Module in Nat Sci 122 | Physics for Engineers

CHAPTER X

Vibrations and Waves

Intended Learning Outcomes

1. Describe the force in an elastic spring.

2. Determine the energy stored in an elastic spring.
3. Compare simple harmonic motion and the motion of a pendulum.
4. Identify how waves transfer energy without transferring matter.
5. Contrast transverse and longitudinal waves.
6. Relate wave speed, wavelength, and frequency.

A. Periodic Motion

As we examine motions of an object in the previous chapters you must

noticed that it involves singular action like a rock falling from the top of a
building to the ground. Such motion of the rock just happen one time after
which the rock will remain at rest in the ground.

But some motions are periodic that it involves repeated actions. Like the
motion of a pendulum in an aged clock or the vibration of a spring. We will
refer to this kind of motion as simple harmonic motion.

Two quantities describe simple harmonic motion. The period, T, is the time
needed for an object to repeat one complete cycle of the motion, and the amplitude of the motion
is the maximum distance that the object moves from equilibrium.

B. The Mass on a Spring

Let us say we have a spring that is attached to a stationary surface

and at the other end of the spring there is a box of a particular mass
attached, as shown. If we pull this box so as to expand the spring
and then release the box, it will vibrate back and forth between
more compressed and less compressed states. Assuming that
surface of motion is completely frictionless, then the elastic
potential energy reaches a maximum when the spring is most or least compressed. Kinetic energy
on the other hand is at the maximum when the box is right in the middle and moving the fastest.

Graphing the position of the box against time, it will

display a sinusoidal behaviour where the box continue to
occupy the same positions over a particular period of time
which is why we call this periodic motion.

x = 0 at the equilibrium position of the box where it sat

before we pulled it and assuming zero friction, the box
will oscillate between negative and positive x indefinitely.
In reality, friction will eventually stop the motion. But for many systems, an ideal mass spring
system will be a decent approximation for our real world. There are different springs, some are
loose and some are stiffy. These rigidity of a spring is represented by the spring constant (k).

The force that a spring can exert is calculated by Hookes Law:

Fspring = -kx

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The negative sign indicates that force of the spring is always opposite to the
direction of the motion of the object. When the object compresses the spring,
it will push out, and when the object stretches the spring, it will pull in. In
both cases, the spring is attempting to return to its equilibrium position.
That is why the force applied to spring is called restoring force.

The unit on a spring’s constant is N/m or J. That is when you multiply

by some distance x, you get the force that must be applied to compress that
spring at a distance. The force exerted by a spring is directly proportional to
the distance the spring is stretched.

The elastic potential energy of a spring is equal to one-half times the

product of the spring constant and the square of the displacement.

𝟏
PEsp = 𝟐kx2

where:
k = spring constant
x = stretched/compressed distance

That is, at equilibrium position x=0, there is no PE. The maximum

PE will occur at the maximum distance from the point of equilibrium
in either side. The equation is similar to kinetic energy equation which is
convenient since the two will interchange as the mass oscillates.

A simple pendulum consists of a massive

object, called the bob, suspended by a string or
light rod of length l. A pendulum also displays
periodic motion since it swings back and forth
between the same two positions after the bob is
pulled to one side and released. Although this
involves gravitational potential energy rather
than elastic PE.

We know about KE and PE and we know that these quantities can be altered as an object move.
Like the way potential energy is converted to kinetic energy when an object experiences freefall
towards the ground. But energy can be transformed in a variety of ways. Based on the conservation
of energy, as an object falls, PE is converted to KE and the sum of PE and KE of this object will
be the same at every instant during the freefall and we call this sum that mechanical energy (ME)
of the system. This can be more visualize by simple harmonic motion of a pendulum of an old-
aged clock which uses gravitational potential energy, as shown.

At the top of the swing, the pendulum possesses its maximum PE and zero KE. At the very bottom
of the spring, it possesses its minimum PE and its maximum KE. This two forms interchange
repeatedly. There is a conservation of energy and ME is constant, given by the equation:

ME = KE + PE
𝟏
= 𝟐mv2 + mgh
𝟏 𝟏
mvi2 + mghi = mvf2 + mghf
𝟐 𝟐

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This equation shows an important concept that is the KE and PE of a system, say a pendulum,
will be the same at every point in its motion.

The period of a pendulum is equal to two pi times the square root of the length of the pendulum
divided by the acceleration due to gravity. It does not depend on the mass of the bob or the
amplitude of oscillation.

𝒍
T = 2𝝅√𝒈

Example Problems

1. A rice box weighing 56 N is suspended from the end of a spring. The spring constant (k)
is equal to 310 N/m.

a. Determine the length that the spring stretches with the rice box suspended to it.
b. How much elastic potential energy is stored in the spring when is stretched this far?

Step 1. Analyze the problem and draw a schematic diagram

Known: Unknown:
k = 310 N/m x= ? x=?
F = 56 N PEsp = ?

RICE

Step 2. Calculate for the Unknown

a. Use F = -kx and solve for k.

𝑭
x= The minus sign can be dropped because it just
𝒌
means that the force is restoring.
56 N
=
310 N/m
Substitute F = 56 N, k =310 N/m
= 0.18 m

𝟏
b. PEsp = 𝟐kxz
𝟏
= 𝟐 (310 N/m)(0.18 m)2 Substitute k = 310 N/m, x =0.18m
= 5.0 J

Step 3. Check the Answer

Perform dimensional analysis on the units to check if it were correct. The correct unit for length
of stretched of spring is meters while elastic P.E. is in N-m orJoules.

2. A pendulum with a length of 36.9 cm has a period of 1.22 s. What is the acceleration due
to gravity at the pendulum’s location?

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Step 1. Analyze the problem and draw a schematic diagram

Known: Unknown:
I = 36.9 cm g=?
T = 1.22 s

Step 2. Calculate for the Unknown

𝐼
T = 2𝞹 √
𝑔

Solve for g.

(2𝜋)2 𝐼
g= 𝑇2
4𝜋2 (0.369 𝑚)
= (1.22 𝑠)2
Substitute I = 0.369 m, T =1.22 s
2
= 9.78 m/s

Step 3. Check the Answer

Perform dimensional analysis on the units to check if it were correct. m/s2 are the correct units
for acceleration.

C. Wave Properties

Waves can transfer energy through solids, liquids, gases, and empty spaces or vacuums. They are
produced through vibrations. Think of tossing a ball to a friend, the ball goes to your friend and
carries energy. What about if you and your friend hold a rope in both ends and you give your end
a quick shake, the rope remains in your hand but it still carries energy through the wave that you
created. A wave is a disturbance that carries energy through matter or space.

In Newton’s laws of motion and principles of conservation of energy, you learn the behavior of
particles. These laws and principles also govern the motion of waves. There are many kinds of
waves that transmit energy -water waves, sound waves, and the waves that travel down a rope or
spring are types of mechanical waves. Mechanical waves require a medium, such as water, air,
ropes, or a spring. Because many other waves cannot be directly observed, mechanical waves can
serve as models.

There are two types of waves – longitudinal and transverse.

Either way depends upon how the particles are made to
vibrate as the energy passes.

A wave pulse is a single bump or disturbance that travels

through a medium. If the wave moves up and down at the
same rate, a periodic wave is generated. As shown in the
figure below, the rope is disturbed in the vertical direction, but the pulse travels horizontally. A
wave with this type of motion is called a transverse wave. A transverse wave is one that vibrates
perpendicular to the direction of the wave’s motion.

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When the particles vibrate parallel to the direction

in which the wave is travelling, this is called a
longitudinal wave. The disturbance is in the same
direction as, or parallel to, the direction of the
wave’s motion. Consider the figure. The slinky
don’t leave the hand that’s holding them and it’s
only the energy that travels. An example of
longitudinal wave is sound. A drum that is tramp for instance it gets
vibrated which causes the air particles next to it to vibrate, then the
next and so on until the vibrations reaches the ear, causing the
eardrum to vibrate.

Waves has several properties such as frequency, period, wavelength

and amplitude.

How fast does a wave move? First, measure the displacement of the wave peak, ∆d, then divide
this by the time interval, ∆t, to find the speed, given by v=∆d/∆t.

The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the wave from its position of rest, or
equilibrium. Two similar waves having different amplitudes are shown in the figure. A wave’s
amplitude depends on how it is generated, but not on its speed. More work must be done to generate
a wave with a greater amplitude. For example, strong winds produce larger water waves than those
formed by gentle breezes. Waves with greater amplitudes transfer more energy.

The frequency (f) of a wave is the number of

complete wave or oscillations passing a fixed
point in a given period. This time period is
usually one second. The figure below is an
example of five complete waves. In this
example, therefore, the frequency is five. The
measurement of a wave is Hertz (Hz) which
measures how many complete cycles per
second.

Frequency is often confused with period.

Frequency tells how often something happens,
whereas the period refers to the time it takes to
happen. The period of the wave is the time for
one complete cycle. When something happen
repeatedly, it is referred to as periodic which
refer to the time for the event to repeat. The
period of the earth to orbit the sun, for example
is 365 days, the period of a day is 24 hours.

The frequency of a wave is equal to the reciprocal of the period. The frequency and period of a
wave are related by the following equation.

f = 1/T

The wavelength is the distance between points where the wave pattern repeats itself. The figure
below shows each low point, called a trough, and each high point, called a crest, of a wave. Crests
are spaced by one wavelength. Each trough also is one wavelength from the next. The Greek letter
lambda, represents wavelength.

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The wavelength of a wave is equal to the velocity divided by the frequency.

ƛ = v/f

Example Problems

A sound wave has a frequency of 192 Hz and travels the length of a football field, 91.4 m, in 0.271
s.
a. What is the speed of the waves?
b. What is the wavelength of the wave?
c. What is the period of the wave?
d. If the frequency was changed to 442 Hz, what would be the new wavelength and period?

Step 1. Analyze the problem

Known: Unknown:
f = 192 Hz g=?
d = 91. 4 m 𝞴=?
t = 0.271 s T=?

Step 2. Calculate for the Unknown

a. Solve for v
𝒅
v=
𝒕

𝟗𝟏.𝟒 𝒎
=
𝟎.𝟐𝟕𝟏 𝒔
Substitute d = 91.4 m, t =0.271 s
= 337 m/s

b. Solve for 𝞴.
𝒗
𝞴=
𝒇
𝟑𝟑𝟕 𝒎/𝒔
= Substitute v = 337 m/s, f = 192 Hz
𝟏𝟗𝟐 𝑯𝒛

= 1.76 m

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c. Solve for T.
𝟏
T=
𝒇
𝟏
= Substitute f = 192 Hz
𝟏𝟗𝟐 𝒉𝒛

= 0.00521 m

𝒗
d. 𝞴=
𝒇
𝟑𝟑𝟕 𝒎/𝒔
= Substitute v = 337 m/s, f = 442 Hz
𝟒𝟒𝟐 𝑯𝒛

= 0.726 m

𝟏
T=
𝒇
𝟏
= Substitute f = 442 Hz
𝟒𝟒𝟐 𝑯𝒛

= 0.00226 s

Step 3. Check the Answer

Perform dimensional analysis on the units to check if it were correct. Hz has the units s -1 , so
(m/s)/Hz = (m/s) s =m, which is correct.
Is the magnitude realistic? A typical sound wave travels approximately 343 m/s, so 337 m/s is
reasonable. The frequencies and periods are reasonable for sound waves. 442 Hz is close to a
440-Hz A above middle-C on piano.

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