CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Project

The increasing demand for eco-friendly transportation solutions has led to a significant interest in

electric vehicles. An electric vehicle powered by a DC motor has the potential to provide high torque at

low speeds, making it ideal for various applications. This project seeks to model and simulate an EV

using MATLAB with a powertrain blockset to study its behaviors under different driving cycles and

conditions.

Electric vehicles (EVs) have a long history that began in the early 19th century. Notably, the invention

of the direct current (DC) motor by inventors like Thomas Davenport in 1837 laid the foundation for

electric propulsion systems. This marked the beginning of practical electric motors, which continued to

evolve as technology advanced. In 1864, Antonio Pacinotti introduced the ring armature, which became

a critical development in the design of DC motors (Parvalux 2021).

The proliferation of electric vehicles during the late 19th and early 20th centuries occurred alongside

the growing popularity of gasoline-powered vehicles. However, the internal combustion engine

eventually overshadowed electric motors due to improvements in fuel efficiency and the widespread

establishment of gas stations, which sidelined electric vehicles until the late 20th century, as

environmental concerns prompted a resurgence in interest in electric propulsion technologies (PMU

2020).

The electric motor serves as the essential component, converting electrical energy from the battery into

mechanical energy to drive the vehicle. Unlike internal combustion engines, electric motors are

1
renowned for their efficiency, performance, and environmental benefits, producing zero emissions

during operation.

The world is facing an unprecedented crisis due to climate change, air pollution, and depletion of

natural resources. The transportation sector is one of the significant contributors to greenhouse gas

emissions, accounting for nearly 25% of global CO2 emissions. Electric Vehicles (EVs) have emerged

as a promising solution to mitigate these issues. EVs powered by DC motors offer a cleaner, efficient,

and cost-effective alternative to traditional Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicles.

As global concerns about climate change and fossil fuel dependence have intensified, electric mobility

has gained traction as a viable and sustainable alternative. Electric vehicles now encompass a variety of

designs and configurations, ranging from battery electric vehicles (BEVs) to hybrid electric vehicles

(HEVs). Recently, advanced technologies like lithium-ion batteries and more efficient electric motors

have improved performance, range, and efficiency of Evs.

There are several common types of electric motors used in electric vehicles, primarily:

 DC Motors: Known for their high starting torque and simple speed control, they were

historically popular for EVs but have seen a decline due to maintenance issues and efficiency

compared to alternatives.

 Induction Motors: Predominantly used in modern applications, they provide reliability,

efficiency, and lower maintenance requirements. Examples include the motors used in the Tesla

Model S and the Nissan Leaf.

 Permanent Magnet Motors: These motors are favored for their efficiency and compact size.

Technologies such as Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSM) and Brushless DC

2
 Motors (BLDC) are increasingly popular because they offer higher efficiency and power

density.

 Switched Reluctance Motors (SRMs): While they are simpler and more robust, SRMs have

limitations in terms of their torque characteristics and are still being developed for broader

automotive applications

1.2 Problem Statement

Nigeria, like many countries, is grappling with environmental and economic challenges related to

transportation. The country's reliance on ICE vehicles has led to: Increased air pollution in urban areas,

High dependence on imported fossil fuels and Rising greenhouse gas emissions

1.3 Aim and Objectives

1.3.1 Aim

The primary aim of this project is to design, develop, and test an electric vehicle (EV) using a DC

motor

1.3.2 Objectives of the Project

The objectives of this project are multifaceted:

i. Study: Investigate various electric vehicle components such as electric motors and differential

systems.

ii. Design and Fabrication: Develop a proficient electric motor tailored for the vehicle.

1.4 Scope of the Study

This project focuses on the design, development, and testing of an electric vehicle using a DC motor.

The scope includes: Selection and specification of components (DC motor, battery, controller, etc.),

Design and fabrication of the EV chassis and body and Integration and testing of the EV system.

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1.5 Significance of the Study

This project aims to contribute to the development of sustainable transportation solutions in Nigeria.

The successful implementation of this project will:Provide a cleaner and more efficient alternative to

ICE vehicles, Reduce dependence on imported fossil fuels and Offer a cost-effective transportation

solution

1.6 Arrangements of the project

The various stages involved in the development of this project have been properly put into five chapters

to enhance comprehensive and concise reading. In this project thesis the project is organized

sequentially as follows:

Chapter one of this work is basically the introduction. In this chapter; the background, scope, aim,

significance of study were discussed, Chapter two was based on the literature review. In this chapter, all

the literature relating to this work was surveyed. Chapter three describes the methodology aspect of

construction. Chapter four itemizes the implementation and results therein. In Chapter five, the

conclusion and recommendation of the work was given.

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 Chapter Two

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the existing literature on electric vehicles (EVs) using

DC motors. The aim is to identify key concepts, trends, and gaps in the current research and

development of EVs, and to inform the design and development of the EV prototype.

2.2 History and Evolution of Electric Vehicles

The history and evolution of electric vehicles (EVs) spans over 190 years, reflecting significant

technological advancements, societal changes, and varying consumer preferences. Here’s a detailed

overview of the journey of electric vehicles from their inception to their current resurgence. The

concept of electric vehicles (EVs) dates back to the 19th century, with the first electric carriage

invented by Robert Anderson in 1832. However, the development of EVs has been a gradual process,

with significant milestones and advancements over the years.

Early Developments (1830s-1900s)

1832: Robert Anderson invents the first electric carriage, powered by a non-rechargeable primary cell

battery.

1835: Thomas Davenport builds the first electric motor, leading to the development of electric vehicles

1881: French engineer Gustave Trouvé invents the first rechargeable battery-powered electric tricycle

Golden Age of Electric Vehicles (1900s-1920s)

1900s: EVs become popular in the United States and Europe, with over 100 manufacturers producing

electric vehicles.

1911: The first electric taxi service is launched in London.

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1920s: EVs decline in popularity due to the rise of internal combustion engine vehicles and the

discovery of large oil reserves.

Modern Revival (1960s-1990s)

1960s: Concerns about air pollution and the oil embargo lead to renewed interest in EVs.

1970s: The first modern EVs are developed, including the General Motors EV1.

1990s: The California Air Resources Board (CARB) sets zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) mandates,

driving EV development .

Contemporary Era (2000s-Present)

2008: The Tesla Roadster, the first production electric sports car, is launched.

2010s: EVs gain mainstream acceptance, with many manufacturers introducing electric models.

2020s: EVs continue to improve in range, efficiency, and affordability, with growing adoption

worldwide.

Current Trends and Future Outlook

The global electric vehicle fleet is projected to grow significantly. According to the International

Energy Agency (IEA), the total fleet of EVs could increase from around30 millionin 2022 to 240

millionby 2030, reflecting a substantial shift towards electric mobility across various markets. Factors

driving this growth include advances in charging infrastructure, societal shifts towards sustainability,

and commitments from governments and manufacturers to promote cleaner transportation options.

The evolution of electric vehicles is characterized by early promise, competition with internal

combustion engines, and a recent resurgence propelled by technological advancements and changing

consumer attitudes. As we look towards the future, electric vehicles are expected to play a crucial role

in the transition to sustainable transportation globally. The combined efforts of governments,

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automakers, and consumers will further enhance the viability and attractiveness of electric cars,

shaping the next chapter in automotive history.

2.3 Electric Vehicle Technology

There are two main types of electric vehicles (EV): battery electric vehicles (BEV) that use only

batteries for energy storage and must be plugged in to be recharged, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles

(PHEV) that have both batteries and liquid-fuel storage and refuelling systems. The global stock of

electric vehicles (EVs) reached 1 million during 2015 and passed the 2 million mark in 2016. This

rapid rise has been led by China, the US, Japan and several European countries.

The uptake of EVs is the result of several factors, including strong technological progress, cost

reductions (especially batteries), and policy support, including purchase incentives, driving and parking

access advantages, and increased public charging infrastructure availability. Battery electric vehicles

(BEVs) dominated sales over plug-in hybrid electric vehicles in most countries until 2014, but plug-in

hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) sales have grown rapidly in the past two years and as of early 2016

were nearly equal to BEV sales worldwide. PHEVs have a considerable range advantage but sacrifice

all-electric driving to achieve this.

Despite on-going battery performance improvements and cost reductions, EVs still face potentially

important obstacles. New models to be introduced in 2017 and 2018 will be able to drive up to 300

kilometres (km) per recharge, but battery packs up to 60 kilowatt-hour (kWh), even if battery costs

drop from their current levels of around USD 350/ kWh to USD 150 kWh in the future, would cost

USD 9 000, much more than the drive systems of today’s internal combustion engine vehicles. Fuel

savings will help pay this back, especially for high-mileage drivers.

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Battery-electric vehicles provide zero-vehicle-emissions driving (for both carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and

pollutant emissions), but the “upstream” CO2 can be substantial, for example in countries with

dominant coal power generation. Electric grids must be considerably decarbonised (to 600 grams(g)/

kWh or less) for EVs to have a CO2 advantage relative to similar sized hybrid internal combustion

engine (ICE) vehicles. Carbon intensities will need to continuously improve in the future, since hybrids

and other ICE vehicles will also become more efficient. EVs also produce no direct air pollution and

reduce noise pollution in cities.

Electric Vehicle (EV) technology encompasses various components and systems that work together to

propel the vehicle. The key components of an EV include:

2.3.1 Electric Motor

Types: DC motors, AC induction motors, permanent magnet motors, and switched reluctance motors

Configurations: Single-speed, multi-speed, and continuously variable transmissions

Characteristics: High torque density, efficiency, and reliability

2.3.2 Power Electronics

Converters: DC-DC converters, DC-AC converters, and AC-DC converters

Inverters: Control the flow of electrical energy between the motor and the battery

Control Systems: Regulate the flow of energy and optimize performance

2.3.3 Battery Technology

Types: Lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride, lithium-ion, and lithium-iron phosphate

Characteristics: Energy density, power density, cycle life, and charging/discharging rates

Management Systems: Monitor and control battery state of charge, voltage, and temperature

8
2.3.4 Charging Systems

Types: Conductive, inductive, and wireless charging

Levels: Level 1 (120V), Level 2 (240V), and DC Fast Charging

Standards: SAE J1772, IEC 62196, and CHAdeMO

2.3.5 Electric Vehicle Architectures

Series Hybrid: Electric motor powered by a generator and battery

Parallel Hybrid: Electric motor and internal combustion engine work together

Battery Electric: Electric motor powered solely by a battery

2.3.6 Control Systems and Software

Vehicle Control Units: Manage the flow of energy and optimize performance

Battery Management Systems: Monitor and control battery state of charge, voltage, and temperature

Software: Controls the vehicle's operation, including regenerative braking and charging

2.4 Sustainability and Environmental Impact

2.4.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Well-to-Wheel Emissions: EVs produce significantly fewer emissions than internal combustion engine

vehicles, considering the entire energy production and consumption cycle

Grid Decarbonization: As the grid becomes increasingly powered by renewable energy sources, EVs

will produce even fewer emissions

2.4.2 Air Pollution

Zero Tailpipe Emissions: EVs produce no tailpipe emissions, reducing air pollution in urban areas and

improving public health

9
Improved Air Quality: EVs can help reduce particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic

compounds in urban areas

2.4.3 Resource Depletion

Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels: EVs are powered by electricity, reducing dependence on finite

fossil fuels and mitigating resource depletion

Recyclable Materials: EVs contain recyclable materials, such as batteries and motors, reducing waste

and conserving resources

2.4.4 Water Usage

Reduced Water Consumption: EVs require significantly less water than internal combustion engine

vehicles, primarily used for cooling and manufacturing processes

2.4.5 Land Use and Habitat Disruption

Reduced Land Use: EVs require less land use than internal combustion engine vehicles, primarily for

mining and drilling operations

Habitat Preservation: EVs can help preserve natural habitats by reducing the need for resource

extraction and infrastructure development

2.4.6 End-of-Life Vehicle Recycling

Battery Recycling: EV batteries can be recycled, reducing waste and recovering valuable materials.

Vehicle Recycling: EVs can be designed for recyclability, reducing waste and conserving resources.

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2.5 Performance and Efficiency

2.5.1 DC Motor Performance

Speed-Torque Curves: DC motors exhibit a linear relationship between speed and torque, with a

constant power output across the speed range. The speed-torque curve can be divided into three

regions:

Constant torque region: The motor produces constant torque at low speeds.

Constant power region: The motor produces constant power at medium speeds.

Constant speed region: The motor produces constant speed at high speeds.

Efficiency Maps: DC motors have a high efficiency range, typically between 80-90%, with peak

efficiency occurring at moderate speeds and torques. Efficiency maps show the efficiency of the motor

at various operating points.

2.5.2 EV System Efficiency

Battery Performance: Battery efficiency, capacity, and health significantly impact EV system

efficiency. Key factors include:

State of charge (SOC), Depth of discharge (DOD), Cycle life and Self-discharge rate

Power Electronics: Power electronic components, such as inverters and converters, can introduce

energy losses and affect system efficiency. Key factors include:

Switching losses, Conduction losses and Thermal losses.

Motor Efficiency: DC motor efficiency, as discussed earlier, plays a crucial role in overall EV system

efficiency.

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Thermal Management: Effective thermal management systems can minimize energy losses and

optimize system efficiency. Key factors include:

Cooling system design, Heat sink design and Thermal interface materials

2.5.3 Factors Influencing EV System Efficiency

Driving Cycle: Aggressive driving, frequent acceleration, and braking can reduce EV system

efficiency.

Battery Age and Health: Battery degradation over time can impact EV system efficiency.

Temperature: Extreme temperatures can affect battery, motor, and power electronic performance,

reducing system efficiency.

Charging Methods: Charging methods, such as fast charging, can impact battery health and system

efficiency.

2.6 D.C Motor Review

The history of DC motors goes as far back as the 19th century. In 1832, a British scientist, William

Sturgeon, created the first DC motor that had the ability to power machinery.

Davenport DC Motor Inventor Sturgeon’s initial development was further expanded upon by an

American scientist, Thomas Davenport. Davenport is known for creating the first working DC motor,

which he patented in 1837. However, Davenport ran into some issues with the cost of battery power

while the motors were running. This made the motors ineffective to stand up over time.

After the initial invention, created by Davenport, many other inventors began developing concepts. In

1834, Moritz von Jacobi, a Russian engineer, invented the first rotating DC motor. Jacobi’s motor

became well known for its power, which would later set a world record. Jacobi went on to create an

even more powerful motor, thus breaking his own record for power in 1838. The invention of this

12
motor, by Jacobi, went on to further inspire others to expand and produce more DC motors of the same

power ( Jacob von 2020).

Antonio Pacinotti made a breakthrough in 1864 with the development of the ring armature. This piece

has become crucial in the design of the DC motor; the ring armature carries the current through the

grouped coils.

Even with all of the developments throughout the 19th century, possibly the most important came in

1886. An inventor named Julian Sprague invented a DC motor that was capable of maintaining a

constant speed under variable loads. Sprague’s invention would lead to the commercial use of the DC

motor. This would include early variations of the electric elevator and electric trolleys. These

developments led to high demand of the motors, for both commercial & residential usage(Owen 2021).

Today, DC motors are widely used in many industries, such as healthcare, food service and many

industrial settings. The use of DC motors has made industry work far more efficient, with machines

able to function with a dependable source of power and speed. DC motors have made many other

industries far easier to function in their day to day faculties, by taking a lot of manual power off of

humans or animals, and replacing it with motorized equipment.

As a result, throughout the years, several controllers have been created in order to better govern the

system's performance. Conventional controllers and adaptive controllers are two types of controllers

that may be broadly categorized.

2.7 Conclusion

This chapter has provided a comprehensive overview of the key components and technologies used in

electric vehicles (EVs), including DC motors, power electronics, batteries, and charging systems. The

performance and efficiency of EVs have been analyzed, including the factors that influence them.

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 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter covers the design and development process of electric vehicles (Evs).

3.2 Design Considerations

Vehicle Architecture: Selection of the vehicle architecture, including the type of EV (Battery Electric,

IC Engine/Electric Hybrid Vehicle ).

Battery Electric Vehicle

The concept of the battery electric vehicle (EV) is essentially simple and is shown in Figure 3.1. The

vehicle consists of an electric battery for energy storage, an electric motor and a controller. The battery

is normally recharged from mains electricity via a plug and a battery charging unit that can be either

carried on board or fitted at the charging point. The controller will normally control the power supplied

to the motor, and hence the vehicle speed, in forward and reverse. This is normally known as a ‘two-

quadrant controller’ – forwards and backwards. It is usually desirable to use regenerative braking both

to recoup energy and as a convenient form of frictionless braking.

fig 3.1

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When in addition the controller allows regenerative braking in forward and reverse directions it is

known as a ‘four-quadrant controller.

IC Engine/Electric Hybrid Vehicle

A hybrid vehicle has two or more power sources, which gives a very large number of variants. The

most common types of hybrid vehicles combine an IC engine with a battery and an electric motor and

generator. There are two basic arrangements for hybrid vehicles: the series hybrid and the parallel

hybrid, which are illustrated in Figures 3.2. In the series hybrid design the vehicle is driven by one or

more electric motors supplied directly either from the battery or from the IC-engine-driven generator

unit or from both. In the parallel hybrid the vehicle can be driven either by the engine working directly

through a transmission system, or by one or more electric motors working via the transmission or

coupled directly to the wheels or both by the electric motor and the IC engine at once.

F
igure 3.2 Parallel hybrid vehicle layout. In rechargeable hybrids the battery
can also be chargedfrom mains electricity

The series hybrid traditionally is used only in specialist applications. For example, the diesel-powered

railway engine is nearly always a series hybrid, as are some ships. Some special all-terrain vehicles are

series hybrids, with a separately controlled electric motor in each wheel. The main disadvantage of the

15
series hybrid is that power from the engine cannot be transmitted mechanically to the wheels but must

pass through both the generator and the motors. The parallel hybrid, on the other hand, has scope for

very wide application. The electric machines can be much smaller and cheaper, because they do not

have to convert all the energy. There are various ways in which a parallel hybrid vehicle can be used. In

the simplest it can run on electricity from the batteries, for example in a city where exhaust emissions

are undesirable, or it can be powered solely by the IC engine, for example when travelling outside the

city. Alternatively, and more usefully, a parallel hybrid vehicle is use in the IC engine and batteries in

combination, continually optimising the efficiency of the IC engine. A popular arrangement is obtain

the basic power to run the vehicle, normally around 50% of peak power requirements, from the IC

engine, and to take additional power from the electric motor and battery, recharging the battery from

the engine generator when the battery is not needed. Using modern control techniques the engine speed

and torque can be controlled to minimise exhaust emissions and maximise fuel economy.

3.3 Component Selection:

Selection of key components, including the DC motor and Battery.

Motor Selection

Brushless DC Motor was used for the methodology

Fig 3.3 Block diagram of the torque control of BLDC motor

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The block diagram of the torque control of a BLDC motor is shown in Fig. 3.3 The BLDC motor drives

the accelerator and brake pedals in vehicle traction applications by following the desired torque. As a

result, torque control is a must. The desired current I* is calculated using a torque controller and the

commanded torque T*. The current controller and commutation sequencer get the desired current I*

position data from the position sensors, as well as current feedback from current transducers, and

generate gating signals. The three-phase inverter (power converter) receives these gating signals and

produces the phase current that the BLDC machine prefers. The ‘speed controller’ blocks are related to

traditional controllers like a PI controller or advanced controllers like artificial intelligence controls, for

example. The ‘current controller and commutation sequencer’ provides appropriately sequenced gating

signals to the ‘three-phase inverter’ while trying to compare measured currents to a comparison to

ensure constant peak current control via hysteresis (current chopping) or voltage source (PWM)-type

current control. Tian and colleagues presented a sensor-free control scheme for a low-speed five-phase

permanent magnet brushless DC (58-BLDC) motor. When using high frequency (HF) injection-based

sensorless control, the system delay and stator resistance may degrade sensorless control performance.

This paper primarily establishes the proposed HF model of 58 BLDCs in the frequency domain. To

optimize the power density, the phase current provided to the BLDC motor is also quasi-rectangular in

shape, principally consisting of the fundamental and third harmonics.

17
Figure 3.4 Schematic diagram of BLDC motor
The BLDC machine has a three-phase armature winding in the stator and permanent magnets in the

rotor. BLDC motors are electronically controlled and do not require a commutator or brushes, resulting

in improved overall performance and efficiency. It will save money, and the smaller size will decrease

sparks. In comparison with DC motors, BLDC motors operate at higher speeds and torque. Brushless

DC machines and power electronics-based power converters make up a BLDC motor. The rotor will be

sensed by the sensor points H1, H2, and H3. By turning off the machine’s stator pole windings, the

rotor position is fed to the hall sensors, which provide gating signals to the power converter. The motor

torque and speed are controlled in this method. Because of their excellent efficiency and power density,

PM brushless motors have become the preferred choice for EV propulsion. EVs have been classified

using the classification of electrical machinery for EVs. EV machines can be divided into two

categories: commutator and commutatorless. The former indicates that they have a commutator and

carbon brushes, while the latter indicates that they do not have either. The line current pulses should be

coordinated with the line-neutral back-EMF voltages of the particular phase to drive the motor with

maximal and constant torque/ampere.

Battery Parameters

Cell and Battery Voltages

All electric cells have nominal voltages which give the approximate voltage when the cell is delivering

electrical power. The cells is connected in series to give the overall voltage required. Traction batteries

for EVs are usually specified as 6 V or 12 V, and these units are in turn connected in series to produce

18
the voltage required. This voltage will, in practice, change. When a current is given out, the voltage

will fall; on charging, the voltage will rise. This is best expressed in terms of ‘internal resistance’ and

the equivalent circuit of a battery shown in Figure 3.4. The battery is represented as having a fixed

voltage E, but the voltage at the terminals is a different voltage V , because of the voltage across the

internal resistance R.

Figure Circuit Battery

3.4 Control Techniques

The active torque ripple correction technology suggested by de Castro and colleagues is based on direct

power regulation of permanent magnet brushless DC (BLDC) motor drives. The torque computations

are induced by the non-sinusoidal back-EMF waveforms of the stator current. The solution to this

problem is a straightforward and comprehensive strategy based on direct power control. Instead of

employing classic field situated control (FOC) or direct force control (DTC) schemes, which are

commonly used in AC machines with sinusoidal transition propagation, we adopted a new method. An

alternative method of controlling shared force creation is introduced through a functioning and

19
receptive rotor power control circle. As a result, the proposed method provides a fundamental way for

reducing the force wave of an incredibly durable magnet coordinated engine with non-sinusoidal back

EMF that does not require rotor direction or a back-EMF consonant substance assessment procedure.

For an electro hydrostatic actuation system in an aircraft application, this research suggested a

brushless DC (BLDC) drive with a single-sided matrix converter (SSMC). The combination of an

SSMC and a BLDC engine is innovative, and it is used to do tasks without the use of a chip. To control

engine force, a basic hysteresis current control approach is used. With the punishment of more

powerful devices, the multiphase SSMC provides high steady quality and adaptation to internal failure.

The components of a five-phase SSMC model are put together. The findings of the examination are

presented to confirm the drive’s execution.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

IMPLEMENTATION AND RESULTS

A three-phase motor rated at 1 kW, 500 Vdc, and 3000 rpm is driven by a six-step voltage inverter. A

MOSFET bridge serves as the inverter. The DC bus voltage is controlled by a speed regulator. The Hall

Effect signals from the motor are decoded to create the inverter gates signals. The inverter’s three-

phase outputs are applied to the stator windings of the PMSM block. The torque is applied to the

machine’s shaf by the load. Inner loop and outer loop are the two control loops used. The inner loop

synchronizes the inverter gates signals with the electromotive forces. The DC bus voltage is varied in

the outer loop to adjust the motor’s speed. Figure 4.3 represents the BLDC motor three-phase stator

back-EMF waveforms. The magnitude of back-EMF is 150. Figure 4.4 represents the BLDC motor

three-phase armature winding currents. The magnitude of currents 15 A with torque 10 Nm. Figure 4.5

represents the Hall Effect signals. The signal is generated by Hall Effect sensors which are mounted on

the rotor shaft.

fig 4.1Control diagram of decoder

21
Fig 4.2 Control diagram of logic gates pulse generating circuit

fig 4.3 fig 4.4

Fig 4.5 hall effect signal 22

4.1Hardware Implementation

Figures 4.6, 4.7, and 4.8 represent the hardware implementation of the BLDC motor. Figure 4.6 shows

the BLDC motor rotor. Figure 4.7 shows BLDC motor stator armature winding. Figure 4.8 shows

brushless DC motor stator and rotor.

Fig 3.7 Hardware of BLDC

stator fig 3.8 Stator, rotor, andhall
fig 3.6 Hardware of BLDC
sensor embedded in themotor

The BLDC motor armature consists of a three-phase double-layer concentric winding. Having several

slots are 12 and 4 poles

4.2 Results

BLDC Motor Output Waveforms with Variable Speeds and Zero Torque

The simulation is performed using a brushless DC motor, with variable speeds. Figure 4.9a–c shows

the output waveforms with variable speeds 1000, 1500, and 2000 rpm and zero torque. In Fig. 4.9 a–c,

waveform show that actual speed reached reference speed

Output Waveforms with Variable Speeds and Constant Torque

23
Brushless DC motors with variable speeds and constant torque are used in the simulation. Figure 4.10

a–c shows output waveforms with variable speeds 1000, 1500, and 2000 rpm and constant torque 10

Nm. In Fig. 4.10a–c, waveforms show that actual speed reached reference speed

Output Waveforms with Constant Speed (2000 rpm) and Variable Torque

The simulation is run on a brushless DC motor with changing torque and constant speeds. Figure 4.11a

shows output waveforms with constant speed 2000 rpm and torque 20 Nm. This waveform shows that

actual speed reached reference speed. Figure 4.11b shows output waveforms with constant speed 2000

rpm and torque 30 Nm. This waveform shows that actual speed could not reach reference speed. The

actual speed is 1800 rpm, and the reference speed is 2000 rpm. Figure 11c shows output waveforms

with constant speed 2000 rpm and torque 40 Nm. This waveform shows that actual speed could not

reach reference speed. The actual speed is 1300 rpm, and the reference speed is 2000 rpm. In the

simulation, the results section represents the different output waveforms. The output waveforms are

BLDC motor with variable speeds and zero torque, variable speeds and constant torque 10 Nm, and

constant speed 2000 rpm and variable torque.

24
25
fig 4.10 2 a Reference speed1000 rpm with
torque10 Nm. b Reference speed1500 rpm with
torque10
Fig 4.11Nm. c Reference
a Constant speed2000 rpm with
speedwith
torque 10 Nm
torque 20 Nm. bConstant speed with
torque30 Nm. c Constant speedwith
torque 40 Nm

26
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION

This project provided an overview of electric vehicle technology and demonstrated how to control the

speed of a brushless DC motor for use in electric vehicles. Under steady, dynamic state speed and

torque settings, the performance of a BLDC motor is studied. In the above two conditions, the actual

value reached the reference value. Simulation results represented the different output waveforms. The

output waveforms are BLDC motor with variable speeds and zero torque, variable speeds and constant

torque 10 Nm, and constant speed 2000 rpm and variable torque. The proposed BLDC motor for

electrical vehicle application has advantages of safe, clean, and high-efficiency transportation.

The vehicle has been designed to be environmentally friendly, cost-effective, and efficient. The DC

motor has proven to be a suitable choice for the vehicle, providing high torque and efficiency.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this project, the following recommendations are made:

1. Improvement in Battery Technology: Further research and development in battery technology

can lead to more efficient and cost-effective batteries, increasing the range and reducing the

weight of the vehicle.

2. Optimization of Motor Control: Optimization of the motor control system can lead to

improved efficiency and performance of the vehicle.

3. Aerodynamic Design: An aerodynamic design of the vehicle can reduce air resistance,

increasing the range and efficiency of the vehicle.

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 4. Regenerative Braking: Implementation of regenerative braking can recover some of the kinetic

energy, increasing the range and efficiency of the vehicle.

5. Mass Production: Mass production of the vehicle can reduce the cost, making it more

affordable for the general public.

6. Government Incentives: Government incentives and subsidies can encourage the adoption of

electric vehicles, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating climate change.

7. Public Awareness: Public awareness campaigns can educate people about the benefits of

electric vehicles, increasing adoption rates.

By implementing these recommendations, the electric vehicle can become a more viable and

sustainable option for transportation, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating climate

change.

28
References:

1. "The General Motors EV1" by General Motors (12020)

2. California Air Resources Board ZEV Mandate" by CARB (2021)

3. Tesla Roadster" by Tesla Motors (2020)

4. Electric Vehicles: A Review of the Current State of the Art" by I. Husain (2021) Electric Vehicle

Outlook 2020" by BloombergNEF (2020)

5. Anderson, R. (1832). Electric carriage. Scottish Patent 612.

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