Lecture notes SL/HL

By
Ms. Anoosha Qaisar
 S3.1 . The Periodic Table
How does the periodic table help us to predict patterns
and trends in the properties of elements?
The periodic table consists of periods, groups and blocks.

Identify the positions of metals, metalloids and non-metals in the periodic table.
physical_metals_fig1.gif
The period number shows the outer energy level that is occupied by electrons.
Elements in a group have a common number of valence electrons.

Groups: vertical columns (18)

• Have similar properties because have same number of electrons in outer shell

Periods: horizontal row (7)

The period number shows the outer energy level that is occupied by electrons.
Elements in a group have a common number of valence electrons.
The period number shows the outer energy level that is occupied by electrons.
Elements in a group have a common number of valence electrons.
The period number shows the outer energy level that is occupied by electrons.
Elements in a group have a common number of valence electrons.
Deduce the electron configuration of an atom up to Z = 36 from the element’s position in the periodic
table and vice versa.

periodic-table-electron-config-terms.gif
Periodicity refers to trends in properties of elements across a period and down a group.
Explain the periodicity of atomic radius, ionic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and
electronegativity.

Effective Nuclear Charge (ENC)

Nuclear charge - given by the atomic number and so increases by
one between successive elements in the table, as a proton is added
to the nucleus.
The outer (valence) electrons which determine many of the
physical and chemical properties of the atom do not, however,
experience the full attraction of this charge as they are shielded
from the nucleus and repelled by the inner electrons.
The effective nuclear charge remains approximately constant going down a
group - in this case, group two.
 Shielding
• Electron shielding refers to the
blocking of valence shell electron
attraction by the nucleus, due to the
presence of inner-shell electrons.

• Electrons in an s orbital can shield p

electrons at the same energy level
because of the spherical shape of the
s orbital.

• the core electrons repelling the outer

electrons, which lowers the effective
charge of the nucleus on the outer
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Periodicity refers to trends in properties of elements across a period and down a group.
Explain the periodicity of atomic radius, ionic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and
electronegativity.

Atomic Size
• The electron cloud doesn’t have a definite edge.

• They get around this by measuring more than 1 atom at a time.

• Summary: it is the volume that an atom takes up

• http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/essentialchemi
stry/flash/atomic4.swf
 Group trends
H
• As we go down a group
(more protons and neutrons Li
in the nucleus), the atoms
get bigger, because Na
each atom occupy another
energy level, making it
farther from the nucleus, so K
the attraction is weaker.

Rb
 Periodic Trends

atomic radius decreases as you go from left to right across a

period.
• Why? These are atoms which occupy the same energy
level; effective nuclear charge increases from left to right,
so the attraction of the electrons to the nucleus is stronger,
making the radius smaller

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Periodicity refers to trends in properties of elements across a period and down a group.
Explain the periodicity of atomic radius, ionic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and
electronegativity.

Ionic Size
• Cations form by losing electrons.

• Cations are smaller than the atom they come from.

• Metals form cations.

• Cations of representative elements have noble gas

configuration.
 Ionic size
• Anions form by gaining electrons.

• Anions are bigger than the atom they come from.

• Nonmetals form anions.

• Anions of representative elements have noble gas

configuration.
Periodicity refers to trends in properties of elements across a period and down a group.
Explain the periodicity of atomic radius, ionic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and
electronegativity.

Periodic Trends
• Metals losing from outer energy level, more protons than
electrons so more pull, causing it to be a smaller species.
• Non metals gaining electrons in its outer energy level, but
there are less protons than electrons in the nucleus, so
there is less pull on the protons, so found further out
making it larger.

B +3 N-3 O-2 F-1

Li+1
+2 +4
Be C
The trend across a period is that the ionic radii decrease as the nuclear charge
increases. Hence, going across period 3 from Na+ to Si4+, the ionic radius decreases.
 Size of Isoelectronic ions

• Positive ions have more protons than electrons so they are smaller.
Ionisation Energy

• Ionization energies increase across a period. The increase in effective nuclear charge
causes an increase in the attraction between the outer electrons and the nucleus and makes
the electrons more difficult to remove.

• Ionization energies decrease down a group. The electron removed is from the energy
level furthest from the nucleus. Although the nuclear charges increase, the effective
nuclear charge is about the same, owing to shielding of the inner electrons, and so the
increased distance between the electron and the nucleus reduces the attraction between
them.
Exceptions to the trend

Beryllium has the electron configuration 1s2 2s2

Boron has the electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p1
Electrons in p orbitals are of higher energy and further from the nucleus than electrons in s
orbitals, therefore they require less energy to remove.
The same explanation can be applied for the drop in ionisation energy from magnesium to
aluminium, except that the electron configurations are 1s2 2s2 2p63s2 and 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
respectively.

Nitrogen has the electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p3

Oxygen has the electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p4
In oxygen, the electron is removed from a doubly occupied p-orbital. An electron in a
doubly occupied orbital is repelled by the other electron and requires less energy to remove
than an electron in a half -filled orbital. The same explanation applies for the decrease in
ionisation energy from phosphorus to sulfur, except that the electrons are being removed
from the 3p sub-level.
Electronegativity

• The tendency for an atom to attract electrons to itself when it is

chemically combined with another element.

• How fair it shares.

• Big electronegativity means it pulls the electron toward it.

• Atoms with large negative electron affinity have larger

electronegativity.
 Group Trend
• The further down a group the farther the electron
is away and the more electrons an atom has.
• So as you go from fluorine to chlorine to bromine
and so on down the periodic table, the electrons
are further away from the nucleus and better
shielded from the nuclear charge and thus not as
attracted to the nucleus. For that reason the
electronegativity decreases as you go down the
periodic table.
 Group Trend
electronegativity decreases as you go down a group.
• Why? Elements near the top of the period table have
few electrons to begin with; every electron is a big
deal. They have a stronger desire to acquire more
electrons. Elements near the bottom of the chart have
so many electrons that loosing or acquiring an
electron is not as big a deal.
• This is due to the shielding affect where electrons in
lower energy levels shield the positive charge of the
nucleus from outer electrons resulting in those outer
electrons not being as tightly bound to the atom.
 Period Trend
• Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period

• When the nuclear charge increases, so will the attraction that the atom
has for electrons in its outermost energy level and that means the
electronegativity will increase
 Period trend
Electronegativity increases as you go from left to right
across a period.
• Why? Elements on the left of the period table have 1 -2 valence
electrons and would rather give those few valence electrons
away (to achieve the octet in a lower energy level) than grab
another atom's electrons. As a result, they have low
electronegativity. Elements on the right side of the period table
only need a few electrons to complete the octet, so they have
strong desire to grab another atom's electrons.
Electron Affinity

• The Group 17 elements have incomplete outer energy levels and a high effective nuclear
charge of approximately −7 and so attract electrons the most.
• The Group 1 metals have the lowest effective nuclear charge of approximately +1 and so
attract the extra electron the least.
Trends in properties of elements down a group include the increasing metallic character of group 1
elements and decreasing non-metallic character of group 17 elements.
Describe and explain the reactions of group 1 metals with water, and of group 17 elements with halide
ions.

Trends in Melting Point

Melting Points of Group 1
Element Melting Point (K)

Li 453
Na 370
K 336
Rb 312
Cs 301
Fr 295
 Metallic bonding
■ Collective bond, not a single bond
■ Strong force of electromagnetic attraction between
delocalized electrons (move freely).
■ This is sometimes described as "an array of positive
ions in a sea of electrons
Why does the melting point decrease going down the alkali
metals family?

• Atoms are larger and their outer electrons are held farther
away from the positive nucleus.

• The force of attraction between the metal ions and the sea of
electrons thus gets weaker down the group.

• Melting points decrease as less heat energy is needed to

overcome this weakening force of attraction.
Melting Points for halogens

Element Melting Point (K)

Fluorine 85

Chlorine 238

Bromine 332

Iodine 457

Astatine 610
 Why does melting point increase going
down the halogens?

• The halogens are diatomic molecules, so F2, Cl2, Br2, I2

• As the molecules get bigger there are more electrons that

can cause more influential intermolecular attractions
between molecules.

• The stronger the I.A, the more difficult it will be to melt.

(more energy needed to break the I.A)
van der Waals forces:
• Electrons are mobile, and although in
a diatomic molecule they should be
shared equally, it is found that they
temporarily move and form slightly
positive end and negative end.
• Now that one end is + and the other -,
there can be intermolecular
attractions between the opposite
charges of the molecules
van der Waals forces
 Chemical Properties
The Noble Gases
The Alkali Metals
The Halogens
 The Halogens

Displacement reactions
 Trend in the Period 3 oxides

• The period 3 oxides show a gradual trend of decreasing

metallic character across the period.

• The type of bonding in the period 3 oxides changes from

ionic to covalent across the period and is determined by
the difference in electronegativity between the bonding
atoms. Na2O, with the largest difference in electronegativity,
forms an ionic compound, whereas Cl2O is covalently
bonded due to the small difference in electronegativity.
Some Properties of the Period 3 oxides
 S3.1.5 Acid Deposition
Understandings:
● Rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved CO2 and has a pH of 5.6. Acid deposition has
a pH below 5.6.
● Acid deposition is formed when nitrogen or sulfur oxides dissolve in water to form HNO3,
HNO2, H2SO4, and H2SO3.
● Sources of the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen and the effects of acid deposition should be
covered
Applications and skills:
● Balancing the equations that describe the combustion of sulfur and nitrogen to their
oxides and the subsequent formation of H2SO3, H2SO4, HNO2, and HNO3.
● Distinction between the pre-combustion and post-combustion methods of reducing
sulfur oxide emissions.
● Deduction of acid deposition equations for acid deposition with reactive metals and
carbonates.
 Causes of acid deposition

• Acid rain refers to solutions with a pH below 5.6, and which

therefore contain additional acids.
– The main contributors to acid rain are the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, which
are primary pollutants.
– Acid rain is a secondary pollutant produced when these acidic gases dissolve
in water.
• Acid deposition is a broader term than acid rain and includes all
processes by which acidic components as precipitates or gases leave
the atmosphere. There are two main types of acid deposition:
– wet acid deposition: rain, snow, sleet, hail, fog, mist, dew fall to ground as
aqueous precipitates;
– dry acid deposition: acidifying particles, gases fall to ground as dust and
smoke, later dissolve in water to form acids.
 Formation of Acid Deposition: Oxides of sulfur
• burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal and heavy oil in power plants
• industrial processes of smelting where metals are extracted from
their ores.
• about 50% of annual global emissions of sulfur dioxide come from
coal.
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
H2O(l) + SO2(g) → H2SO3(aq)

2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

H2O(l) + SO3(g) → H2SO4(aq)

In the presence of ozone and peroxide:

•HO + SO2 → •HOSO2
•HOSO2 + O2 → •HO2 + SO3
 Oxides of Nitrogen
• produced mainly from internal combustion engines, where the
burning of the fuel releases heat energy that causes nitrogen
and oxygen from the air to combine.

N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g) ∆H = +181 kJ mol–1

N2(g) + 2O2(g) → 2NO2(g)
2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)

H2O(l) + 2NO2(g) → HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)

2H2O(l) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) → 4HNO3(aq)

Photo-oxidation
•HO + NO → HNO2
•HO + NO2 → HNO3
https://optioneenvirochemblog1.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/acid.jpg
 Effects of acid deposition
2CaCO (s) + 2SO (g) + O (g) → 2CaSO (aq) + 2CO (g)
Impact on materials 3 2 2 4 2

CaCO (s) + H SO (aq) → CaSO (aq) + H O(l) + CO (g)

3 2 4 4 2 2

CaCO (s) + 2HNO (aq) → Ca(NO ) (aq) + H O(l) + CO (g)

3 3 3 2 2 2

http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/vchembook/images2/196sculpture.gif

Fe(s) + SO (g) + O (g) → FeSO (s) http://userscontent2.emaze.com/images/2ae61d4f-a1b9-496e-bb25-67c4899bf447/7d670aa6-11f0-49ea-

a750-cdfb53662fa8.jpg
2 2 4

Fe(s) + H SO (aq) → FeSO (aq) + H (g)

2 4 4 2
 http://www.streakmaster.com/images/aluminum%20pic%20(1).jpg

Al O (s) + 6HNO (aq) → 2Al(NO ) (aq) + 3H O(l)

2 3 3 33 2
Impact on plant life
• Leeching - important minerals such as Mg2+, Ca2+, and K+ held in
the soil are wash away
• Without sufficient Mg2+ ions, plant cannot synthesize
chlorophyll → no photosynthesis.
• release of substances that are toxic to plants, such as Al3+,
• Stomata are blocked for gas exchange.

http://paksc.org/pk/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/bab2d5d59ac444db8043a4f3e32c9f0e_L.jpg
Impact on water
• fish including trout and perch cannot survive at pH values below 5.
• Below pH 4, rivers are effectively dead as toxic Al3+ ions normally
trapped in the rock as insoluble aluminium hydroxide leach out
under acid conditions:
Al(OH)3(s) + 3H+(aq) → Al3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)

http://images.wisegeek.com/polluted-water-with-dead-fish.jpg
Impact on human health
• Acid rain does not directly affect human health but its components
can react to form fine sulfate and nitrate particles that can travel
long distances and be present in inhaled air.
• These particles irritate the respiratory tract and increase the
risk of illnesses such as asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema.
• can also cause irritation to the eyes.
• The release of toxic metal ions such as Al3+, Pb2+, and Cu2+ by the
reaction of acid rain on metal structures such as pipes is also a
potential health risk.
Reducing SO2 emissions
Pre-combustion
• Where the sulfur is present as a metal sulfide, it can be removed
by crushing the coal and washing with water. The high density
metal sulfide sinks to the bottom and so separates from the clean
coal.
• Hydrodesulfurization (HDS) is a catalytic process that removes
sulfur from refined petroleum products by reacting it with
hydrogen to form hydrogen sulfide, H2S. This is a highly toxic gas,
so it is captured and later converted into elemental sulfur for use
in the manufacture of sulfuric acid, H2SO4.
Reducing SO2 emissions
Post-Combustion
• Flue-gas desulfurization can remove up to 90% of SO2 from flue gas in the smoke
stacks of coal-fired power stations before it is released into the atmosphere.
• uses a wet slurry of CaO and CaCO3 which reacts with SO2 to form the neutral
product calcium sulfate, CaSO4.
CaO(s) + SO2(g) → CaSO3(s)
CaCO3(s) + SO2(g) → CaSO3(s) + CO2(g)
2CaSO3(s) + O2(g) → 2CaSO4(s)

The calcium sulfate has industrial uses such as making plasterboard.

http://www.kelin-china.com/uploads/140308/1-14030QI14W06.jpg
Reducing NOx emissions
Catalytic converters in vehicles
• hot gases are mixed with air and
passed over a platinum- or
palladium-based catalyst.
Pt/Pd
2CO(g) + 2NO(g) --------→ 2CO2(g) + N2(g)

Lower temperature combustion

• formation of nitrogen monoxide is
reduced at lower temperature
• Recirculating the exhaust gases back
into the engine lowers the temperature
to reduce the nitrogen oxide in the
emissions.

http://smallprint.no/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/AutomotiveCatalyticConverter_0.jpg
Other options

• lowering the demand for fossil fuels.

• More efficient energy transfer systems
• greater use of public transport
• and switching to renewable energy sources are all part of this.
• The restoration of ecosystems damaged by acid rain is a
long-term process. One method is to use calcium oxide (CaO),
known as lime, or calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) to neutralize the
acid.

CaO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(s) + H2O(l)

Ca(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
Introduction to Oxidation States

Oxidation state: A hypothetical

charge assigned to an atom
based on electron transfer.
It helps track electron distribution
in both ionic and covalent
compounds.
 Oxidation State vs. Ionic Charge
Oxidation states are hypothetical values for electron tracking.
Ionic charge indicates actual gain/loss of electrons.
Rules for Assigning Oxidation States
List of six rules:
1. Pure elements have an oxidation state of 0.
2. Monatomic ions’ oxidation state equals their
charge.
3. Oxidation states in neutral compounds sum to
zero.
4. In polyatomic ions, oxidation states sum to the
ion’s charge.
5. Group-specific oxidation states (e.g., Group 1:
+1, Group 2: +2).
6. Assign metals positive oxidation states first,
then non-metals.
6. Assign positive oxidation numbers to the most
metallic elements first and negative oxidation
numbers to the most non−metallic elements first.

Since metallic character is defined as the

tendency of an atom to lose electrons and
non−metallic character as the tendency of an
atom to gain electrons these are the elements that
will have the most predictable oxidation state.

In most cases, this involves working from the

elements on the outside of the chemical formula
and working inwards.
Deduce and compare the oxidation states of each element in NO and
NO2.
Practice Problems:
Assign oxidation states to
the following:
○ Fe₂O₃
○ SO₄²⁻
○ NH₄⁺