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Computational Synthesis and Creative Systems

Penousal Machado
Juan Romero
Gary Greenfield Editors

Artificial
Intelligence
and the Arts
Computational Creativity, Artistic
Behavior, and Tools for Creatives
Computational Synthesis and Creative Systems

Series Editors
François Pachet, Paris, France
Pablo Gervás, Madrid, Spain
Andrea Passerini, Trento, Italy
Mirko Degli Esposti, Bologna, Italy
Creativity has become the motto of the modern world: everyone, every institution,
and every company is exhorted to create, to innovate, to think out of the box. This
calls for the design of a new class of technology, aimed at assisting humans in tasks
that are deemed creative.
Developing a machine capable of synthesizing completely novel instances from a
certain domain of interest is a formidable challenge for computer science, with
potentially ground-breaking applications in fields such as biotechnology, design,
and art. Creativity and originality are major requirements, as is the ability to interact
with humans in a virtuous loop of recommendation and feedback. The problem
calls for an interdisciplinary perspective, combining fields such as machine
learning, artificial intelligence, engineering, design, and experimental psychology.
Related questions and challenges include the design of systems that effectively
explore large instance spaces; evaluating automatic generation systems, notably in
creative domains; designing systems that foster creativity in humans; formalizing
(aspects of) the notions of creativity and originality; designing productive
collaboration scenarios between humans and machines for creative tasks; and
understanding the dynamics of creative collective systems.
This book series intends to publish monographs, textbooks and edited books with
a strong technical content, and focuses on approaches to computational synthesis
that contribute not only to specific problem areas, but more generally introduce new
problems, new data, or new well-defined challenges to computer science.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15219

Penousal Machado • Juan Romero
Gary Greenfield
Editors

Artificial Intelligence
and the Arts
Computational Creativity, Artistic Behavior,
and Tools for Creatives
Editors
Penousal Machado Juan Romero
Department of Informatics Engineering Faculty of Computer Science
University of Coimbra University of A Coruña
Coimbra, Portugal A Coruña, Spain

Gary Greenfield
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science
University of Richmond
Richmond, VA, USA

ISSN 2509-6575 ISSN 2509-6583 (electronic)

Computational Synthesis and Creative Systems
ISBN 978-3-030-59474-9 ISBN 978-3-030-59475-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59475-6

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to our parents for their unconditional
love, support and encouragement.
Preface

Be kind, resourceful, beautiful, friendly, have initiative, have a sense

of humour, tell right from wrong, make mistakes, fall in love, enjoy
strawberries and cream, make someone fall in love with it, learn from
experience, use words properly, be the subject of its own thought,
have as much diversity of behaviour as a man, do something really
new. Alan Turing [1]
When people think about Artificial Intelligence, they tend to think about
logic, reasoning, problem solving, natural language processing, image recogni-
tion, autonomous driving, rational thought and, most likely, machines plotting
to kill us, enslave us, or take our jobs.
These associations and fears are justifiable. Artificial Intelligence research
has focused, and to a large extent still does focus, on these areas of research;
and the eventual rise of intelligent machines poses obvious risks. Nevertheless,
this perspective reflects a rather limited view of Intelligence and of Artificial
Intelligence research.
We posit that emotions, creativity, aesthetics, artistic behavior, divergent
thoughts and curiosity are a fundamental part of the human experience. Fur-
thermore, we consider them to be hallmarks of Human Intelligence and, pos-
sibly, a prerequisite or unavoidable consequence of Human-level Intelligence.
As such, in our view, a system that lacks such abilities is likely to have con-
siderable shortcomings and show a limited form of intelligence.
Although, we do not defend the imitation of Human Intelligence as the ul-
timate goal for Artificial Intelligence research, we consider that the previously
mentioned characteristics are instrumental for the development of Human-
Centered Artificial Intelligence systems able to relate, communicate, and un-
derstand human motivations, desires and needs.
For these reasons we are interested in the study and development of compu-
tational creativity and more specifically, in the development of systems that
exhibit artistic behavior or that can improve humans’ creative and artistic
abilities.

VII
VIII Preface

We live in a wonderful world where Artificial Intelligence boldly goes where

no machine has gone before, every single day. Major companies such as Google,
Amazon or Tesla make spectacular advances in AI, while small companies
create applied AI products for aesthetics prediction like PhotoIlike.com.
In recent years, the growth of the scientific community devoted to Com-
putational Creativity and the developments in the field of Machine Learn-
ing – along with increasing computational power – has given rise to several
novel possibilities for the application of Artificial Intelligence, most notably
of Artificial Neural Networks, to fields like music, art, sound, architecture,
and design. In fact, although techniques and applications such as deep learn-
ing, generative adversarial neural networks, variational auto-encoders, style
transfer, deep fakes, deep dreams, etc., are currently widespread, they were
implausible a few years ago.
This book is aimed at a wide audience including researchers, artists, ex-
perts and, generally speaking, all those who are interested in exploring the
relationship between Artificial Intelligence and the arts, design and music,
independently of their background or approach, and it endorses an all encom-
passing view of intelligence, which is, by no means, limited to anthropocentric
approaches.
We strived to reach these goals by putting together a comprehensive set
of chapters that synthesizes the current trends in the field, reflects upon it,
and identifies the core challenges and opportunities that lie ahead, while also
presenting novel contributions and applications that advance the state-of-the-
art. The book is divided into five sections: Visual Arts, Music, 3D, Other Art
Forms, and Artistic Perspectives.
In the opening section, Visual Arts, Gary Greenfield focuses on visual art
based on swarming techniques, and virtual and physical robotics, as well as
neural networks and deep learning; Colin G. Johnson addresses various aes-
thetic theories highlighting a number of areas that have been neglected by
computer system builders and that could be considered future opportunities
within the area; and Florian Uhde focuses on the transfer of artistic style, high-
lighting recent technologies and offering information on various approaches.
In the section on Music: Geraint A. Wiggins deals with the topic of musi-
cal composition from the perspective of Artificial Intelligence in a philosoph-
ical way; Maximos Kaliakatsos-Papakostas shows us a first step towards new
methodologies of music generation that combine the strengths of other previ-
ously researched approaches; and James McDermott focuses on the training
variational autoencoder neural networks in an unsupervised way using MIDI
drum loops.
For the section on 3D Tom De Smedt, Ludivine Lechat, Ben Burtenshaw
and Lucas Nijs provide their views on the research that the Experimental Me-
dia Research Group (EMRG) of the St. Lucas School of Arts in Antwerp has
carried out over the past 15 years in relation to computer graphics and Artifi-
cial Intelligence; and Jonathan Eisenmann discusses the challenges and prac-
tical strategies for integrating machine learning into design software through
 Preface IX

a case study, in which the software (Adobe Dimension) configures a 3D envi-

ronment.
The section on Other Art Forms, starts with Pablo Gervás’ review of com-
putational approaches for the creation of narratives, comparing them with ex-
isting models of human performance in similar tasks. Michael Cook addresses
the automated game design system ANGELINA. Antonio Liapis analyzes the
prism of the six facets of creativity involved in the gaming experience, high-
lighting important examples of human creativity in commercial games and
how Artificial Intelligence has been applied to generate content for each of
these facets.
In the last section of the book, Artistic Perspectives, Alan Dorin presents
a comparison between the collective and subconscious design of flowers, made
by bees, and the human design process using computers. Miguel Carvalhais, on
the other hand, focuses on the processes to achieve closure through a procedu-
ral reading in computational artworks that centre their aesthetic experiences
on procedurality rather than form. Jon McCormack concludes the book by
presenting new methods for hybrid design relationships between living organ-
isms, human designers and programmable machines.
We hope that the book presents a fair and open-minded view of the area
and puts forward two core propositions:
• Creative artistic behavior is one of the key challenges, possibly the ultimate
challenge, of Artificial Intelligence research;
• Computer-Assisted Creativity and Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence
systems are the driving forces for research in this area.
Considering current developments in the field of Artificial Intelligence, and
the dangers they pose to democracy and even human rights, we take this op-
portunity to defend the assertion that Artificial Intelligence should contribute
to strengthen social ties, promote consensus, encourage solidarity. AI devel-
opments should be guided by principles of social responsibility, promoting
inclusion and equality. Thus, we need Artificial Intelligence systems that are
able to actively collaborate with human beings, understand our motivations,
and counterbalance our faults, ultimately making us better humans. And for
all of that, we need creative Artificial Intelligence.

Acknowledgement. This book would have never been possible without the continu-
ous support and dedication of many.
We take this opportunity to thank the authors for their willingness to participate
in this project and for their contributions and patience. Likewise, we would also like
to thank the reviewers for their dedication, expertise and feedback, for assisting the
authors in further improving their chapters, and Iria Santos who provided invaluable
help in the proofreading and editing tasks. We also express our gratitude towards
Springer’s editorial staff, especially Ronan Nugent, for their encouragement and
support.
The research in this area of knowledge has been nurtured throughout the years
by a large and varied group of researchers that have become part of our family and
X Preface

enriched our lives. As such, we take this opportunity to thank and acknowledge the
work done by the evoMUSART, evo* and Computational Creativity communities
who created an environment that allowed this area to flourish.
A final word of thanks goes to our research groups and colleagues for being there
whenever we needed them.

Coimbra, A Coruña, Richmond Penousal Machado

October 2020 Juan Romero
Gary Greenfield

References

[1] Turing, A.M.: Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind LIX(236),

433–460 (1950). DOI 10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433. URL https://doi.
org/10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433
Contents

Part I Visual Arts

1 Artificial Life and Artificial Intelligence Advances in the

Visual Arts
Gary Greenfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Aesthetics, Artificial Intelligence, and Search-Based Art
Colin G. Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 Applicability of Convolutional Neural Network Artistic
Style Transfer Algorithms
Florian Uhde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Part II Music

4 Artificial Musical Intelligence: Computational Creativity in

a Closed Cognitive World
Geraint A. Wiggins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5 Evolutionary Music, Deep Learning and Conceptual
Blending: Enhancing User Involvement in Generative Music
Systems
Maximos Kaliakatsos-Papakostas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6 Representation Learning for the Arts: A Case Study Using
Variational Autoencoders for Drum Loops
James McDermott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

XI
XII Contents

Part III 3D

7 Case Studies in Computer Graphics and AI

Tom De Smedt, Ludivine Lechat, Ben Burtenshaw, Lucas Nijs . . . . . . . . . 165
8 Setting the Stage for 3D Compositing with Machine
Learning
Jonathan Eisenmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

Part IV Other Art Forms

9 Computational Models of Narrative Creativity

Pablo Gervás . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
10 Learning from Responses to Automated Videogame
Design
Michael Cook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

11 Artificial Intelligence for Designing Games

Antonios Liapis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

Part V Artistic Perspectives

12 Bees Select Flowers, Humans Select Images: New Designs

for Open-Ended Interactive Evolutionary Computation
Inspired by Pollination Ecology
Alan Dorin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
13 Breaking the Black Box: Procedural Reading, Creation of
Meaning, and Closure in Computational Artworks
Miguel Carvalhais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
14 Organism-Machine Hybrids
Jon McCormack, Natalie Alima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
List of Contributors

Natalie Alima Gary Greenfield

SensiLab, Monash University, University of Richmond, Richmond,
Monash, Australia Virginia, USA
[email protected] [email protected]
Ben Burtenshaw
University of Antwerp, Belgium Maximos Kaliakatsos-
[email protected] Papakostas
Miguel Carvalhais Institute for Language and Speech
INESC TEC & Faculty of Fine Arts, Processing, Athena Research and
University of Porto, Portugal Innovation Centre, Marousi, Greece
[email protected] [email protected]
Michael Cook
Queen Mary University of London, Ludivine Lechat
London, UK St Lucas School of Arts, Antwerp,
[email protected] Belgium
Alan Dorin [email protected]
Faculty of Information Technol-
ogy, Monash University, Monash, Antonios Liapis
Australia Institute of Digital Games, Univer-
[email protected] sity of Malta, Msida, Malta
J Eisenmann [email protected]
Adobe, San Francisco, CA, USA
[email protected] Penousal Machado
Pablo Gervás University of Coimbra, Centre for
Facultad de Informática e Instituto Informatics and Systems of the
de Tecnologı́a del Conocimiento, University of Coimbra, Department
Universidad Complutense de Madrid, of Informatics Engineering, Coimbra,
Madrid, Spain Portugal
[email protected] [email protected]

XIII
XIV List of Contributors

Jon McCormack Tom De Smedt

SensiLab, Monash University, St Lucas School of Arts, Antwerp,
Monash, Australia Belgium
[email protected] [email protected]
James McDermott
National University of Ireland,
Galway, Ireland Florian Uhde
[email protected] Volkswagen AG, Wolfsburg, Faculty
Lucas Nijs of Computer Science, University of
St Lucas School of Arts, Antwerp, Magdeburg, Germany
Belgium [email protected]
[email protected]
Juan Romero
University of A Coruña, CITIC, Geraint A. Wiggins
University of A Coruña, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussel,
Spain Belgium
[email protected] [email protected]
 Part I

Visual Arts
1
Artificial Life and Artificial Intelligence
Advances in the Visual Arts

Gary Greenfield

University of Richmond, Richmond, Virginia, USA [email protected]

Summary. In A Handbook on Evolutionary Art and Music, Matthew Lewis gave

a comprehensive survey of evolutionary visual art and design. His organizational
framework establishes a baseline for introducing key developments that have oc-
curred in the last decade relating to artificial intelligence (AI) and artificial life
(AL) in the visual arts. It is our touchstone for focusing on visual art grounded in
swarm techniques, virtual and physical robotics, and neural nets and deep learning
as well as for consideration of the impact creativity driven research has had on the
way practitioners approach and evaluate AI and AL influenced art.

1.1 Introduction
In A Handbook on Evolutionary Art and Music [93], Matthew Lewis [65] provided a
comprehensive survey of evolutionary visual art and design that covered the years
1990-2007. Even though his principal focus was on the use of genetic algorithms in
the visual arts, his survey touched upon some aspects of artificial intelligence (AI)
by including commentary about the use of automated fitness functions in generative
art, and neural nets, in addition to artificial life (AL) techniques in generative art,
as well as the emergence of automated art critics, computational aesthetics and
computational creativity. Since 2007 many more articles, surveys and artworks have
continued to advance what one might call the “vanilla” generative art and genetic
algorithms visual arts tradition. The classification scheme Lewis developed serves as
a touchstone for surveying mainstream AI and AL themes that have come to the fore
since 2007. Further, the exhaustive list of references Lewis tabulated, provide the
time line necessary for documenting our survey of subsequent developments. More
precisely, Lewis’ references serve as our entry point for surveying AI and AL advances
in the visual arts involving swarm art, robotic art (both virtual and physical), neural
nets and deep learning, and creativity since 2007.
A few caveats. It is difficult to classify or categorize some of the works we will
discuss. Several could be included under multiple topics and it must be emphasized
that where we have placed them is therefore subjective. We also occasionally com-
mingle AI and AL thematic work without trying to distinguish between the two.
Moreover, in this survey we seldom include technical details or comments, referring

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 3

P. Machado et al. (eds.), Artificial Intelligence and the Arts, Computational
Synthesis and Creative Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59475-6_1
4 Gary Greenfield

the reader to the references instead. We should also emphasize that this chapter
is devoted wholly to visual fine art, thus material devoted to games and gaming
appears elsewhere in this volume.

1.2 Swarm Art

When discussing swarm — art inspired by the flocking rules first formulated by
Reynolds [90] — Lewis cites Kwong and Jacob [64] and also refers readers to a
chapter by Jacob and Hushlak [60] which fleshes out their work. Lewis further cites
the original “ant paintings” paper of Aupetit et al. [8] and Greenfield’s extension
of that work [42] as well as Urbano’s work on software agents (which he viewed as
ants) sensing environmentally produced simulated pheromones [107]. A chapter by
Monmarché et al. [83] fills in technical details concerning ant paintings.
Since that time two survey articles, one by Greenfield and Machado [57] covering
a variety of swarm art methodologies, and another by Greenfield and Machado [55]
that is wholly devoted to ant and ant-colony inspired art, have appeared. In this
section we update this topic.

1.2.1 Agent-Based Swarms

Jacob et al. [61, 67] have continued their exploration of swarm art using swarms in
three dimensions via their Swarmart system. Urbano [110] has experimented with
a two-dimensional time-based “firefly” system that yields video as artistic output.
McCormack [76] has employed agent-based swarms for his “niche constructions”.
Barrass [10] explored the artistic potential of swarms inspired by ant behavior but
using neural nets (see Figure 1.1). Video of his work is can be found online [11].
Barrass was very careful to distance himself from any notion that he was attempting
to simulate ant biology or ant behavior as evidenced by the following quote, which
explains why we have noted his work here rather than below:

I should note that the ant metaphor is only a starting point for the work,
and a convenient way to think about the agents in the system. I am not
making any serious comparison with the behaviour of living creatures [10,
p. 63]

1.2.2 Ant Paintings

As mentioned previously, Aupetit et al. [8] first introduced the term “ant paint-
ings” in conjunction with interactively evolving abstract images where virtual agents
treated color as a simulated pheromone. Greenfield [42] extended this method to
evolve similar abstract imagery using fitness functions. Urbano [107, 108] created
ant paintings where the environment exuded simulated scent that attracted ants
and where image coloring was determined by which ants reached the scent first.
 1 Artificial Life and Artificial Intelligence Advances in the Visual Arts 5

Fig. 1.1: somant329-50. Still from a video by Tim Barrass. c Tim Barrass
2004

Abstract Ant Paintings

Greenfield [45] combined many of these ideas in a multi-pheromone ant painting

system in which the environment produces pheromones and ants deposit both an
attracting and a repelling pheromone (see Figure 1.2). Greenfield and Machado [56]
used a gray scale version of an ant painting model as a software component in an
“artists and critics” simulation about which we will have more to say in Section 1.5.
Greenfield [49] then followed up with a colorized version of the model to further
explore the artistic potential of this genre of ant paintings.

Representational Ant Paintings

Semet et al. [101] appear to be the first to combine image processing techniques
with ant colony simulation methods to develop non-photorealistic rendering styles
by using swarms of virtual ants roaming over digital photographs to yield represen-
tational, as opposed to abstract, imagery.
There are several contributions by al-Rifaie et al. in this domain [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 14]
although the titles of some of their papers don’t always reflect this. Following on
al-Rifaie et al. [1] and Bishop and al-Rifaie [14], the culmination is al-Rifaie et al.
[2] which invokes a multi-stage algorithm using a swarm to stylize line drawings by
6 Gary Greenfield

Fig. 1.2: LLs24031. A multi-pheromone ant paining. c Gary Greenfield 2005

first having agents use stochastic diffusion search to locate salient lines and then
dispersive flies optimization to generate corresponding stylized lines.
Fernandes and his various co-authors [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32] have used ant colony
algorithms as a clustering technique for identifying and abstracting salient parts of
images. Some impressive results have come from unleashing his version of virtual
ants on digital reproductions of well-known paintings by Mondrian, Kandinsky, Miro
and Pollock (see Figure 1.3) to “abstract the abstract” [28].
Machado and Pereira [72] describe the non-photorealistic rendering system Pho-
togrowth, relying on a model where simulated ants roam over an image under the
control of a fitness function while depositing “paint” on a separate virtual canvas
(see Figure 1.4). Machado et al. [68, 70] later modified their system so that users
could design fitness functions to guide evolution. Martins and Machado have also
created a bot that is described in a web site [74] such that users can submit photos
using Instagram and have them returned as ant painting reproductions.
Putri and Mukundan [89] use a (particle) swarm for image analysis to help guide
stroke placement for non-photorealistic painterly rendering of an input image.

Ant-Behavior Art

Advances in ant painting techniques have also come about by considering ant behav-
iors that are not related to pheromones. Urbano [109] initiated this line of inquiry
by exploring artistic possibilities derived from the nest building behavior of T. al-
bipennis ants who build circular bivouac nests by gathering and depositing grains
of sand, an example of the principle of stigmergy. We include two artworks of this
type as described by Greenfield [52, 54]: Figure 1.5 highlights the basic technique
 1 Artificial Life and Artificial Intelligence Advances in the Visual Arts 7

wherein multiple ant colonies search, find, return and deposit sand grains according
to the grain color they prefer, while Figure 1.6 uses the technique to reproduce as an
ant painting an historic computer programmed design from the 1960s by computer
art pioneer Manuel Quejido.
Greenfield [38] used a stylized model of the seed foraging behavior of P. barbatus
ants — a species that strikes out from the nest individually, but repeatedly, in
preferred directions to search, find and return with seeds — in order to make ant
paintings (see Figure 1.7).
Following a model by Jones for simulating the formation of the nutrient transport
networks of the slime mold Physarum that was implemented by using remote sensing
of virtual pheromones by virtual ants [62], Greenfield [37] adapted this method to
create abstracts that were overlays of the resulting patterns that are formed (see
Figure 1.8). It should be noted that although remote visual sensing by ants has been
reported in the literature, how widespread and to what extent it occurs is unknown.

Fig. 1.3: Abstract ant paintings derived from well-known paintings. c Carlos
Fernandes 2014
8 Gary Greenfield

1.3 Robotics
Lewis lists Moura and Ramos’ “nonhuman art” [87] under swarm art since, even
though these paintings were executed using a small number of physical robots,
“swarm art” was part of the title of their 2002 paper. Moura and Pereira clari-
fied this somewhat in 2004 [86] by referring to the paintings as “symbiotic art” and
including “man + robots” in their title. Lewis also cites Greenfield [50] for his vir-
tual robot simulation modeled after Khepera robots and includes a figure of one of
his evolved virtual robot paintings.

1.3.1 Virtual Robots

Under virtual robots, we wish to include agent-based artwork where the agents use
controllers to navigate in a simulated (usually two-dimensional) environment.
Greenfield has described further projects involving his Khepera inspired virtual
drawing robots including: using an algorithm to transcribe mouse DNA into con-
troller commands via look-up tables [44], evolving higher level language controller
programs [39] and modifying his virtual robot design so that it supported curvilinear
pen path motion while the robots traveled in a straight line [47].

Fig. 1.4: Dancer. c Tiago Martins and Penousal Machado 2014

 1 Artificial Life and Artificial Intelligence Advances in the Visual Arts 9

The difficulty in deciding what is or isn’t a virtual robot painting comes into
sharp focus with the work of Chappell [17, 18], who posits a software agent with
multiple sensing mechanisms that responds to marks it has previously made. Green-
field [51] used a simplified version of Chappell’s agents to create labyrinths drawn by
a virtual robot executing a self-avoiding walk (see Figure 1.9). He also used multiple
instances of these simplified robots to evolve both “avoidance drawings” [40] where
robots avoid the paths of other robots but are allowed to recross their own paths
(see Figure 1.10) and “deflection drawings” where, in addition, the robots must
avoid physical obstacles strategically placed in their environment [43]. Another clas-
sification problem is presented by Greenfield [53] who, after modifying the agents
discussed in Section 1.2 that were modeled after T. Albipennis ants, caused them to
be re-conceptualized as “pick-up, carry and drop mobile automata” since the result-
ing grain collection patterns were no longer obtained by obeying a strike out radially
from the nest and then return behavior. This blurring of software swarms, automata,
and virtual robots has a long history reaching as far back as Turk’s “Turmites” [22]
and Annunziato’s Nagual experiments [6, 7].
A rare exception to virtual robots operating in a two-dimensional environment
is provided by Murray-Rust and von Jungenfeld [88] who describe Lichtsuchende,

Fig. 1.5: Stigmergy ant painting. c Gary Greenfield 2012

10 Gary Greenfield

an interactive installation built using a society of biologically inspired, cybernetic

creatures — phototropic robots — who exchange light both as a source of energy
and as a means of communication. Viewers interact with and influence the creatures
using flashlights.

1.3.2 Physical Robots

Work with physical drawing robots since Moura has drawn less attention than soft-
ware drawing robots. Bird et al. [12, 13] tackle the problem of evolving from scratch a
controller for drawing curves. Yoyotte et al. have posted a tantalizing and intriguing
video [116] showing a small group of drawing robots creating drawings that bear the
hallmarks of Moura’s symbiotic art. Also of interest, but equally hard to document
and reference, is the work of Braumann and his students at Linz Art University with
industrial KUKA robots [59]. The most definitive work has been done by McCor-
mack [78]. As a continuation of his software agent niche construction drawings [76],
McCormack designed and built drawing robots that would physically, as opposed to
virtually, implement a niche establishment algorithm by reinforcing lines previously
drawn (see Figure 1.11).

1.4 Neural Nets and Deep Learning

In his three short paragraphs devoted to neural nets, Lewis cites “The Artificial
Painter” by Lund et al. [66], various projects based on the NeuroEvolution of Aug-

Fig. 1.6: Ant painting homage to M. Quejido. c Gary Greenfield 2014

 1 Artificial Life and Artificial Intelligence Advances in the Visual Arts 11

Fig. 1.7: Stylized ant painting based on a P. barbatus seed foraging model.
c Gary Greenfield 2013

mented Topologies (NEAT) infrastructure developed by Stanley [104], seminal work

by Baluja et al. [9] on trying to automate fitness within a Sims’ style genetic pro-
gramming image generation system [102], a project to colorize gray scale images by
Machado et al. [71] and work by Saunders and Gero [96] on using neural nets for
aesthetic evolution. Since Lewis’ goal was surveying evolutionary art, he did not in-
clude the work of Barrass [10, 11] mentioned in Section 1.2 who used one-dimensional
Kohonen self-organizing maps as the “brains” for his simulated ants.

1.4.1 Neural Nets

Stanley, along with his students and collaborators, has continued to develop projects
based on NEAT, most notably the interactive “PicBreeder” system [99, 100], as
well as additional projects using compositional pattern producing networks [103,
105]. NeuroEvolution of Augmenting Topologies (NEAT) is a genetic algorithm for
evolving artificial neural networks.

1.4.2 Deep Learning

Mordvintsev et al. [85] convincingly demonstrate why “deep learning”, which refers
to the use of convolutional neural nets with many hidden layers, is useful in evo-
lutionary and generative art. As the time of this writing, this is the most active
12 Gary Greenfield

Fig. 1.8: Overlay pattern formed by swarms of remote sensing virtual ants.
c Gary Greenfield 2011

Fig. 1.9: Virtual robot labyrinth. c Gary Greenfield 2015

area of AI visual art. Evidence for this comes from the recent sale at Christie’s of
a painting titled “The Portrait of Edmund Belamy” executed by deep learning AI
software from the Paris based collective Obvious for US $432,500 even though the
original auction estimate had been US $7,000-10,000 (see Molina [84] or Flynn [33]).
 1 Artificial Life and Artificial Intelligence Advances in the Visual Arts 13

Fig. 1.10: Evolved avoidance drawing. c Gary Greenfield 2015

Fig. 1.11: Niche construction robot drawing. c Jon McCormack 2017

The roots of the use of deep learning in the arts lie in image style transfer which
refers to the problem of trying to recolor an image so that it looks as though it was
done in the style of a well-known painter. For example, one might seek to recolorize a
landscape photograph so that it looks as though it might have been painted by, say,
14 Gary Greenfield

Fig. 1.12: Image style transfer examples by Gatys et al. c Leon Gatys 2016

Van Gogh. Gatys et al. [35, 36] have achieved convincing results using convolutional
neural nets (see Figure 1.12). Joshi et al. [63] describe its use in a production setting.
Generative adversarial nets (GANs) were first introduced by Goodfellow et al.
[58]. The idea is similar to examples found in evolutionary art such as the co-
evolutionary arms race designed by Greenfield featuring a competition between
“hosts” (digital images) and “parasites” (digital filters) [48] or the system of
Machado et al. [69] where an image generator process (a genetic programming algo-
rithm) competes against an image discriminator process (a neural net). With GANs
one neural net classifies images while a competing neural net tries to find data sets
that challenge the accuracy of the classifier. Using this scheme to find novel imagery,
Elgammal et al. [25] developed their “creative adversarial network” (CAN) system
for generative art (see Figure 1.13).
Not all of the most recent work being done has appeared in the research litera-
ture. For example, in an online article Vincent [114] describes the creative process
underlying a 2017 series of prints called “The Treachery of ImageNet” by Tom
White of the School of Design at Victoria University of Wellington. These prints use
as their starting point source imagery that machine learning algorithms misclassified
as everyday objects such as lawnmowers or electric fans (see Figure 1.14). Similarly,
Schwab [98] narrates the AI story behind Klingemann’s “Memories of Passerby I”
installation. Also relevant is a Google Arts and Culture app that allows users to
take a selfie and attempt to match it with a famous work of art. The Christie’s
auction establishes that there are various individuals and collectives using GANs
for art-making. McCormack et al. [81] provide a timely and erudite analysis of the
impact of GANs on computer art.

1.4.3 Artistic Analysis

Addressing the problem of determining high aesthetic value in evolutionary art,

Ciesielski et al. [19] use feature extraction methods from machine learning to identify
the features most associated with differentiating aesthetics. For the photographic
 1 Artificial Life and Artificial Intelligence Advances in the Visual Arts 15

Fig. 1.13: Highly ranked aesthetic imagery from the generative adversarial
network (GAN) system of Elgammal et al. c Ahmed Elgammal 2017 — Art
& AI Lab, Rutgers University.

image data set they used the key features were wavelet and texture features, while
for the abstract image data set they used the key features were color-based features.
Campbell et al. [15] first used self-organizing maps to try and identify key features
in high quality images from a data set of evolved abstract images, and subsequently
Campbell et al. [16] used deep learning to examine its efficacy in classifying and
explaining the features of such high quality images.
Saleh et al. [94] use machine learning with a dataset containing a total of 1710
images of art works by 66 artists to analyze similarity between artists and influence
among artists. Elgammal and Saleh [26] use machine learning and a dataset with
over 62,000 paintings and sculptures to assess creativity in artworks.
Verkoelen et al. [112] take a first step towards developing a “robot curator” by
using deep neural networks — restricted Boltzmann machines — to analyze semi-
structured series of artworks in order to understand the relationship between works
and series, uncover underlying features and dimensions, and generate new images.

1.5 Computational Aesthetics and Creativity

Lewis’ coverage of automated aesthetics, artificial societies, and art theory and crit-
icism is diffuse. Lewis cites Whitelaw’s book [115] on “metacreation” and McCor-
mack’s seminal paper on open problems in evolutionary art [79]. When discussing
automated fitness evaluation in evolutionary art he cites Romero et al. [92] who
16 Gary Greenfield

Fig. 1.14: An electric fan. c Tom White 2017.

coined the term “critics” for software agents that have this as all or part of their
goal. In Lewis’ (first chapter) conclusion section he refers readers to McCormack’s
last chapter [77] which provides a speculative essay on creativity that sets the tone
for future research about this topic.

1.5.1 Computational Aesthetics

Consistent with the Romero et al. [92] sense of what a “critic” should be, Soderland
and Blair [106] view their adversarial neural net as a critic and Vickers et al. [113]
assert their HERCL programs whose inputs are generative art software outputs are
critics.
McCormack et al. [80] address questions about aesthetics when adapting their
open problems approach to evolutionary music and art to an open problems approach
to generative computer art. Greenfield [46] examined the tangled and disparate use of
terms such as simulated aesthetics, artificial aesthetics and computational aesthetics
by tracing their history in his attempt to isolate “computational aesthetics” as the
practice of developing software agents to make aesthetic judgments. This has not
proved tenable as the annual Computational Aesthetics (CAe) conference which
subsequently morphed into the annual Expressive symposium is primarily devoted to
non-photorealistic rendering for graphics and animation not the practice of aesthetic
judgments from software.
 1 Artificial Life and Artificial Intelligence Advances in the Visual Arts 17

1.5.2 Computational Creativity

A 2009 editorial by Colton et al. [21] explains that “computational creativity is the
study of building software that exhibits behavior that would be deemed creative
in humans”. And in that vein, as early as 2007 one finds a paper of Ritchie [91]
addressing criteria for attributing creativity to a computer program. There is now
an annual International Conference on Computational Creativity (ICCC) run by
the Association for Computational Creativity (http://computationalcreativity.
net/home/) as well as a new Springer series titled Computational Synthesis and
Creative Systems (https://www.springer.com/series/15219) whose first volume
edited by Veale and Cardoso [111] is “intended to be a canonical text for this new
discipline”. The book Computers and Creativity edited by McCormack and d’Inverno
[82] includes six chapters under the heading “theory”. Contributions range from
Galanter [34] addressing creativity from a computational aesthetics standpoint (see
also Greenfield [41]) to Schmidhuber [97] proposing a full-fledged formal model for
creativity.

1.5.3 Knowledge-Based Agents

Machado and Cardoso [73] propose a theory for “constructed artists”, i.e., com-
puter programs capable of creating artworks with little or no human intervention.
The essential characteristic of constructed artists is the capacity to make aesthetic
judgments. The historical antecedent is Cohen’s AARON [75]. The most prominent
effort to construct a full-fledged autonomous gallery artist in software currently
Colton’s The Painting Fool [20].

1.5.4 Artificial Societies

Although it has “artificial creativity” in its title, Saunders and Gero [95] investigate
a software model for a society of agents situated in a cultural environment such
that agents interact with other agents to exchange artefacts and evaluations. They
test their framework by giving each agent access to a Sim’s like evolutionary art
system. Similarly, Greenfield and Machado [56] attempt to simulate an artificial
society populated by artists who produce ant paintings and critics who produce
rankings in a back and forth exchange.
It is difficult to know how to categorize AL artwork inspired by societies in the
form of ecosystems (see Dorin [23]). On the one hand, we listed the installation
described by Murray-Rust and von Jungenfeld [88] under virtual robotics because
the authors referred to their agents as robots. On the other hand, we listed the virtual
software agent niche construction project by McCormack [76] which has “ecosystem”
in its title under swarm art since it seems to pay homage to Annuziato [6] whose
work has traditionally been regarded that way. Lying somewhere in between, for
example, is Dorin [24] who describes an installation inspired by epidemiology that
is much more faithful to biological principles and where the “society” has limited
mobility but rich agent-agent interaction.
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