Fuel and Combustion

Fuel represents a combustible substance which once raised to ignition temperature continues
to burn without any external support provided. A sufficient quantity of oxygen is required for
combustion. Some examples of fuel include wood, coal, kerosene, diesel, petrol, producer
gas, oil gas etc.
The requirements for an ideal fuel are listed below:
i. A fuel must have a high heating or calorific value
ii. It must have a low moisture content and non-combustible matter
iii. Must be readily available and low in cost
iv. Easy to store and transport
v. High combustion efficiency without much smoke and harmful products such as CO,
H2S, SO2
vi. Must have moderate ignition temperature. Ignition temperature is the lowest
temperature to which a fuel must be preheated do that its starts to burn smoothly. Fire
hazards are caused at low ignition temperature while there is difficulty in combustion
at high ignition temperature.
vii. Combustion should be at moderate speeds and easily controllable
viii. Size of the solid fuel should be uniform so that combustion is regular.
Classification of Fuel
A fuel is complex substance which generally belongs to the hydrocarbon family of which the
major constituents are carbon and hydrogen. There may be traces of sulphur and non-
combustible substances such as nitrogen, water vapour, ash and so on. According to its
physical state, fuel may be classified as solid, liquid or gaseous, and to the method by which
it is obtained as natural and artificial
i. Solid fuel: solid fuels may be (i) natural/primary which may be found in nature or (ii)
artificial/secondary which are prepared from primary fuels. Common examples of
natural fuels are wood and all varieties of coal (peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite).
Coal is a high carbonaceous matter that has been formed as a result of alteration of
vegetable matter under favourable conditions. The various forms of coal are generally
recognized on the basis of rank or degree of alteration or coalification from the parent
material. The progressive transformation of wood to anthracite results in:
- Decrease in moisture content
- Decrease in hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur content with a
corresponding increase in carbon content
- Decrease in volatile matter
- Increase in heating or calorific value
- Increase in hardness
Anthracite is the highest ranking coal which is used for steam raising, in metallurgical
processes and household purposes.
Wood charcoal, coke, pulverized coal, and briquette col belongs to the classed of prepared
solid fuel.
The analysis of the composition of coal is generally done in two ways, that is
 a. Proximate analysis: here no attempt is made to determine the percentage of each
element making of the fuel. Rather the percentage composition of moisture, volatile
matter, fixed carbon and ash (incombustible matter) are determined and specified
b. Ultimate analysis: the percentages of various of various elements suc as hydrogen,
carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur are specified. The ultimate analysis is helpful to
determine the amount of air required for combustion, calorific value of fuel and the
constituents of the product of combustion.
ii. Liquid Fuel: Most liquid fuel are obtained from petroleum which is a mixture of many
hydrocarbons such as paraffins, olefins, naphthalene and aromatics together with
small amounts of organic compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. When
crude petroleum is refined by boiling t different temperatures, it gives the liquid fuels
namely petrol, kerosene oil, diesel. Coal tar, tar oil, shale oil are distilled artificial oil.
The advantages of liquid fuel over solid fuel are listed as follows :
- Higher calorific (heating) value
- No loss in heating value on storage
- Better control of combustion through adjustment of fuel supply
- Can easily be pumped over great distances along pipes
- Easy to store from space and safety point of view
- Clean to use and economic in labour
- Require less furnace space for combustion
- Undergo complete combustion with slight excess air
Some of the disadvantages of liquid fuel include the following:
- Less availability and as such high cost
- Costly containers required for storage and transport
- Efficient burning requires good design of burners
iii. Gaseous fuel: this is a mechanical mixture of combustible and non-combustible gases.
Combustible mixtures include hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, various
hydrocarbons and hydrogen sulphide. Hydrocarbons are the most important
components of a gaseous fuel. Some important gaseous fuels are discussed below:
- Natural gas: it is obtained from the wells dug in petroleum bearing fields. It
consists essentially of methane and small amount of other gases such as ethane
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide> it is an excellent domestic fuel which
can be conveyed over a long distance.
- Coke: this is an oven gas which is obtained from the carbonization of
bituminous coal. It is used for industrial heating and power generation.
- Coal gas: this is obtained when coal is carbonized or heated in the absence of
air at about 1300°C. The coal gas consists mainly of H2, CH4 and CO and
traces of various other hydrocarbons. The coal gas is very rich among
combustible gases and is used for street and domestic lighting, heating and in
metallurgical operations for providing reducing atmosphere
- Blast furnace gas: it is the by-product in the production of pig iron in a blast
furnace. The gas finds extensive use as fuel in steel works, for power
generation in gas engines, for steam raising in boilers and for pre-heating the
blst furnace.
 - Producer gas: this is obtained by passing air-water blast over a bed of of red
hot coal or coke at about 1100°C in a special reactor called gas producer. It is
cheap, clean and easily preparable gas mostly used for heating open hearth
furnace (used in the manufacture of steel and glass) muffle furnace (employed
in the production of coke and coal gas) and as a reducing agent in
metallurgical operations. Gaseous fuels are employed in industrial applications
where uniform heating is required and the product is not to be contaminated.
Advantages of gaseous fuels include the following:
 Have high heat content
 Possibility of remote and instant control of combustion
 No problems of smoke and ash disposal
 Can be conveyed easily through pipelines to place of use
 Free from solid and liquid impurities
 Possibility of complete combustion with slight excess air due to
uniform mixing of air and fuel
 Clean in use, it burns with no soot and smoke
Some disadvantages include the following:
 It requires large storage tanks
 Highly inflammable, high chances of fire hazards
 High in cost
Combustion Reaction and Combustion Analysis
Combustion involves chemical reaction during which the interatomic bonds of the molecules
of the fuel and oxygen are broken and there is rearrangement of atoms in new molecular
combination. Before considering combustion problems, it is necessary to understand the
following terms associated with combustion. The combustion of a fuel involves the oxidation
of its constituents and the process is represented by a chemical reaction. Consider the
complete combustion of methane (CH4) in the presence of oxygen (O2) forming (CO2) and
water (H2O). the water may be liquid or vapour depending on whether the product has been
cooled sufficiently to cause condensation. This combustion reaction can be represented by

(Reactants) (Products)
With regards to chemical reaction
i. The chemical equation is obtained by balancing the atoms of each of the atomic
species involved in the reaction
ii. The initial constituents (methane and oxygen) which start the reaction are called
reactant and the final constituents (carbon dioxide and water) which are formed due to
arrangement of atoms and electrons are called the products. The reactants disappear
and the products are formed
iii. The complete combustion means that all the carbon in the fuel will burn to CO2 and
all hydrogen to H2O
 iv. 1 mole of CH4 reacts with 2 moles of oxygen yielding 1 mole of CO2 and 2 moles of
water. The relative masses of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are 12 kg, 32 kg and 2 kg.
On mole basis:
1 mole of CH4 + 2 moles of O2 = 1 mole of CO2 + 2 moles of H2O
On mass basis:
1(12+4) kg of CH4 + 2(32) kg of O2 = 1(12+32) kg of CO2 + 2 (2+16) kg of H2O
= 16 kg of CH4 + 64 kg of O2 = 44 kg of CO2 + 36 kg of O2
The mass representation shows that the total mass of product is equal to the total mass
of reactants. Also during the chemical reaction, the mass of each element is
conserved. Obviously, the principle of conservation of mass is observed in a chemical
reaction.
v. Combustion is an exothermic reaction and the energy released during combustion
equals the difference in the energy of reactant and that of the product formed. The
combustion energy is released to the surroundings in the form of heat which can be
used economically for industrial and domestic purposes.
vi. The oxygen required for combustion of fuel is supplied in the form of air which
contains oxygen. Assuming that CO2, argon and other gases present in air are in
negligible quantities, air can be treated as a mixture consisting of 21% oxygen and
79% nitrogen by volume (or 23% oxygen and 77% nitrogen by mass), therefore, the
combustion equation can be written as
( ) ( )
Obviously, there is no free oxygen in the combustion products and nitrogen does not
undergo any oxidation. Nitrogen is an inert gas as far as chemical reaction is
concerned and therefore appears on both sides of the equation.
vii. The minimum amount of air which supplies the requisite amount of oxygen needed
for complete combustion of fuel (carbon, hydrogen and other trace elements that can
be oxidized) to take place is called stoichiometric or theoretical air. The term
complete combustion implies that all the carbons burns to CO2 and hydrogen to H2O
and the products do not contain oxygen.
viii. The reaction is not likely to proceed to completion is the fuel is just combined with
the stoichiometric air. Complete combustion is achieved by supplying excess air
where excess air implies the amount of air supplied in excess of theoretical air needed
to burn fuel completely. The quantity of excess air is dependent on the type of fuel
and the method of combustion used which may vary from 25 % to 100 %. Excess air
ensures complete combustion but also cools the furnace and increases the heat loss in
the exhaust gases. When more air is supplied than that required for complete
combustion, the mixture is said to be weak or lean. However, when insufficient air is
supplied, the air-fuel mixture is termed rich. When the air supplied is just enough to
burn the fuel completely, the mixture is termed stoichiometric or chemically correct.
The 150% theoretical air means that air supplied is 1.5 times the stoichiometric air
and with the combustion equation for methane we can write
( ) ( )
ix. The air-fuel (AF) ratio is defined as the ratio of the quantity of air supplied for
combustion to the quantity of fuel. This ratio may be expressed on mass basis (for
solid and liquid fuels) or on molar basis (for gaseous fuel)
 ( )
( )
The inverse of air-fuel ratio is called fuel-air ratio
Consider 1 kg of sample of fuel having the mass composition as C kg of carbon H kg
of hydrogen, S kg of sulphur and O2 kg of oxygen and the remaining incombustible
matter.
 Chemical reaction when carbon (C) combines with (O2) to form carbon
dioxide (CO2) is given by

1 + 8/3 = 11/3
This implies that 1 kg of carbon requires 8/3 kg of oxygen for its complete
combustion and forms 11/3 kg of carbon dioxide.
 Chemical reaction when hydrogen (H2) combines with (O2) to form water
vapour (H2O) is given by

1+ 8=9
This implies that 1 kg of H2 requires 8 kg of oxygen for its complete
combustion and forms 9 kg of water vapour
 Chemical reaction when sulphur (S) combines with oxygen (O2)

1+ 1=2
This implies that 1 kg of S requires 1 kg of oxygen for its complete
combustion and forms 2 kg of sulphur dioxide.
Calorific Value of Fuels
A fuel generally has number of constituents. Some constituent react exothermally and
generates heat and some others do not react at all. The heat generated due to combustion of
unit mass of solid (or liquid) fuel is called its calorific value which is expressed in kJ/kg. For
gaseous fuels, the calorific value is expressed as heat liberated by combustion of unit cubic
metre of gas at standard temperature and pressure (15°C and 760 mm of mercury). Hydrogen
which is one of the most important fuels burns to form water vapors. Hydrogen which is one
of the important constituents of most fuels burns to form water vapour. The formation of
water vapours consumes some of the heat generated. If the combustion products are cooled
back to the initial temperature (usually specified as 15°C), the water vapour condenses which
liberates the latent heat. Obviously, then the maximum heat is called higher calorific value
(HCV) of fuel.
For example, a unit mass of solid fuel consisting of C kg of carbon, H kg of hydrogen, S kg
of sulphur and O kg of oxygen. Also, let the calorific value of carbon be 33900 kJ/kg,
hydrogen be 144000 kJ/kg and that of sulphur be 9290 kJ/kg. Then the higher calorific value
of fuel will be
( ) when oxygen is not present
In some cases oxygen is present in the fuel and the HCV becomes

* ( ) +

The parameter ( ) represents the quantity of hydrogen available for combustion.

If the cooling of combustion products to room temperature is not possible, then there is no
condensation of water vapour and the associated het is carried to the atmosphere. The heat
then available for heating and commercial use is less than the total heat evolved by the
combustion of fuel. This heat is called the lower calorific value of fuel

From chemical reaction

From above it can be seen that 4 kg of hydrogen combines with 32 kg of oxygen to form 36
kg of water vapour. That is, the water vapour formed is 9 times the mass of hydrogen in fuel.
Therefore,

Where ⁄ which is the latent heat of steam at saturation temperature of

15°C.
Dulong suggested an empirical formula for calculating the HCV of fuel as

* ( ) +

Example
Estimate the higher and lower calorific values of a fuel having the following composition by
weight. C = 88%; H2 = 10%; O2 = 3%; S = 2%; N2=20% and the rest is incombustible matter
Analysis of Combustion Products
Fuels are available in solid, liquid and gaseous forms and mainly consist of carbon and
hydrogen. The water vapour in the evaporated form is in integral part of the combustion
products. The analysis of flue gases made taking water vapour into account is called wet
analysis. If the vapours are condensed and condensate removed, then the flue gases will be
dry and the analysis made thereof is referred to as dry analysis.
The volumetric analysis of dry products of combustion for boiler or an engine is done using
an Orsat apparatus. This is an apparatus used to analyse the flue gas containing CO2, CO and
oxygen by volume. If the remainder of flue gas is nitrogen, it will be known by difference.
Example
1. A sample of coal supplied to a boiler has the following composition by mass, Carbon
88%, hydrogen 5%, oxygen 3 %, nitrogen 1%, sulphur 1%, incombustible matter 2.5%.
Calculate (a) the mass of air required for complete combustion of 1 kg of coal (b) dry
analysis both by mass and volume of the products of combustion when 15% excess air is
supplied.
2. Calculate the minimum quantity of air required for the complete combustion of 1 m 3 of
gaseous fuel which has the following composition by volume H2 30%, CH4 40%, CO
15%, CO2 5%, O2 2% and N2 8%. What will be the volume of individual dry gases if
40% excess air is used? Calculate the percentage contraction in volume after the
combustion products have cooled.
3. The fuel supplied to an internal combustion engine has the following composition by
mass: Carbon 87% and hydrogen 13%. The air fuel ratio is 13:1. If all the carbon is burnt
either to CO or CO2and if there is no free oxygen in the combustion products, determine:
(i) the volumetric analysis of the products of combustion and (ii) the heat loss by
incomplete combustion expressed as a percentage of gross calorific value. You may
assume the following heat values:
Carbon burning to CO2 = 34320 kJ/kg; Carbon burning to CO = 10360 kJ/kg; Hydrogen
burning to H2O = 144420 kJ/kg
4. The fuel supplied for a boiler has the following gravimetric analysis Carbon = 80%;
Hydrogen =5%; Oxygen = 6% with the remaining incombustible matter. The percentage
volumetric analysis of dry fuel gas was CO2 =10%; CO = 1.5%; O2 = 8.5% and N2 =
80%. If the atmospheric and flue gas temperatures were recorded as 20°C and 400°C
respectively, make calculations for (i) mass of air supplied per kg of fuel (ii) heat carried
by excess air and the products of combustion (iii) heat lost by incomplete combustion
(iv) density of dry gases at 1 bar and 15°C (v) partial pressure of each gas if the total
pressure of dry gases is 1 bar.
The following data may be assumed: calorific value of C to CO2 = 33900 kJ/kg and for
C to CO = 10045 kJ/kg. Further, within the temperature range given cp for CO2, O2, N2,
CO and air = 1.13, 1.025, 1.088, 1.021 and 0.994 kJ/kgK respectively.