9. By using above values Planck’s constant (h) is calculated by the formula given.
Standard values of e, c and wave length of standard filters are given below.

TABULAR FORM:

S.No. Filter Color Wavelength (λ) Current (I) Stopping Frequency

Å µA Potential (Vo) (ϑ=c/ λ)
Volt Hz

Swec- Applied Physics Lab manual

Swec- Applied Physics Lab manual
 PRECAUTIONS:
1. Fix the incident light source and filter positions exactly with suitable distance.
2. Stopping potential should be noted down exactly at zero ammeter reading.
3. The negative potential must be applied very slowly until zero current value is reached.

RESULT:

Plank’s constant ( h ) = J-S

Work function ( W ) = J

Swec- Applied Physics Lab manual

 WORK SHEET

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 GRAPH SHEET

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 EXPERIMENT: 2 DATE:

HALL EFFECT
Aim: To determine Hall co-efficient of a given semiconductor.

Apparatus: Power supply for electromagnets, Gauss meter with hall probes, p
type
Ge semiconductor on PCB, multimeter, electromagnets.

FORMULA :

VH W
Hall Co-efficient R H =
IB

Where VH = Hall voltage

W = Thickness of the given
semiconductor
I = Current passing through the
semiconductor
B = Magnetic field induction

1
Carrier Concentration n= e R
Where 𝒆 = Charge of electron
H

RH = Hall coefficient

Theory: A current carrying conductor (semiconductor/metal) is placed in the

magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of current; a voltage is developed
across the conductor in a direction perpendicular to both the current and
magnetic field. The effect is known is as Hall Effect. This effect is very useful in
determining-
 The nature of charge carries e.g. whether semiconductor is on n-type or p-type
 Carrier concentration or the no. density of charge carries
 Mobility of charge carriers
Diagram:
SWEC Physics Lab Manual 17
Procedure:-

Connect one pair of contact of specimen on the opposite faces to the current
source and other pair to the multimeter.
Switch on the power supply of electromagnet and measure the magnetic flux
density at the centre between the pole faces by placing the tip of the hall
probe there. Now does not change the current in the electromagnet, i. e. keep the
magnetic field constant.
Place the specimen at the centre between the pole faces such that the magnetic
field is perpendicular to the strip.
Pass the current (mA) from the current source through the specimen and measure
the resultinghall voltage in the multimeter / milivoltmeter.
Increase the current through the specimen gradually and measure the
corresponding Hall voltages.
The entire process can be repeated for different values of magnetic flux
density. Find the mean of different RH.

Observation:- Thickness of specimen, W = ---------- mm =----m

Magnetic flux density, B = ---------- gauss = .......... × 10-4 tesla

20
 Table:

S.No. Current I Voltage HV Hall Coefficient

[mA] [mV] [RH]

Average RH= …………………………………….

CALCULATION :

VH W
Hall Co-efficient R H = =
IB

1
Carrier Concentration n= e R =¿
H

Result:
Hall Coefficient RH= ___________
Carrier Concentration n = ________

Source of Error:
(1) Before starting the experiment, check the gauss meter is showing zero
value. For this put the prove in separate place and switch on the gauss
meter, it will show zero meter.
(2) Ensure that the specimen is located at the centre between the pole
faces and is exactly perpendicular to the magnetic field.
(3) To measure the magnetic flux the hall probe should placed at the
center the pole faces, parallel to the crystal.
(4) Check the direction of electromagnet coils so that it generates the
maximum magnetic field, this can be check by placing the soft iron near the

21
generated magnetic field, if soft iron attracts forcefully the magnetic field
produced is strong, otherwise magnetic field is weak.

22
POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:

Define Hall Effect?

What causes Hall Effect?

What is Lorentz force?

What is Hall Coefficient?

What are the uses of Hall Effect?

23
24
WORK SHEET

25
 Experiment 3 LCR CIRCUIT
A: SERIES RESONANCE

AIM: To study resonance effect in series LCR circuit and to determine the
resonance frequency,band width and quality factor.

APPARATUS:
LCR Trainer kit, Function generator, connecting wires, Inductor (L), Capacitor
(C), Resistor (R),Micro Ammeter (µA).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
Inductor (L), Resistor (R) and Capacitor (C) are connected in series with a
source of AC supply (signal generator). This circuit is called series resonance circuit.
At resonance frequency, the resultant impedance of the combination is minimum
and hence the current is Maximum.

PROCEDURE:
1. Find the resonance frequency for a particular combination of LCR.
2. Keep the input voltage V constant throughout experiment at a constant suitable value.
3. Locate the resonant frequency, which is the frequency at which
current increase slowly at thebeginning afterwards increases sharply
and reaches a peak value.
4. Again increase the frequency of input signal beyond the resonance
frequency then the currentthrough the circuit gradually decreases.
5. Note the readings at each step and plot a graph between Current on
Y-axis and Frequency on X-axis.

GRAPH:

SWEC Physics Lab Manual 25

CALCULATION:

Theoretical Value:
L = ________mH C = _______µF. R =_________Hz

Resonant frequency of the series circuit is given by

1
f r=
2 π √ LC

Practical value:
1) Resonance frequency of the series circuit is fr =..KHz
2) f1 = ………….. KHz f2 =...............KHz
3)
Band Width Δf = f2 - f1 =................KHz.

𝑓𝑟
4)
Quality factor Q =
= …………

Δ𝑓
OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.N Frequency(KHz Current (μA)

)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

RESULT:
Resonance frequency of LCR series circuit is
determined

Theoretical Resonance frequency fr =.KHz

Practical Resonance frequency fr =.....KHz

Band Width Δf =.....KHz

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 Quality factor Q =

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SWE Physics Lab 2
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 WORK SHEET

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 GRAPH SHEET

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 B: PARALLEL RESONANCE

AIM:
To study resonance effect in parallel LCR circuit and to determine the
resonance frequency, bandwidth and quality factor.

APPARATUS:
LCR Trainer kit, Function generator, connecting wires, Inductor (L), Capacitor
(C), Resistor (R),Micro Ammeter (µA).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Find the resonance frequency for a particular combination of LCR.
2. Keep the input voltage V constant throughout experiment at a constant suitable value.
3. Locate the resonant frequency, which is the frequency at which current is minimum and beyond
this frequency the deflection rises gradually.
4. Vary the frequency above and below the resonant frequency in small steps.
5. Note the readings at each step and plot a graph between Current on Y-axis and Frequency on X-
axis.

Graph:

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 CALCULATION:

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Theoretical Value:

L = …………. mH C = …………… µF R= ………. Hz

Resonance frequency of the parallel circuit is f r= 1

Practical value:
2π √ 1
LC
R2
−¿ 2 ¿
L

1) Resonance frequency of the parallel circuit is fr =.............KHz

f1 =______ KHz f2 =________ KHz

2) Bandwidth Δf = f2 - f1 = …………… = KHz.

fr
3) Quality factor Q = =_______
Δf

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 2
f
tc
b

S.N Frequency(KHz Current (μA)

)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

RESULT:
Resonance frequency of LCR parallel circuit
idetermined.

Theoretical Resonance frequency fr=_______KHz.

Practical Resonance frequency fr =________KHz.

Band Width Δf =.........KHz.

Quality factor Q = ....

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 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:

1. Explain the importance of bandwidth?

2. What is the physical significance of LCR?
3. What is the role of inductance in LCR circuit?
4. Why does the series circuit gives power maximum at resonance while the parallel circuit lead to a
power minimum?
5. What are the units of inductance?
6. Define Quality factor?

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SWE Physics Lab 3
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 WORK SHEET

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 GRAPH SHEET

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EXPERIMENT: 4 DATE:

pn Junction diode and Zener diode – VI

characteristics

AIM : To study the V-I characteristics of PN junction diode and Zener diode

APPARATUS :
A p-n junction diode, 30V battery, High resistance
rheostat, 0-30V voltmeter, 0−100mAammeter,0-100µA
ammeter, and connecting wires

THEORY:
PN junction diode is a two terminal electronic device (Di-electrode −→
Diode.) that allows current in only one direction. The diode is formed
by doping a semiconductor (like silicon or germanium) with trivalent
impurity (e.g. Boron or Aluminum) from one end to form p-type region
and with pentavalent impurity like Phosphorous from the other end
to form n-type region on the other end. The metal contacts taken
out from p-region and n-region are called anode and cathode
respectively. There are three possible biasing conditions and two
operating regions for the typical PN-Junction Diode, they are: zero
bias, forward bias and reverse bias. When no voltage is applied across
the PN junction diode then the electrons will diffuse to P-side and
holes will diffuse to N-side through the junction and they combine with
each other. Therefore, the acceptor atom close to the P-type and
donor atom near to the N-side are left unutilized. An electronic field is
generated by these charge carriers. This opposes further diffusion of
charge carriers. Thus, no movement of the region is known as
depletion region or space charge.
Zero Biased PN Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external
potential energy is applied to the PN junction. The potential barrier
that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority carriers
across the junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority
carriers (few free electrons in the P-region and few holes in the N-
region) to drift across the junction. Then an Equilibrium or balance will
be established when the majority carriers are equal and both moving
in opposite directions, so that the net result is zero current flowing in
the circuit. When this occurs, the junction is said to be in a state of
Dynamic Equilibrium. The minority carriers are constantly generated
due to thermal energy so this state of equilibrium can be broken by
raising the temperature of the PN junction causing an increase in the
generation of minority carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in
leakage current but an electric current cannot flow since no circuit has
been connected to the PN junction
Forward Biased PN Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative
voltage is applied to the N- type material and a positive voltage is
applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes greater
than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and
0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be
overcome and current will start to flow. This is
SWEC Physics Lab Manual 39
 because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the
junction giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the
holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction by
the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero
current flowing up to this voltage point, called the knee on the static
curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little increase
in the external voltage as shown below.
Since the diode can conduct infinite current above this knee point as
it effectively becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are used in
series with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its maximum
forward current specification causes the device to dissipate more
power in the form of heat than it was designed for resulting in a very
quick failure of the device. Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive
voltage is applied to the N- type material and a negative voltage is
applied to the P-type material. The positive voltage applied to the N-
type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and
away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also
attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode. The
net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of
electrons and forms a potential barrier which prevent the current
from flowing through the semiconductor material.
This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction
and practically zero current flows through the junction diode with
an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage current
does flow through the junction which can be measured in micro-
amperes.
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is
increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it will cause the diodes
PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around
the junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will
result in the flow of maximum circuit current, and this shown as a
step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve.
Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in
voltage stabilizing circuits where a series limiting resistor is used
with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset
maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the
diode. These types of diodes are commonly known as Zener Diodes
and are discussed in next experiment.

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40

PN JUCTION DIODE V-I CHARACTERISTICS

ZENER DIODE V-I CHARACTERISTICS

 SWEC Physics Lab Manual
41

Zener diode is a silicon semiconductor device that permits current to flow in either a
forward or
reverse direction. The diode consists of a special, heavily doped p-n junction, designed to
conduction
the reverse direction when a certain specified voltage is reached. An ideal P-N Junction diode
does
not conduct inreverse biased condition. A Zener diode Conducts excellently even in reverse
biased
condition. These diodes operate at a precise Value of voltage called break down voltage. A
Zener diode
when forwardbiased behaves like an ordinary P-N junction diode. A Zener diode when reverse
biased
can either under go avalanche break down or zener break down.

If both p-side and n-side of the diode are lightly doped, depletion region at the
junction widen. Application of a very large electric field at the junction may rupture
covalent bonding
between electrons. Such rupture leads to the generation of a large number of
charge carriers resulting in avalanche multiplication.

Zener breaks down

If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped, depletion region at the junction
reduces.
Application of even a small voltage at the junction ruptures covalent bonding and generates
large
number of charge carriers. Such sudden increase in the number of charge carriers results in
Zener mechanism

Forward bias Condition:

The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input supply is
connected to anode (P-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is connected the cathode.
Then diode is said to be forward biased.

Reverse bias condition: If negative terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-
side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is
said to be reverse biased

Cut in voltage of a diode: It permits current to flow in the forward direction as normal, but
will also allow
it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value the breakdown
voltage known
as the Zener voltage. The Zener diode specially made to have a reverse voltage breakdown at
a specific voltage. If the output waveform tries to exceed the 7.5V limit, the zener diode will
“clip-off” the excess
voltage from the input producing a waveform with a flat top still keeping the output constant at
+7.5V.
Note that in the forward bias condition a zener diode is still a diode and when the AC waveform
output
goes negative.

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 PROCEDURE:
Forward Bias Condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.1(PN Junction zener diode with ammeter
in series with the diode).
2. Initially vary Regulated Power Supply (RPS) voltage Vs in steps of 3 V.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.
4. Plot the V-I characteristics and calculate
the resistance levels Reverse Bias Condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.2.
2. Vary Vs in the Regulated Power Supply (RPS) gradually in steps of
3V.
3. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse
voltage.

TABULAR FORM:

S.NO Voltage (V) Current (mA)

S.NO Voltage (V) Current (mA)

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 FORWARD BIAS :

S.NO Voltage (V) Current (mA)

REVERSE BIAS :

S.NO Voltage (V) Current (mA)

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 RESULT:
Thus, the VI characteristics of both PN junction diode and Zener diode are verified.

Viva voice questions:

1. What is pn junction diode?
2. What is Zener diode?
3. What is Zener break down?
4. Why is it so important for a Zener diode in reversebias?
5. Applications of Zener diode?
6. What is biasing.

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 EXPERIMENT: 5 DATE:

CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER DIODE

AIM : To study the characteristics of Laser Diode.

APPARATUS:
Laser diode, DC power supply, voltmeter, milli ammeter, milli wattmeter,
photo detector
and connectors.
THEORY:
A laser diode is a laser where active medium is a semiconductor
similar to that found in
light emitting diode. A laser diode is formed by doping a very layer on the
surface of a crystal
wafer. The crystal is doped to produce an N-type region and P-type
region one above the other resulting a PN junction or diode.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

Connect the circuit as per the diagram.

Slowly increase supply voltage using variable power supply.
Note down the voltage, current and wattmeter values in the table.
Plot the graphs between current and power and current and voltage.

OBSERVATIONS:
S.No. Voltage V (volt) Current I (mA) Power P (mW)

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 OBSERVATIONS:

S.No. Voltage V (volt) Current I (mA) Power P (mW)

GRAPHS:

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 PRECAUTIONS:
1.Do not connect laser diode directly to the power supply as
it may get damaged.
2 Donot Exceed current limit of 30mA else the laser
diode may get damaged.
3. Do not look at the laser directly with the laser turned on.
4.Do not connect laser diode in reverse bias.

RESULT:

Laser diode characteristics are plotted.

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 EXPERIMENT: 6 DATE:

CHARACTERISTICS OF LED
AIM : To plot V-I and P-I characteristics of light emitting diode.

APPARATUS:
LED characteristic board, Power supply, Digital voltmeter, DC
Digital Ammeter, LED and connectors.

THEORY:
LED is an Opto-electronic device which works on the principle of
electroluminescence, the process that converts electrical input
into a light output. This device basically consists of a direct band
gap Semiconductor material doped with impurities to create a
structure called p-n junction. Under forward bias, the positive
voltage is applied to the p-region and negative to the n-region.
The holes and electrons are pushed towards the junction. The
charge carriers that diffuse through p-n junction recombine with
the majority carriers on the other side and emit photons whose
energy is equal to the difference of conduction and valence
band of the semiconductor (band gap of semiconductor).
Eg = Ec –Ev =hν
ν = Eg/h = frequency of emitted photons

At low injection process these electrons and holes recombine

radiatively and through spontaneous emission process emit
photons. Depending on the band gap, different wavelengths of
light may be produced. The spectra of the available LEDs cover
the entire range from infrared to ultraviolet region.

Circuit Diagram:

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 V- I Characteristics of a LED:

 Connect the LED circuit as shown in fig, through patch cords.

 Switch ON the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided
on front panel.
 Vary the input voltage in small steps & note down the observations in table.
 Plot a graph between Voltage v/s Current and find dynamic
resistance of diode.

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 OBSERVATIONS:

Forward Bias:
S.No. Voltage V (volt) Current I (mA) Power P=VI (mW)

S.No. Voltage V (volt) Current I (mA) Power P=VI (mW)

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 GRAPH:

V-I graph:

V-I characteristics of LED is studied by considering the forward current along y-

axis & variation ofvoltage drop across a diode on x-axis at constant temperature
as shown in the Fig below.

P-I graph:

PRECAUTIONS:
Connect the circuit properly by maintaining the polarities.
While operating always connect a series resistance to LED, otherwise the
LED will be damaged.Do not exceed current limit of 30mA else the Light
emitting diode may get damaged.

RESULT: V-I and P-I Characteristics of LED are plotted.

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:
1. What are n- and p-type of semiconductors?
2. Define conduction band and valence band in semiconductor?
3. What are LED materials? Give some examples?
4. What is the basic mechanism of LED?
5. Why LED‟s are available in different colors?
6. What are the input and output energies in a LED?
7. What are the applications of LED?
8. What are the majority carries in p-type semiconductor?
What are the majority carries in n-type semiconductor?

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR CELL
AIM:
To study the I-V characteristics of a solar cell.

APPARATUS:
Solar cell, Light source, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Decade Resistance box or
Rheostat and connecting wires.

THEORY:
Photovoltaic (PV) cells can be modeled as a current source in parallel with a
diode. When there is no light present to generate any current, PV cells behave like
diode. As the intensity of incident light increases, current is generated by the PV
cell.
In an ideal cell, the total current I is equal to the current IL generated by the
photoelectric effect minus the diode current ID, according to the equation

I = IL - ID = IL – I0 (𝒆qv/𝒌𝑻 -1)
Where
I0 is the saturation current of the
diode,
q is the elementary charge
-19
1.6x10 C,
k is the Boltzmann constant 1.38x10 -23
J/K
T is the cell temperature in Kelvin and
V is the measured cell voltage that is either produced or
applied.
The light conversion efficiency which is defined by; η = (𝑷 / 𝑷𝒊𝒏)FF
𝒎

the PV cell. The Fill Factor, FF = P𝒎

Where, Pin is the incident radiant power and Pm is the maximum power output of

𝑰𝒔𝒄𝑽𝒐𝒄
Here VOC is the open circuit voltage and ISC is the short circuit current.
For an ideal solar cell FF=1, but this is never achieved in practice.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig-1

PROCEDURE:
Complete the circuit as shown in fig.1 It is important to choose a high impedance
voltmeter and low impedance ammeter to prevent loading the circuit. For these
reasons it is advised to use a digital voltmeter and a moving coil ammeter.
1. Illuminate the solar cell with sun light or the incandescent light source.
The angle at which a solar cell is positioned in relation to the sun affects
its power output.
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 2. Adjust the rheostat position for resistance so that the voltmeter reads zero.
This is the short circuit connection.
3. Adjust the ammeter till it reads a value of about 500mA. Note down the
value of the currentas short circuited current ISC,
4. Increase the resistance in the circuit by varying the rheostat and note down
the readings of current (I) and voltage (V) till a maximum voltage is read.
Ensure to take more number of readings (at least 20 readings) in this region.
5. Now, disconnect the rheostat and note down the voltage. This voltage is
open circuit voltage, VOC.
Repeat the experiment with different illuminations. The amount of current
produced by PV cell is proportional to the amount of the light hitting the cell;
therefore, increasing light intensity or increasing the size of the cell itself will
increase the power output of the cell.

TABLE: To study the V-I characteristics of solar cell.

S.No. Current, I (mA) Voltage, V (mV) Power, P = VI (Watt)

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 I vs V GRAPH:
Draw a graph between voltage V on x-axis and current I on y-axis. Note the point
at which the curve intersects at vertical axis this is known as short circuit
condition. The current flow here is known as short circuit current ISC. Note the point
at which the curve intersects the horizontal axis. This is known as open circuit
condition and the voltage is known as open circuit voltage VOC.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Always connect the voltmeter in parallel & ammeter in series as showing fig.
2. Connection should be proper &tight.
3. Switch „ON‟ the supply after completing the ckt.
4. DC supply should be increased slowly in steps
5. Reading of voltmeter & Ammeter should be accurate.

RESULT:
characteristics for a given solar cell are studied.
1) The open circuit voltage and short circuit are measured as, VOC =
ISC = ............
2) Maximum power point MPP = Im x V m =_________
3) Fill Factor FF = ..........

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POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:
1. What is a solar cell?
2. What is the basic principle in solar cell?
3. What is the circuit symbol of the solar cell?
4. What is meant by fill-factor?
5. Which type of materials is used in solar cells?
6. Define Isc and Voc in solar cell experiment?
7. Solar cell is which biased?
8. What are photo voltaic cells?

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 EXPERIMENT:7 DATE:

ENERGY GAP OF A MATERIAL OF P-N JUNCTION

AIM: To determine the energy band gap of a material of p-n junction.

APPARATUS: p-n junction diode, thermostat (heater with oil bath),

volt meter, ammeter,thermometer, oil, and power supply.

FORMULA:

2. K B . Slope
Energy Gap (Eg) = −19
eV
1.6 x 10
Where KB = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x 10−23 J/K

INTRODUCTION:
P-n junction is made up of semiconducting material. It consists
of valence and conduction band which is separated with a small
distance. Semiconductor material have almost empty
conduction band nearly filled valence band with a narrow band
gap of 1 eV. The narrow band gap which is separated is called
energy gap of the semiconductors. The semiconductors are of
two type’s intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

Extrinsic semiconductor is formed by adding impurity (doping) to

pure semiconductors. The n-type semiconductor is formed by
adding pentavalent impurity to pure semiconductor. Similarly p-
type semiconductor is formed by adding trivalent impurity to pure
semiconductors. The schematic diagrams of intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors are as shown in figure-1.

Intrinsic semiconductor N-type semiconductor P-type semiconductor

Conduction band Conduction band Conduction band
Fermi level
Fermi level
Fig-1: Energy band diagram of intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductor Fermi level
Valence band Valence band Valence band

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 THEORY:
The current I through a p-n junction for both signs of applied voltage V.

I = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (ev/kt – 1). (1)

Where e = charge of electron, K = Boltzmann‟s constant, T = Absolute temperature.

For the silicon p-n junctions and positive values of V the exponential term
becomes greater than 1. The current through the junction will increase
exponentially with V. The
dependence on energy gap occurs through the factor I0. I0 is due to that current that flows
when the junctions is biased negatively and is due to the thermal excitation of
electrons across the energy gap after which they flow freely across the junction.
A complete treatment of the problems shows that I0 is proportional to the
factor f which is give by

f= T3/2 e–Eg/kT,
Eg = energy gap of the semiconducting material.
. The I0 can be determined by a simple measurement with a negative bias
applied to the junction. However, I0 is so small and careful measurement is
necessary. It is essential to generate curves representing equation (1) at several
temperatures in order to obtain several values for I0.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
The circuit diagram of the experimental setup for the measurement of energy
gap is shown in figure.

Current
Slope Y/X=Tan

1/T (K–1)

PROCEDURE:
The point contact diode connected in a reverse bias as shown in the diagram. It is placed in an oil bath and heated
Saturation current is noted for various temperatures.
The bias voltage is maintained at constant value.
The readings in the micro-ammeter is noted as a function of temperature in steps of 50C. A graph is drawn between w
The slope of the graph is calculated and substituted in the formula.

TABULAR FORM:

Temperature Saturation
S. No. ln I0
o
t ( C) T = t+273(K) Current (I0) 1/T (K-1)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

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 CALCULATION:

2. K B . Slope
Energy Gap (Eg) = −19
eV
1.6 x 10

RESULT :

Energy gap of a given material of PN junction diode is Eg = ________________________

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 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:
1. How many types of semiconductors are available?
2. What is p-type semiconductor?
3. What is n-type semiconductor?
4. What is a p-n junction diode?
5. Define energy gap? What are the units of energy gap?
6. What is meant by doping?
7. What is meant by forward bias and reverse bias?
8. What are the values of band gap in metals, semiconductors and insulators?
Why water cannot be used in place of oil?
9. What are the applications of junction diode?

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 EXPERIMENT: 8 DATE:
Measure the dielectric constant
Aim:- To find the Dielectric Constant of a given Material.

Apparatus:- Dielectric constant Apparatus , Variable

Gang Condenser, Test Capacitor(Solid Gang
Condenser),Three types of Bakelite sheets for Dielectric
material, Two sets of Leads, R.F.Generator (9-10MHz
approx),Micro Ammeter( Range :0- 50), Potentiometer
for Sensitivity selection, Fixed Capacitor (Metal),
Variable Gang Capacitor, Sockets for Bakelite plate to
be insert in rap of test capacitor.

Formula :-

K= {(C 1−C 2)/(C 1−C 3)}where

C1= Capacity of standard variable capacitor at resonance.
C2= Capacity of standard variable capacitor at resonance (max. deflection) including test
capacitor with dielectric in it
C3 = Capacity of standard variable capacitor at resonance (max. deflection) including test capacitor
without
dieclectric in it.

Circuit Diagram:-

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 Theory:-
Bridge are used for the accurate measurement of electrical quantities
viz; Resistance,
Capacitance, Inductance, Storage Factor, Loss factor etc.
Depending upon the excitations used , the bridgeare classified as
AC bridges & DC bridges.
De-sauty Bridge comes under category of AC bridges and it is used for
measurement of capacitance. Generalform of AC bridges consists of four
arms of impedances & AC excitation. At balanced condition, (1/jwC1) * R4 =
(1/jwC2)*R3 Separating real & imaginary part,C1= C2*(R4/R3)

Thickness of dielectric C1 C2 C3 K
S.No material (Bakelite sheet)
(pF) (pF) (pF)
in mm

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PROCEDURE: -
1) Connect R.F. Oscillator ( Dielectric Constant Apparatus) terminals to given
variable capacitor‟ s.Set the sensitivity of the meter at 0.5 by vary the sensitivity
potentiometer knob.
2) Switch on the instrument and note down the value of C by just connecting the
standard capacitor and tuned to resonance.
3) Now connect another capacitor ( test capacitor) to second terminals.
4) The frequency of the oscillator is fixed and is kept constant throughout the experiment
5) Keep the test capacitor without dielectric and vary capacity of variable air
capacitor so that deflection in micrometer is maximum.this value of Air
capacitor is C1
6) Now fill test capacitor with dielectric .again vary the capacity of variable air capacitor
that deflection in microammeter is maximum .let this value of variable air capacitor be
C2
7) Repeat the procedure of different dielectric & space between plate. Value of
the dielectric constant all to be noted from the appendix given at the last
sheets of manual.

PRECAUTIONS :-
1) Test capacitors plate must be tight when filled with dielectric material.

RESULT:
Capacity of variable air capacitor C0 = pf.
Capacity of variable air capacitor C1 = pf.
Capacitor of variable air capacitor C2 = pf.

Dielectric constant of a given material K

=____________

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 EXPERIMENT: 9 DATE:

RC CIRCUIT
AIM:
To determine the time constant of the given RC circuit by charging and
discharging the capacitor.

APPARATUS:
D.C.Voltage source, resistors, capacitors, digital Voltmeter, Charge and
discharge key,connecting probes and stop clock.

FORMULAE:
Theoretical:
The time constant of the given RC circuit is T = RC sec
Practical:
Charging:
The voltage across the capacitor, during the charging phase,

Vc = V0(1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 ) = V0(1 − 𝑒−1) = V0 (1-0.37) = (0.63) V0

When t = RC, then

Discharging:
The voltage across the capacitor, during the discharging phase,

When t = RC, then

Where Vc = Voltage across the capacitor Vo = Maximum voltage in capacitor R = Resistor, C = Capacitor
CIRCUIT:

PROCEDURE:
The experimental arrangement for the study of the charging and discharging of a condenser
through a resistance is shown in circuit diagram. A condenser of capacity C, resistance R, a tap key
K are to be connected to a battery B. Connect a voltmeter V, parallel to the condenser, by means of

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 which the potential differences across the plates of the condenser can be
measured. Adjust the voltmeter knob so that it reads zero. Switch on the power
supply, press the tap key K and simultaneously start a stop clock. When the tap key
K is pressed the current flows and the plates of the condenser get charged. Note
the time elapsed at the regular intervals of voltage, till the voltage reaches a
maximum value Vo , i.e., the condenser gets fully charged. Note the observations in
the tabular form. Repeat the experiment for different sets of R and C values.
When the tap key (K) is released, discharging takes place. Reset the stop
clock. Release the tap key (K) for discharging and turn on the stop clock
simultaneously. Note the time elapsed for the regular decrement of voltage from
Vo to zero volt approximately.
Plot a graph between (t) on x – axis and Voltage (Vc) on Y – axis, both for
charging and discharging processes. The curves are as shown in the figures.
The time corresponding to 0.63Vo (during charging) and 0.37V0 (during
to the theoretical
discharging) value
should be of time constant i.e. RC (product of the Resistance and Capacitance us
equal

OBSERVATION TABLE:

C =µF. R =KΩ

(i) Measurement of time constant for charging of a capacitor

S. No. Time required Voltage across

t sec the Capacitor,
Vc Volts
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

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 (ii) Measurement of time constant for discharging of a capacitor

S. No. Time required Voltage across

t sec the Capacitor,
Vc Volts
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

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 vo

Voltage 0.36 vo

t Time (sec)

CALCULATIONS:
C = ........................ µF. R =.........................K

Theoretical:
Time constant T = RC =.....sec

Practical:

From Graph
Charging
Plot a graph time in seconds on the x-axis and voltage in volt on y-axis and
find the time for a rise to 0.63 × V0. Let this be T
The voltage across the capacitor, during the

charging Vc =0.63× V0 = …………….. =

..........................................................volts.

Discharging:
Plot a graph time in seconds on the x-axis and voltage in volt on y-axis and
find the time for a fall to 0.37 × V0. Let this be
The voltage across the capacitor, during the

discharging Vc = 0.37× V0 = ………………. =

..........................................................volts.

RESULT:
The exponential decay of current in a circuit containing resistance and
capacitance is studiedand the RC time constant is determined.
Time constant during charging from theory T = sec.

Time constant during charging from graph T = sec.

Time constant during discharging from theory T =

.Time constant during discharging from graph T = ……

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 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:
1. State the meaning of “charging time of capacitor”?
2. Why a resistance of low value is not acceptable in charging process?
3. What will happen if the resistance of low value is connected in the circuit?
4. Why the charging process not continued till the capacitor voltage reaches supply
voltage?
5. State four types of capacitors?
6. State the application of capacitor in filter circuits?
7. State the factors affecting capacitance?
8. A 2uF capacitor is connected by closing a switch to a supply of 100
volts through 1Mohmseries resistance. Calculate (i) the time constant (ii)
Initial charging current.

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EXPERIMENT: 10 DATE:

Torsional Pendulum

AIM:

To determine the rigidity modulus (η) of the material of a given wire using torsional pendulum

APPARATUS:

A circular brass disc with a chick nut at the center, a brass wire of length 100 cm, meter scale, screw
gauge , vernier calipers and stop watch.

PRINCIPLE:

Rigidity Modulus:
2
4 πM R L
η= a
4
( 2 )dynes/cm2
T
where,
M - Mass of the disc.
R - Radius of the disc.
a - Radius of the wire.
L - Length of the pendulum.
T - Time period.

DESCRIPTION:

The Torsional pendulum consist of a uniform circular metal disc of about 8 to 10cm diameter with 1 or
2cm thickness, suspended by a wire at the centre of the disc as shown in figure. The lower end is
gripped into another chuck, which is fixed to a wall bracket.

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PROCEDURE:

The circular metal disc is suspended as shown in above figure. The length of the wire
between the chucks is adjusted to 100cm. when the disc is in equilibrium position; a
small mark is made on the curved edge of the disc. This marking will help to note the
number of oscillations made by slowly turning the disc through a small angle. Care is
to be taken to see that there is no lateral movement of the disc.

When the disc is oscillating the time taken for 20 oscillations is noted with the help
of a stopwatch and recorded in the observations table in trail 1.

The procedure is repeated for the same length of the wire and again the time taken
for 20 oscillations is noted and noted as trail2 in the observation table.

From trail 1 & 2 the mean time for 20 oscillations is obtained. The time period (T),
i.e., the time taken for one oscillation is calculated. The experiment is repeated by
decreasing the length of the wire in steps of10cm and the results are tabulated in the
table.

By using the Vernier calipers the radius of the disc (R) is calculated, the radius of the
wire (a) is calculated by means of screw gauge and the mass of the disc (M) is found
by means of rough balance and these values are substituted in the formula.

The mean value of ( l / 𝑇 2 ) is calculated from the observations and hence η is

determined. A graph is drawn with ‘l’ on X-axis and T 2 on Y-axis. It is a straight line

( l / 𝑇 2 ) is calculated and the rigidity modulus of the material of the wire η is

graph and the value of

calculated .

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The wire should not have any bending.

2. The chuck nuts should be tight because the wire becomes loose and the
oscillations may not be perfect.
3.The time period between the oscillations must be uniform.
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OBSERVATIONS:

To determine the radius of the disc:

main scale divisions
Least count of the vernier callipers = = 0.01 mm =
No . of vernier scale divisions

S.No Main scale reading Vernier Vernier Reading Total Reading

(a) coincidence (b=L.C*V.C) (a+b) cm

Determination of radius of the wire using screw

gauge: Least count of the screw gauge =

pitch of the screw
No . ofHeadscaledivisions

= 0.01 mm

Screw Guage error = ……………

Correction = …………….

S,No P.S.R H.S.C Correction H.S.R Total (a+b)

(b=L.C*H.S.C) (mm)

Mass of the disc (M) =____________________

Radius of the disc (R) =_____________________

Radius if the wire (a) =_______________________

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Time Period of Torsional Pendulam

Time taken for 20 oscillations Time

Average Period T2 l/T2
Length of the
S.No. time t T=t/20 (Sec2)
wire’L’
Trail 1 Trail 2 (sec) (sec)
(cm)

86
RESULT:

The rigidity modulus (η) of the material (of the given wire) using torsional pendulum is given

as………………..

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Distinguish between Elastic materials and plastic materials.

2. State Hooke’s law?
3. Define Elastic limit?
4. What are the different types of moduli?
5. Write the formula for Young’s modulus?
6. Define Rigidity modulus
7. What is the S.I. Unit of Rigidity modulus?
8. On what factors does Rigidity modulus depends?
9. Define the terms time period (T), Moment of inertia, torque and frequency.
10. Write the difference between a Simple pendulum and Torsional pendulum?
11. Write the formula for bulk modulus?
12. Write the relation between three moduli of elasticity?
13. Define least count.
14. What is Torsional Oscillation?
15. Write two applications of torsional pendulum.

87
WORKSHEET
GRAPH SHEET
Experiment : 11 DATE:
RESISTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTORS
AIM : To determine the resistivity of semiconductors by two probe
Method.

APPARATUS : The experimental set up consists of probe arrangement,

sample , oven0-200°C,constant
current generator , power supply and digital panel meter(measuring
voltage and current).

Theory:
Four probe apparatus is one of the standard and most widely used
apparatus for the measurement of resistivity of semiconductors.
This method is employed when the sample is in the form of a thin
wafer, such as a thin semiconductor material deposited on a substrate.
The sample is millimeter in size and having a thickness w. It consists of
four probe arranged linearly in a straight line at equal distance S from
each other. A constant current is passed through the two probes and the
potential drop V across the middle two probes is measured. An oven is
provided with a heater to heat the sample so that behavior of the sample is
studied with increase in temperature.

Fig:1 Fig:2

The figure shows the arrangements of four probes that measure voltage (V) and supply
current (A) to the surface of the crystal.
 At a constant temperature, the resistance, R of a conductor is
proportional to its length L and inversely proportional to its area of cross

section A.

Where ρ is the resistivity of the conductor and its unit is ohmmeter.

A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude
between that of a conductor and insulator. Semiconductor differs from
metals in their characteristic property of decreasing electrical resistivity
with increasing temperature.
According to band theory, the energy levels of semiconductors can be
grouped into two bands, valence band and the conduction band. In the
presence of an external electric field it is electrons in the valence band
that can move freely, thereby responsible for the electrical conductivity of
semiconductors. In case of intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level lies in
between the conduction band minimum and valence band maximum.
Since conduction band lies above the Fermi level at 0K, when no thermal
excitations are available, the conduction band remains unoccupied. So
conduction is not possible at 0K, and resistance is infinite. As temperature
increases, the occupancy of conduction band goes up, thereby resulting
in decrease of electrical resistivity of semiconductor.
Resistivity of semiconductor by four probe method
1. The resistivity of material is uniform in the area of measurement.
2. If there is a minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the
current- carrying electrodes most of the carriers recombine near
electrodes so that their effect on conductivity is negligible.
3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.
4. The four probes used for resistivity measurement contact surface at
points that lie in a straight line.
5. The diameter of the contact between metallic probes and the
semiconductor should be small compared to the distance between
the probes.
6. The boundary between the current carrying electrodes and the
bulk material is hemispherical and small in diameter.
7. The surface of semiconductor material may be either conducting
and non- conducting. A conducting boundary is one on which
material of much lower resistivity than semiconductor has been
plated. A non-conducting boundary is produced when the surface of
the semiconductor is in contact with insulator.
8. The resistivity of material is uniform in the area of measurement.
74
9. If there is a minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the
current- carrying electrodes most of the carriers recombine near
electrodes so that their effect on conductivity is negligible.
10. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.

75
11. The four probes used for resistivity measurement contact surface at
points that lie in a straight line.
12. The diameter of the contact between metallic probes and the
semiconductor should be small compared to the distance between
the probes.
13. The boundary between the current carrying electrodes and
the bulk material is hemispherical and small in diameter.
14. The surface of semiconductor material may be either conducting
and non- conducting. A conducting boundary is one on which material
of much lower resistivity than semiconductor has been plated. A non-
conducting boundary is produced when the surface of the
semiconductor is in contact with insulator. Fig: 2 show the resistivity
probes on a die of material. If the side boundaries are
adequately far from the probes, the die may be considered to be identical
to a slice. For this case of a slice of thickness w and the resistivity is
computed as

The function, f(w/S) is a divisor for computing resistivity which

depends on the value of w and S
We assume that the size of the metal tip is infinitesimal and sample
thickness is greater than the distance between the probes ,

Where V – the potential difference

between inner probes in volts,

I – Current through the outer pair

of probes in ampere.
S – Spacing between the probes in meter.

Temperature dependence of resistivity of semiconductor

Total electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is the sum of the

conductivities of the valence band and conduction band carriers.
Resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity and its temperature
76
dependence is given

77
TABULAR COLUMN :-

S.NO
t0C T (K) V I R=V/I ρ ln ρ

78
Where
Eg – bandgap of the
material
T – Temperature in (Kelvin)

Boltzmann constant k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K

RESULT
The resistivity of a semiconductor rises exponentially on
decreasing the temperature.

Applications

1. Remote sensing areas

2. Resistance thermometers
3. Induction hardening process
4. Accurate geometry factor estimation
5. Characterization of fuel cells bipolar plates

79
WORK SHEET
EXPERIMENT: 12 DATE:

To obtain hysteresis curve (B-H curve) on a C.R.O. and to determine related

magnetic quantities :
AIM: To determine the hysteresis loss by C.R.O.

APPARATUS:
A step down transformer, specimen transformer hysteresis loss of which is to be calculated,
capacitor (8µF). Resistor (50 KΩ potentiometer), A.C Voltmeter (0-10 V), A.C milli ammeter (0-
500 mA), rheostat (10 ohm).

FORMULA:
Hysteresis loss per unit volume per cycle is
given by: W = i.V. Area of B-H loop / f.π area of
rectangle joules
/cycle
Where i = current in primary winding in ampere
V = voltage across primary winding corresponding to i. F = 50c/s
Area can be counted in millimeter2 from the centimeter graph of B-H loop. Count the small
squares of mm.
Circuit diagram:
Figure :1

Figure: 2

PROCEDURE:
Apply some voltage, V, with the help of rheostat, Rh. Connect XX plates and YY plates of C.R.O.
keep frequency selector of CRO to external. Now adjust gain of the horizontal and vertical
amplifiers of CRO to obtain a suitable B-H curve on the screen. To obtain a correct curve adjust
value of R, also may interchange B-B, terminals to Y-plates. Note voltage, V, and current, i.
Trace the curve on the trace paper shown in below figure.
figure: 3
Note that once horizontal gain and vertical gain of amplifiers is selected, they are to be kept
constant throughout the experiment
(ii) Vary rheostat, Rh, to some other value. i.e. select new values of V and i. Trace the
B-H curve on paper and write on it V and i values.
(iii) Re sketch all B-H curves with V and I values on a centimeter graph. Find the
area in mm2 required in the formula.
PRECAUTIONS:
Attenuator of C.R.O should be kept at a suitable position. The positions of X and amplifiers
should not be disturbed after adjusting it once in the whole experiment.

RESULT:
The hysteresis loss of the specimen transformer per unit volume per cycle is joules/cycle
WORK SHEET
GRAPH SHEET