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Operations Research
Using Excel
Operations Research
Using Excel
A Case Study Approach
Vikas Singla
First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of
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let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
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or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
DOI: 10.1201/9781003212966
Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Author..................................................................................................................... xiii
v
vi Contents
Index....................................................................................................................... 391
Preface
The thought of the author behind writing this book is to cater to the need of under-
standing the subject of Operations Research (OR) of both under and postgraduate
students in the disciplines of management, commerce and engineering. The endeav-
our is to combine practical and theoretical approaches in presenting the subject.
Every chapter would begin with an industrial case representing a relevant problem
requiring one of the techniques of OR for its resolution. The theoretical aspects of
each chapter would provide students with a step-wise and easy approach to solve the
mentioned case problem. After understanding and solving the case problem, each
concept would be complimented by few solved examples. The approach fulfilled the
need of students to be proficient in both practical and mathematical aspects of the
subject. Other similar books predominantly focus on one of the aspects. Thus, this
book intends to fill the gap. This book would emanate from more than ten years of
teaching this course. The book is proposed to have nine chapters discussing various
techniques of OR.
One of the techniques that deal especially with problems of resource allocation
has been discussed in chapters of Linear Programming. The chapter explains the
process of creating models in which a company faces constraints such as production
hours, capacity, working hours, financial, etc. in order to fulfil the objectives of either
maximizing profits or minimizing costs. These problems behave in a linear fashion,
i.e. a unit change in constraints would have a unit effect on the objective. The solution
of these problems has been illustrated by using an algebraic method known as the
simplex method and a graphical method. As companies face multiple constraints at
different levels, solutions through graphical methods become difficult, thus making
usage of algebraic methods a necessity. The extensive application of Solver applica-
tion in Excel software is explained in the book to solve complex questions of linear
programming.
To understand different scenarios under which the same problem occurs Sensitivity
analysis and Duality is examined. This chapter discusses two aspects. First, what
would be the optimal limits within which the same problem is feasible? For instance,
linear programming would only tell the feasible solution but not the range within
which a changed scenario is viable or feasible. This aspect has been dealt with in
sensitivity analysis. The concept of duality has significant application in implementa-
tion and interpretation of sensitivity analysis. It helps in identifying optimal solution
for a primal problem.
Transportation problem discussed is a special kind of linear programming prob-
lem that is used to determine the number of units to be distributed from limited
supply centres to known demand centres. In the majority of cases, there are more
than one supply and demand centres. This makes the problem of allocating number
of units from one supply centre to a particular demand centre peculiar. With the
increase in the number of supply and demand centres, the problem becomes more
complex. Typically, the objective of a transportation model is to find the minimum
cost required to fulfil demand of various destinations when material is sourced from
xi
xii Preface
various suppliers. This model has been discussed with appropriate cases and solved
examples.
Assignment model is a special form of transportation problem discussed in
Chapter 5. The objective of the assignment model is to allocate or assign jobs to
machines or jobs to people. The most common application of the assignment model
is assigning various jobs to various limited employees. This objective can be fulfilled
based on certain criteria. Various workers can be assigned to various jobs based on
the criteria of least time taken to perform the job or least cost incurred to the com-
pany. The assignment model has a special application in location decision-making.
Which department should be assigned to which building in a University? Should
grocery store be located within a supermarket? An apparel store in a mall is located
in which part of the mall? Assignment model can be helpful in solving such location
problems.
Out of various variants, the chapter on Travelling Salesman, Vehicle Routing and
Shortest Path Problem has discussed three special, practical and complex network
flow models. The traveling salesman problem is considered to be very vital in both
theoretical and industrial applications, though solving it becomes increasingly com-
plex with the increase in the number of nodes. The problem deals with a salesman
or a vehicle starting from origin, visiting every other city (node) only once and then
coming back to source. The objective of Vehicle Routing problem is to allocate a
vehicle to which cities so that savings in terms of distance travelled or time taken is
maximum. The Clark-Wright savings algorithm has been discussed to solve vehicle
routing problems. Finally, the shortest path problem was discussed using Dijkstra’s
algorithm to find the shortest path out of multiple paths from a source to reach to a
destination without the need to come back to origin.
Project Scheduling: PERT and CPM deals with the planning of projects. A project
involves a number of aspects and its successful completion requires a scientific and
systematic approach. PERT and CPM are two such approaches which answer ques-
tions such as how many individuals are required to perform a particular activity? Can
they be used for the performance of other activities? How much time does each activ-
ity take? What is the cost required to perform each activity? These two methods are
network-oriented techniques used primarily to determine project completion time.
Game theory is very relevant in deciding management strategy in the light of
competition. For instance, which advertisement would be successful when two com-
peting products are trying to launch similar products? Which politician would win
an election? The chapter covers the concepts of pure and mixed strategy games.
Which player should follow a strategy that results in the maximum number of game
needs, the construction of game matrix and finding value of the game? This was
explained by illustrating the concepts of saddle point, dominance method, algebraic
and graphical method.
Finally, any suggestions regarding corrections, modifications including addition
or deletion would be highly appreciated. Such suggestions would be very helpful in
formation of a helpful and successful book.
Vikas Singla
Author
Vikas Singla is currently holding the position of Assistant Professor in the School
of Management Studies at Punjabi University, Patiala, India. By qualification, he has
done Industrial Engineering, MBA and Ph.D. After gathering fruitful experience
from the manufacturing industry, he has been in the teaching profession for the last
15 years. He teaches Business Administration and handles subjects in the area of
business statistics, research methodology and operations management. He has been
associated with the ministry of human resource development in formulation modules
in the subject of operations management and advance quantitative techniques for
both under and postgraduate students. His specific research areas include lean manu-
facturing techniques. He has contributed to these fields academically by publishing
research papers in various national and international journals.
xiii
1 An Introduction
Operations Research
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Two kids are competing to build a house out of plastic building blocks. Both would
most likely use a different, but not completely different, method of combining blocks
in order to build a house, despite using similar resources and trying to produce simi-
lar output. In a more complex example, car manufacturing involves more than ten
thousand parts grouped into hundreds of components to build a single car. Two com-
peting manufacturers would be using similar inputs to produce similar output of a
car. However, one house or a particular car is better than the competitor. It could be
better on one or more of various key performance indicators such as quality, aesthet-
ics, durability, creation time, etc. The question is why there is a difference in output
when similar inputs are used. Here comes the importance of understanding of opera-
tions. In the simplest terms, operations can be defined as the process of doing work.
This process is an interaction or a combination of various activities arranged in a
certain way so as to convert resources into formation of a desired product or service
(Figure 1.1). A kid or a car manufacturer applying operations in a more efficient and
effective manner would be able to provide more productive outputs and be able to
defeat competitor.
Historically, to make a process more effective, the work has been categorized
into more specialized arenas. F.W. Taylor, considered as the father of scientific
management, very successfully segregated managerial work from operations work.
Specialization of work by breaking down into as minute entity as possible and seg-
regating them into various disciplines such as finance, marketing, sales, personnel
management, etc. resulted in studying of operations as a separate discipline. Henry
Ford through its Model T established such specialization to its highest degree when
the company by using similar resources as its competitors built a cheaper version
of car by modifying the production process to mass production. No competitor was
Input Operation
Output
(Resources) (combination of activities)
Labour
Capital 1 2
Machinery
Product/Service
Raw material
Data
3
DOI: 10.1201/9781003212966-1 1
2 Operations Research Using Excel
able to match the efficiency of Ford cars even by using the same resources, similar
processes and comparable output. Thus, operation is further defined as the method
of managing processes.
However, specialization of disciplines does not imply isolation or working in sep-
aration. By definition, operations deal with processes or how a work is being done.
Processes are involved in every discipline of an organization. Accounting, finance,
product design, production, marketing, quality control, etc. and many more functions
work by carrying out certain activities. Each function performs activities according to
a certain process to fulfil its role and then interlinks with other functions. Marketing
department through its feedback surveys analyses consumer preferences and places
them with production department, which in order to produce more or new items, asks
for more budget from finance to procure materials and hire more people. Human
resource manager steps in to apply processes of hiring. Purchase department starts
processes of procuring more material and machines and so forth. This entails that
in addition to internal processes of every function, they should gel with each other
effectively. This makes managing of processes or study of operations management as
encompassing every function of an organization and not as a separate entity. Also as
discussed, a process is a way of doing a work and work is being performed by every
organization. A small carpenter, a retail store, manufacturing companies, service
firms, and defence equipment producers all indulge in processes making application
of operations management in order to manage their processes essential. Scale and
complexity of companies in the present hypercompetitive business scenario force
them to produce better whether in terms of quality, price, delivery time or any other
feature. The availability of limited resources which are being fought over by various
players further puts pressure to use valuable and restricted resources to produce more
valuable products. Proper planning, coordination of various functions and managing
of overall operations have been found very effective in achieving such goal.
Solving diverse and complex process problems requires a systematic and math-
ematical approach by using quantitative analysis. A variety of monikers such as man-
agement science, decision science, and operations research (OR) have been used to
describe body of knowledge dedicated to study and research of mathematical struc-
tured methods used in decision-making. The above discussion focussed on explain-
ing the importance of operations in a variety of functions of different organizations.
Thus, this book used Operations Research (OR) as its title.
1.1.1 Genesis of OR
Promulgation of scientific methods of management in the early 20th century encour-
aged the establishment of quantitative approach to decision-making. This approach
became increasingly useful during World War II when the armed forces strongly
applied quantitative methods to help in strategic problems. For instance, British
forces were considered to first utilize methods of OR to understand the application
of radar technology in intercepting enemy aircrafts. Due to the all-encompassing
nature of OR as discussed in solving process problems of different functions, such
application of OR methods was found to be successful by forming teams consisting
of experts from different disciplines such as mathematics, engineering, supply chain,
Operations Research: An Introduction 3
etc. Effective results obtained from OR methods provided an impetus to its flourish
into other fields such as agriculture, manufacturing and services.
From various definitions available pertaining to OR, management science or deci-
sion sciences, a common understanding that emanates is that the OR discipline is a
scientific method providing decision makers quantitative tools for solving problems.
The key points in these definitions are: first, the usage of the term scientific method,
which implies a systematic procedure of solving problems, and second, the use of
mathematical quantitative tools to provide feasible results that can be repeated in
the case of recurrence of similar problem. A thorough understanding of quantitative
methods drastically improves decision-making effectiveness. For example, a logistics
company intending to reduce its transportation cost incurred in supplying materials
from different warehouses to various retailers by adopting an optimum approach
would make an effective decision by using a quantitative approach. Qualitative anal-
ysis would ask for adoption of the shortest possible route. However, a quantitative
well-structured approach would provide comparison of costs incurred on various
approaches and would allow manager to make an informed decision. However, such
an approach requires clear and concise formulation of problem, which is the first step
in the OR process. Details have been discussed in the subsequent section.
1.2
DECISION-MAKING PROCESS IN OR
The entire OR process applied for decision-making by using quantitative tools can
be divided into two categories (Figure 1.2). The first category discusses the essen-
tial steps in formulating a problem accurately, and the second category describes
analysing the problem. To establish the sound conceptual understanding of decision-
making process using OR methods, one should be conversant of steps involved in
such endeavour.
1.2.1 Problem Formulation
This step includes the following sequence:
1. Problem should be well defined: The first and foremost step is to fully
understand and formulate the problem. A problem occurs when there is a
discrepancy between the actual and desired outcomes. For example, under-
graduate students in business management in their year of specialization
face a problem of deciding which discipline to pursue. If there had been no
choice, then problem would not occur, but the number of choices causes an
individual to make a decision.
mall (location A) population had a median income of $5,000 and the shopping plaza
(location B) population had $10,000. Under these circumstances, the retailer wants
to estimate the maximum profit that could be earned by selling specific units to cus-
tomers of A and B.
The following elements can be deduced from the above illustration:
• Decision variables: are those variables that directly influence the achieve-
ment of an objective. In this case, the objective is to maximize the profit of
a sportswear retailer, which is dependent on the number of units being sold
at stores at two different locations. Therefore, the numbers of units being
sold – symbolized by x1 and x2 representing sales at two locations A and B,
respectively – becomes decision variables.
• Objective function: the store manager wants to estimate the number of
units of sportswear being sold at each store, which would maximize prof-
its of the entire chain. Thus, in this case, the objective is profit maximi-
zation. In some cases, such as costs, time to travel, distance, etc., the
objective function could be minimization. However, the objectives of
minimization and maximization are sometimes misnomers because no
cost can be minimized to zero or profits can be increased to the highest
value because every productive activity is performed under certain con-
straints such as limited resources, competition, etc. Thus, more appropri-
ate form of understanding the objective is that the solution achieved is
optimal rather than minimum or maximum. The objective function is
denoted by ‘Z’.
• Constraints: Constraints are the limitations under which any productive
activity is performed. In this case, three constraints are illustrated. The first
constraint is accessibility. The average effective trade area of both stores
was estimated to be a maximum of 14 miles. This implies that a store’s
potential customers would be within the reach of this distance. The second
constraint is population density. It was estimated that the store could fulfil
the demands of an area with a population of 10,000. More than that would
cause inefficiencies in the operations of the store. Finally, income has a
role in influencing purchase intentions. In this case, it was mentioned that
the Adidas store can offer products to customers whose median income is
maximum $20,000. Thus, the objective has to be achieved by considering
these two limiting factors.
• Coefficients: Coefficients used in both constraint and objective function
equations associated with each decision variable indicate the level of activ-
ity per unit. In terms of accessibility, the case illustrates that store can cater
to population residing within 9 and 4 miles of locations A and B, respec-
tively. Similarly, other associations between decision variables and coeffi-
cients of constraints are formulated. In other population density constraints,
coefficients were 2,000 and 7,000, and for constraint of median income,
they were $5,000 and $10,000. For the objective function of maximization,
$80 per unit profit from A and $40 from B are coefficients.
Operations Research: An Introduction 7
• Inequality: Inequalities such as less than (<), less than equal to (≤), greater
than (>) or greater than equal to (≥) represent the relation between level of
activity and maximum or minimum resources available corresponding to
that activity. For instance, the above illustration indicates that maximum
accessibility is 14 miles; maximum population density that can be served is
10,000 with a maximum median income of $20,000.
These elements used in model formulation are denoted by certain symbols. These
generally used symbols are as follows:
Z = c1x1 + c 2 x 2 + + c n x n
a 21x1 + a 22 x 2 + + a 2jx j ≤ b2
+ + + ≤
For the above case and by using explained symbols, the mathematical representation
of the model is as follows:
The objective is to maximize profits that are dependent on the number of units
sold at each store. Therefore, if
x1: represents the number of units sold at a shopping mall in thousands (location A)
x2: represents the number of units sold at a shopping plaza in thousands (location B)
Then, the objective function would be:
9x1 + 4 x 2 ≤ 14
2x1 + 7x 2 ≤ 10
5x1 + 10x 2 ≤ 20
Finally, it is important to mention that the number of units sold could not be negative.
Therefore, very importantly, x1, x2, x3 ≥ 0.
= ( Q / 2) * H
Ordering Cost
Suppose the annual demand for an item is 1,000 units and the manager orders 100
units per order. Thus, he/she has to place an order 10 times. Thus, (D/Q) represents
10 Operations Research Using Excel
Total cost
Ordering cost
the number of orders. As shown in Figure 1.4, as the number of units stored in inven-
tory increases, the annual ordering cost decreases. If S is set up or ordering cost per
order, then:
Annual ordering cost = Number of orders per year * Ordering or set up cost per
order
= ( D/Q ) * S
Figure 1.4 deduces a very important relationship between holding and ordering costs.
The graph clearly shows that as the number of units stored increases, holding cost
keeps on increasing and ordering cost decreases. This is quite understandable, as with
bigger batch size, the frequency of repeating orders automatically decreases. Thus,
ordering and holding costs have an inverse relationship with each other. Importantly,
the intersection of the holding and ordering costs curve indicates the number of units
that should be ordered per batch.
At this intersection point, the most optimum total annual cost can be computed.
In addition, the intersection point if extended further to touch the total cost curve,
it would be touching at the lowest point of curve that is minimum point. Thus, a
solution by using an algorithm involves finding the lowest point for finding out the
objective of minimization. Similarly, in the case of maximization, it would be to
find the highest point. These points are called ‘extreme points’ of the curve. At the
extreme point, change in objective function with change in decision variable is zero
implying a flat rather than increasing or decreasing curve. Mathematically, it can be
explained as change in ‘y’ with change in ‘x’ to be zero. An optimal solution would
be said to be achieved at this point. For unconstrained optimization, it is achieved as
explained below.
As total cost is a combination of two types of cost:
TC = ( Q / 2 ) * H + ( D/Q ) * S
So, we know:
Annual demand D = 2,500;
Holding cost, H = 0.15 * 800 = $12
Ordering cost, S = $50
Operations Research: An Introduction 11
6 – 125,000 / Q 2 = 0
3. Is this the lowest point on curve? For that, take the second derivative:
f ″ ( Q ) = 250,000 / Q 3 > 0.
= $1732.19
Examining the graph (Figure 1.5) provides a very good understanding of the solu-
tion. The objective function was to find the minimum quantity that should be ordered
as a batch size that would minimize the total inventory cost. The minimum point on
the graph is the lowest point where it becomes flat, implying slope to be zero or any
change in ‘x’, i.e. quantity ordered would result in no change in ‘y’. The graph shows
that if Q = 10, then the total cost would be 12,000, and if it is increased to 20 units,
then total cost decreases to 8,000, implying a slope of (12,000–8,000)/(20–10) = 400.
However, this slope is zero at the lowest point, indicating the minimum value of Q.
To summarize the rules of model solution, i.e. to find maximum or minimum for
unconstrained optimization are:
12 Operations Research Using Excel
1.5.2 Case 2: Adidas AG
1.5.2.1 Problem Formulation
Adidas AG is the second largest sportswear manufacturer in the world. The company
is looking to open one of its retail stores in a major capital city. The retailer has short-
listed two locations: a famous shopping mall (location A) which is located at the out-
skirts of city and other a popular shopping plaza (location B) located at heart of city.
The fixed cost of location A is $7,500 and of location B is $7,000 per month. Variable
costs at A and B are expected to be $4 and $3 per unit, respectively. Total cost is a
combination of fixed and variable costs. It is a function of the number of units sold.
Even if no units are sold, the total cost would be equal to the fixed cost. However,
with an increase in sales, total cost would increase by variable cost incurred to sell
that unit as the retailer has to pay for utilities and extra labour. The quantity of units
produced depends on the demand for shoes. Demand varies with the change in price
of shoes. At initial price with no increase, demand was found to be 4,500 units per
month at A and 5,200 at B. However, with every increase in price by one unit, the
decrease in demand was estimated to be by 50 units at A and by 40 at B. Given this
information, the company intends to find the price of shoe at both locations, which
would yield maximum profit.
1.5.2.2 Model Development
The following notations are used to form a mathematical expression for given
problem:
Operations Research: An Introduction 13
Total cost = TC = FC + VC
VC is a function of the number of units sold. So for A it would be 4x and for B 3x.
So, the cost function for location A = f (no. of units x) = 7,500 + 4x
Cost function for location B = f(no. of units x) = 7,000 + 3x
Demand function for location A = f(price per unit p) = 4,500 – 50p
Demand function for location B = f(price per unit p) = 5,200 – 40p
The number of units sold ‘x’ is represented by demand at a particular location.
Therefore, the cost function is converted as follows:
So, the cost function
for location A: f(no. of units x) = 7,500 + 4x
Similarly, for B:
f ( p ) = 7,000 + 3x = 7,000 + 3* ( 5,200 – 40p ) = 22,600 – 120p
(
MaximizeProfit ( B) = 5,200p – 40p2 ) – ( 22,600 – 120p )
It would always be less than zero, implying calculated p would be the maxi-
mum point on the curve (Figure 1.7). It would yield maximum profit.
4. Find profit by putting a value of p = $66.5
= $154,290
Operations Research: An Introduction 15
So, for company to yield the maximum profit, location B proves to be more beneficial.
Graph for location A (Figure 1.6) shows the highest point at $43 per unit, giving a
maximum profit of $66,950. At the highest point, the change in profit with change in
price is constant, resulting in a slope of zero. After the highest point, the curve starts
falling, indicating that if shoes are sold at a higher price than $43, profits will begin
to fall. Similar interpretation can be made for location B (Figure 1.7).
The above illustrated cases explain quantitative solution of identified problems
with no constraints on resources. However, in practical business situations, no prob-
lem is bereft of constraints. Chapter 2 would describe the powerful quantitative
tool of linear programming in solving such problems. The case of Federal Mogul
Corporation would be solved and used for explaining constrained optimization.
1.6 SUMMARY
This chapter discusses the genesis of OR as a discipline by describing its origin from
a combination of various functions such as engineering, product development, opera-
tions management, etc. It emphasized the importance of OR methods in scientific
decision-making through the application of mathematical procedures. The purpose
of this chapter was to make the reader aware of the importance of the OR process in
helping decision makers to make better decisions.
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— Avanti, signora, — incoraggiò sorridendo il Rosetti. — Vediamo se
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meccanica.
Ed ella, che aveva già finito di far colazione, stava appoggiata alla
spalliera della sedia, con le mani in grembo, sorridendo, un po’
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procedeva nel discorso.
— Quello che io penso della macchina.... Dirlo non è facile, così, in
poche parole.... Intendo sopratutto le macchine moderne, l’orgoglio
dei nostri tempi, quelle mosse dal vapore o dall’elettricità. Orbene:
perchè dopo averle fabbricate, dimentichiamo che sono fattura delle
nostre mani e ci inginocchiamo davanti a loro! Perchè esse
producono la ricchezza più velocemente e in maggiore abbondanza
che le mani. Non è così? Ma allora è facile argomentare quel che
occorre, perchè le macchine possano renderci servigio per davvero.
Occorre innanzi tutto che abbondino le materie greggie: se no, che
cosa trasformeranno? Secondo: che abbondi il capitale; perchè si
richiede molto capitale per fabbricarle e metterle in opera. Terzo: che
dell’oggetto fabbricato ci sia grande e urgente richiesta: vera carestia
o quasi: se no, non ci sarebbe ragione di fabbricarne tanti, con tanta
fretta, spesa e fatica. Mi sono spiegata chiaro? Carestia, dunque, ho
detto. Ma può la carestia essere permanente, eterna, continua? Io
direi di no: perchè in una maniera o nell’altra, presto o tardi, per
necessità, qualunque sia l’oggetto desiderato, consumo e bisogno si
devono adeguare.... O crescono i mezzi per soddisfare il bisogno o il
bisogno scema: di qui non si scappa, parrebbe. Quindi la macchina
non dovrebbe poter servire, a giudicare a lume di buon senso, che in
tempi di straordinaria carestia, per soddisfare in poco tempo una
richiesta grande e urgentissima. Per servire di continuo occorrerebbe
che esistesse anche la carestia permanente....
Le premesse del breve discorso erano riuscite lucidissime a tutti: ma
non così le conclusioni.
— La carestia permanente?... — disse l’Alverighi. — Ma neppur ora
capisco. Lo ha detto anche lei che la carestia non può essere eterna!
— La macchina fa l’abbondanza, non la carestia — osservò
l’ammiraglio.
— Anche questo — rispose la Gina — è un punto oscuro assai:
chiarirlo non è facile.... Bisognerebbe forse che raccontassi la storia
della macchina....
Fece una pausa, e poi risolutamente, sempre rivolgendosi
all’ammiraglio: — Per qual ragione — disse — crede lei, ammiraglio,
che la grande industria a macchina sia nata proprio in Inghilterra e
proprio alla fine del secolo XVIII?
— Perchè sino allora — rispose invece dell’ammiraglio l’Alverighi —
nessun popolo era stato così intelligente e ardimentoso da iniziare
un tanto rivolgimento. L’America riconoscerà sempre all’Inghilterra
questa gloria, anche quando l’avrà spogliata del suo impero
industriale.
— E come spiega, allora — chiese la Gina — che nessun popolo
d’Europa sia stato sino alla seconda metà del settecento più avverso
alle macchine dell’Inghilterra? Il governo le proibiva, e gli operai le
rompevano.... Perchè l’Inghilterra aspetta a convertirsi tra il 1770 e il
1790; e quando si converte si mette a filare e a tessere con le
macchine non, per esempio, la lana, che in Inghilterra era un’arte
antichissima, secolare, paesana, ma il cotone che era ancora un’arte
dell’India? «Indiennes, bengalines, calicot», che è Calcutta: i nomi
dicono chiaro donde venivano, nel seicento e nel settecento, i panni
di cotone che si consumavano in Europa e nelle colonie d’America.
La Francia e l’Olanda erano le nazioni che ne facevano il maggior
commercio con l’India: non l’Inghilterra, che anzi, a certi momenti
aveva perfino tentato di proibire ai suoi sudditi i panni di cotone, per
proteggere i panni paesani.... Ma ecco in quel ventennio l’Inghilterra
vince invece l’Olanda e la Rivoluzione lega le mani alla Francia:
l’Inghilterra resta dunque padrona dei mari e allora la vediamo fare
ad un tratto il suo repentino voltafaccia. Perchè? L’Inghilterra non è
mai stata molto originale; lascia di solito gli altri provar le cose
nuove; ma in compenso sa agguantare con risolutezza quando il
momento è giunto. E l’Inghilterra capì allora che quelle macchine
tanto odiate sino allora, che parevano dei sogni di menti bislacche,
potevano servirle in quel momento unico e passeggero, se lo sapeva
cogliere, a spogliar l’India di quella sua antica arte; a conquistare in
pochi anni i mercati dell’America e dell’Europa, che erano stati sino
allora clienti dell’India. E difatti subito, con diritti enormi, proibì
l’esportazione dei tessuti dall’India: obbligò gli Indiani a venderle il
cotone greggio; abolì tutti i divieti emanati prima contro il cotone;
vuotò con questa violenza e fece la carestia nei mercati d’Europa e
di America; monopolizzò la materia greggia. Nel tempo stesso portò
alle stelle gli spregiati inventori di macchine e li incoraggiò con ogni
sorta di premi; vide infatti apparire tra gli altri Watt e Arkwright;
moltiplicò le filature meccaniche, inchiodò al telaio di giorno e di
notte, nelle città e in campagna, nelle case loro e in laboratori,
uomini, donne, vecchi, fanciulli: si scervellò per inventar ogni sorta di
macchine; e in pochi anni l’importazione del cotone greggio e
l’esportazione delle stoffe quadruplicò, se ben ricordo. Nel 1815,
quando l’uragano della rivoluzione dileguò, il mondo si ritrovò in
grembo questa specie di nuovo mostro inaspettato — la grande
industria a macchina — che era nato in mezzo a quella tempesta.
Una delle più spaventose convulsioni della storia lo aveva vomitato
all’improvviso sulla terra.... E avrebbe dovuto sparire, quando il
mondo si ripacificò. Poichè insomma questo grande sforzo era stato
fatto per sfrattare una situazione momentanea, insolita, quasi unica,
che non poteva nè durare nè ripetersi.... Invece il mostro visse, anzi
prolificò....
Ma in quel momento la macchina del «Cordova» fischiò, roca, bassa,
rabbiosa.
— L’equatore, l’equatore! — gridammo, balzando in piedi, tutti,
fuorchè il capitano che, deponendo pacatamente il tovagliolo,
sorrideva e faceva cenno di no con il capo, mentre i camerieri si
avvicinavano sussurrando ossequiosamente:
— È mezzogiorno!
Ma ormai la conversazione era stata scompigliata da quel fischio
improvviso; chi si era levato non si sedette più: uno dopo l’altro si
avviarono tutti verso l’uscio. Andammo quasi tutti a tribordo, ad
aspettar che l’ufficiale venisse a segnare sulla carta il percorso,
discutendo intanto animatamente intorno alle macchine. Ma — oh
delusione — non eravamo giunti che a un grado e 29 minuti di
latitudine, a 30 gradi e 11 minuti di longitudine! Non c’era quindi
speranza di trapassare nell’altro emisfero prima di sera: ci disse
l’ufficiale. L’ora era caldissima: sul sole si era disteso un velo di
vapori sottile ed ardente: nell’immensa cerchia dell’orizzonte, le
nuvole si accavallavano, facevano montagne, grigie alle basi,
abbaglianti le vette: il mare e il cielo si scolorivano, nell’afa velata e
annuvolata che pesava sull’Oceano. Ad uno ad uno, ci disperdemmo
al riposo, nelle cabine, dopo aver convenuto che a pranzo, la sera,
avremmo continuato il discorso intorno alle macchine.
La mia signora spesso mi aveva ripetuto che in questo secolo si può
negar Dio, la patria, la famiglia, ma la macchina no; chè il dubitar
della macchina sembra un folle ardimento non meno che l’oppugnare
ancora la rotazione della terra o l’immoto stare del sole. Mi coricai
per la siesta, pensando che essa aveva proprio ragione. Quella sua
non premeditata interruzione era stata bastevole a suscitare di
improvviso una nuova discussione, più animata ancora e più ardente
delle precedenti.
II.
III.